MICROPROCESSOR  When the signal on this pin is low for at

The important features of 8085 microprocessor. least 3 clocking cycles, it forces the
microprocessor to reset itself.
8085 MICROPROCESSOR  Resetting the microprocessor means:
The important features of 8085 μp are :  Clearing the PC and IR.
1. It is a 8 bit microprocessor.  Disabling all interrupts
2. It has 16 bit address bus and hence can  (except TRAP).
address up to 216 = 65536 bytes (64KB)  Disabling the SOD pin.
memory locations through A0-A15.  All the buses (data, address, control) are
3. The first 8 lines of address bus and 8 lines tri- stated.
of data bus are multiplexed AD0 – AD7.  Gives HIGH output to RESET OUT pin.
4. Data bus is a group of 8 lines D0 – D7.  RESET OUT:
5. It supports 5 hardware interrupt and 8  It is used to reset the peripheral devices
software interrupt. and other ICs on the circuit.
6. A 16 bit program counter (PC)  It is an output signal.
7. A 16 bit stack pointer (SP)  It is an active high signal.
8. Six 8-bit general purpose register arranged  The output on this pin goes high whenever
in pairs: BC,DE, HL. RESET IN is given low signal.
9. It requires a signal +5V power supply  The output remains high as long as RESET
10. Maximum Clock Frequency is 3MHz and IN is kept low.
Minimum Clock Frequency is 500kHz
SID AND SOD
PIN DIAGRAM OF 8085  Pin 4 (Input) and Pin 5 (Output)
 SID (Serial Input Data):
 It takes 1 bit input from serial port of
8085.
 Stores the bit at the 8th position (MSB) of
the Accumulator.
 RIM (Read Interrupt Mask) instruction is
used to transfer the bit.
 SOD (Serial Output Data):
 It takes 1 bit from Accumulator to serial
port of 8085.
 Takes the bit from the 8th position (MSB)
of the Accumulator.
 SIM (Set Interrupt Mask) instruction is
used to transfer the bit.

INTERRUPT PINS
 Interrupt:
X1 & X2
 It means interrupting the normal execution
 Pin 1 and Pin 2 (Input)
of the microprocessor.
 These are also called
 When microprocessor receives interrupt
 Crystal Input Pins.
signal, it discontinues whatever it was
 Crystal input pins have only one function.
executing.
That is to provide stable clock pulses to
 It starts executing new program indicated
the digital circuit.
by the interrupt signal.
 8085 can generate clock signals internally.
 Interrupt signals are generated by external
 To generate clock signals internally, 8085
peripheral devices.
requires external inputs from X1 and X2.
 After execution of the new program,
microprocessor goes back to the previous
RESET IN AND RESET OUT
program.
 Pin 36 (Input) and Pin 3 (Output)
 RESET IN:
SEQUENCE OF STEPS WHENEVER THERE
 It is used to reset the microprocessor.
IS AN INTERRUPT
 It is active low signal.
 Microprocessor completes execution of
current instruction of the program.
 PC contents are stored in stack. can handle four binary digits in a single
 PC is loaded with address of the new instance of calculation, but as many as
program. eight digits in two instances and 16 in four
 After executing the new program, the instances.
microprocessor returns back to the The microprocessor is also known as a
previous program. "MPU (microprocessing unit)",
 It goes to the previous program by reading "microprocessor",  or simply "processor."
the top value of stack.
INPUT DEVICE (INPUT)
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSOR  A data input device. The keyboard and
mouse of a PC, for example, are data input
devices. With a built-in controller,
switches and sensors are input devices.
 These input devices cannot be directly
connected to a CPU, but they must be
attached to the CPU by way of a
"peripheral IC," containing connection
The microprocessor is a single IC package in circuitry. Depending on the kind of input
which several useful functions are integrated device to be connected to the CPU, an
and fabricated on a single silicon semiconductor appropriate peripheral IC is used.
chip. Its architecture consists of a central
processing unit, memory modules, a system OUTPUT DEVICE (OUTPUT)
bus, and an input/output unit.  A data output device. The display and
printer of a PC, for example, are data
MICROPROCESSOR CONFIGURATION output devices. With a built-in controller,
display LEDs, motors, heaters and so on
are output devices. Like input devices,
output devices are attached to a CPU by
way of a "peripheral IC." Depending on
the kind of output device to be connected
to the CPU, an appropriate peripheral IC is
used.
 Input devices and output devices are
collectively called "peripherals."

 The microprocessor is said to be a

"computer built around ICs."  Mainframes, MICROPROCESSOR SPECIAL PURPOSE DESIGNS
minis, and microprocessors all share the  Microprocessors are available in different
same principles of operation and vary only special-purpose designs which include the
in their scale, speed and architecture.  The following.
minimum components required to build a  A DSP (digital signal processor) is one kind
computer are the CPU, memory and I/O of specialized processor, used for signal
devices as shown in Figure below processing.
 All these components of a microprocessor  GPUs (Graphics processing units) are
are fabricated of a single IC.  Such ICs are mainly designed for image rendering in
coupled to build a computer.  Three real-time. Other types of specialized
minimum IC’s that are needed to make up processors are used for machine vision as
a microprocessor are the CPU, memory, well as processing the video.
and peripheral IC.   In embedded systems, microcontrollers
incorporate a microprocessor using
CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT) peripheral devices
 The CPU forms the nucleus of any  SOCs (Systems on-chip) frequently
computer by executing instructions.  incorporate one or more
Microprocessors are grouped into 4-bit, 8- microcontroller/microprocessor cores
bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessors using additional components like radio
according to the length of bits they can modems. These modems are applicable in
handle at a time.  A 4-bit microprocessor tablets, smartphones, etc.
CONSIDERATIONS OF SPEED & POWER
 The microprocessor selection is mainly
done for differing applications depending
upon the size of a word. If the word size is
long, then it allows every clock cycle of a
microprocessor to perform more
computation, however, to communicate PARTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
with physically larger IC dies through BUSES
higher standby as well as operating power  A bus is a high-speed internal connection.
utilization, 4-bit, 8-bit, or 12-bit processors Buses are used to send control signals and
are extensively used into microcontrollers data between the processor and other
embedded systems. components.
 Once a system expects to handle high-  Three types of bus are used.
volumes of data otherwise need a more  Address bus - carries memory addresses
supple user interface, then 16-bit from the processor to other components
32-bit/64-bit processors are utilized. For such as primary storage and input/output
SoC or microcontroller applications that devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
need very low power electrons, 8-bit/16-  Data bus - carries the data between the
bit microprocessors may be selected processor and other components. The data
instead of 32-bit bus is bidirectional.
 When 32-bit arithmetic runs on an 8-bit  Control bus - carries control signals from
processor could finish up with huge power, the processor to other components. The
because the processor must perform control bus also carries the clock's pulses.
software through several instructions. The control bus is unidirectional.

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE ROM

DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM  Read-only memory, or ROM, is a type of
 A computer is a programmable machine computer storage containing non-volatile,
that receives input, stores and manipulates permanent data that, normally, can only
data//information, and provides output in be read, not written to. ROM contains the
a useful format. programming that allows a computer to
start up or regenerate each time it is
turned on.

RAM
 RAM (random access memory) is a
computer's short-term memory, where the
data that the processor is currently using is
stored. Your computer can access RAM
memory much faster than data on a hard
disk, SSD, or other long-term storage
device, which is why RAM capacity is
critical for system performance.

I/O INTERFACE
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC COMPUTER  Input-Output Interface is used as an
SYSTEM method which helps in transferring of
 Basic computer system consist of a Central information between the internal storage
processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and devices i.e. memory and the external
ROM), input/output (I/O) unit. peripheral device .

PERIPHERAL DEVICE
 A peripheral device is that which provide
input and output for the computer, it is
also called Input-Output devices.
BASIC COMPONENT OF MICROCOMPUTER  Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
CPU - Central Processing Unit  The ALU has two main functions:
 the portion of a computer system that  it performs arithmetic and logical
carries out the instructions of a computer operations (decisions).
program  it acts as a gateway between primary
 the primary element carrying out the storage and secondary storage - data
computer's functions. It is the unit that transferred between them passes through
reads and executes program instructions. the ALU.
 The data in the instruction tells the  In computing, an arithmetic logic unit is a
processor what to do. combinational digital circuit that performs
arithmetic and bitwise operations on
integer binary numbers.

REGISTERS
Registers are small amounts of high-speed
memory contained within the CPU. They are
COMMON CPU COMPONENTS
used by the processor to store small amounts of
The central processing unit (CPU) consists of six
data that are needed during processing, such as:
main components:
 the address of the next instruction to be
 control unit (CU)
executed
 arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
 the current instruction being decoded
 registers
 the results of calculations
 cache
 buses
Different processors have different numbers of
 clock
registers for different purposes. Most have
 All the components work together to allow
some, or all, of the following:
processing and system control.
 program counter (PC)
 memory address register (MAR)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CPU
 memory data register (MDR)
 current instruction register (CIR)
 accumulator (ACC)

DEFINITION
 A processor register or simply register is a
quickly accessible location available to a
computer's processor. Registers usually
consist of a small amount of fast storage,
although some registers have specific
hardware functions, and may be read-only
CONTROL UNIT or write-only.
The CU provides several functions:  
 it fetches, decodes and executes CACHE
instructions  Cache is a small amount of high-
 it issues control signals that speed random access memory (RAM) built
control hardware components within the directly within the processor. It is used to
CPU temporarily hold data and instructions that
 it transfers data and instructions around the processor is likely to reuse. This allows
the system for faster processing, as the processor
 The control unit is a component of a does not have to wait for the data and
computer's central processing unit that instructions to be fetched from the RAM.
directs the operation of the processor. A
CU typically uses a binary decoder to CLOCK
convert coded instructions into timing and  The CPU contains a clock which, along with
control signals that direct the operation of the CU, is used to coordinate all of the
the other units. computer's components. The clock sends
out a regular electrical pulse which
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
 synchronises (keeps in time) all the  Devices that provide input or output to the
components. computer are called peripherals
 The frequency of the pulses is known  On a typical personal computer,
as clock speed. Clock speed is measured peripherals include input devices like the
in hertz (Hz). The greater the speed, the keyboard and mouse, and output devices
more instructions can be performed in any such as the display and printer. Hard disk
given moment of time. drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc
drives serve as both input and output
BUSES devices. Computer networking is another
 A bus is a high-speed internal connection. form of I/O.
Buses are used to send control signals and
data between the processor and other DATA SIZE
components.
 Three types of bus are used.
 Address bus - carries memory addresses
from the processor to other components
such as primary storage and input/output
devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
 Data bus - carries the data between the
processor and other components. The data
bus is bidirectional.
 Control bus - carries control signals from
the processor to other components. The INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND BASIC OPERATION
control bus also carries the clock's pulses. OF MICROPROCESSOR
The control bus is unidirectional.

MEMORY
 physical devices used to store data or
programs.
 Computer main memory comes in two
principal varieties: random-access memory
(RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).
 RAM can be read and written to anytime
the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre- ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
loaded with data and software that never  The component that performs the
changes, so the CPU can only read from it. arithmetic and logical operations
 ROM is typically used to store the  the most important components in a
computer's initial start-up instructions. microprocessor, and is typically the part of
 In general, the contents of RAM are erased the processor that is designed first.
when the power to the computer is turned  able to perform the basic logical
off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. operations (AND, OR), including the
 In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized addition operation.
program called the BIOS that orchestrates
loading the computer's operating system INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ALU
from the hard disk drive into RAM
whenever the computer is turned on or
reset.

I/O UNIT
 Input/output (I/O), refers to the
communication between an information
processing system (such as a computer),
and the outside world possibly a human, or
another information processing system.
 Inputs are the signals or data received by CONTROL UNIT
the system, and outputs are the signals or  The circuitry that controls the flow of
data sent from it information through the processor, and
 coordinates the activities of the other units
within it.
 In a way, it is the "brain within the brain",
as it controls what happens inside the
processor, which in turn controls the rest
of the PC.
 On a regular processor, the control unit
performs the tasks of fetching, decoding,
managing execution and then storing
results.

REGISTER SETS
 The register section/array consists
completely of circuitry used to temporarily
store data or program codes until they are
sent to the ALU or to the control section or PROGRAM COUNTER (PC)
to memory.  a 16 bit register, used to store the next
 The number of registers are different for address of the operation code to be
any particular CPU and the more register a fetched by the CPU.
CPU have will result in easier programming  Not much use in programming, but as an
tasks. indicator to user only.
 Registers are normally measured by the  Purpose of PC in a Microprocessor
number of bits they can hold, for example,  to store address of tos (top of stack)
an "8-bit register" or a "32-bit register".  to store address of next instruction to be
executed.
REGISTER IN MOTOROLA 68000  count the number of instructions.
MICROPROCESSOR
STACK POINTER (SP)
 The stack is configured as a data structure
that grows downward from high memory
to low memory.
 At any given time, the SP holds the 16-bit
address of the next free location in the
stack.
 The stack acts like any other stack when
there is a subroutine call or on an
interrupt. ie. pushing the return address on
a jump, and retrieving it after the
operation is complete to come back to its
original location.
ACCUMULATOR
DATA BUS
 a register in which intermediate arithmetic
 The data bus is 'bi-directional'
and logic results are stored.
 data or instruction codes from memory or
 example for accumulator use is summing a
input/[Link] transferred into the
list of numbers.
microprocessor
 The accumulator is initially set to zero,
 the result of an operation or computation
then each number in turn is added to the
is sent out from the microprocessor to the
value in the accumulator.
memory or input/output.
 Only when all numbers have been added is
 Depending on the particular
the result held in the accumulator written
microprocessor, the data bus can handle 8
to main memory or to another, non-
bit or 16 bit data.
accumulator, CPU register.
ADDRESS BUS
CONDITION CODE REGISTER (CCR) = FLAGS
 The address bus is 'unidirectional', over
 an 8 bit register used to store the status of
which the microprocessor sends an
CPU, such as carry, zero, overflow and half
carry.
 address code to the memory or
input/output.
 The size (width) of the address bus is
specified by the number of bits it can
handle.
 The more bits there are in the address bus,
the more memory locations a
microprocessor can access.
 A 16 bit address bus is capable of
addressing 65,536 (64K) addresses.

CONTROL BUS
 The control bus is used by the
microprocessor to send out or receive
timing and control signals in order to
coordinate and regulate its operation and
to communicate with other devices, i.e.
memory or input/output.

MICRO PROCESSOR CLOCK

 Also called clock rate, the speed at which a
microprocessor executes instructions.
Every computer contains an internal clock
that regulates the rate at which
instructions are executed and synchronizes
all the various computer components.

EXAMPLE OF MICROPROCESSORS
 Intel 8086
 Motorola 6800
 Zilog Z80
 The three microprocessors mentioned
above paved way to the modern
microprocessors that we have today and