Berliner Beiträge zur Archäometrie Seite 43-1 00 2001

Enamel painting:
Materials and Recipes in Europe from c. 1500 to c. 1920.
Archival and published sources with special focus on Limoges School
pictorial work from the Renaissance to the Revival period, and on overglaze
painting on enamel from the 17 111 century onwards
ER LK A SPEEL AND HEIKE BRONK

Index
A. lntroduction

1. General remarks on enamelling and its materials

2. Reference Iist of historical recipe Iiterature 1500-1920
3. Comments on the various authors and sources
4. Chrono logical table of elements and e lement combinatio ns used for different enamel
colours
5. Selected glossary of the term s pertaining to Limoges School enamel painting methods
and derived methods (including a select bibl iography)

A. Introduction
The artistic enamelwork that was created, over many centuries, by fusing glass to meta! with
heat has been distinguished by its richness and variety in expression and sophisticati on of
craftsmanship. The enamels now in museum collections reflect the extraordinary range of art
objects made with these materials. Unfortunately, these are often very vulnerable to mechanical
and chemical deterioration. Scientific approaches to conservation and attribution, which are
weil established for objects such as historical glasses (e.g. regarding technological questions,
provenance distinctions etc.) , have often been unsuitable for enamelled pieces due to the
delicate nature of the fused surfaces. For enamels , analysis by the removal of a sample of the
glaze or by transportation to a suitable research Iabaratory has only been feasible in very rare
cases. Modern developments in analytical techniques have now overcome some of the main
drawbacks by (a) allowing non-destructive scientific examination , and (b) affering research
in struments that overcome the problern of moving objects from their sites in order to examine
them.
This paper summarises information that has been brought tagether within a research project
on painted ename ls from workshops of Limoges (France) from the Renaissanceperiod and
later centuries. In particular, the project aimed to establish a scientific method to distinguish
high quality 19th century replicas and deliberate forgeries of Renaissance-period Limoges
School enamels from the genuine early works. The dating of enamels (and glass in general)

43
is not possible by direct scientific methods : however, indirect conclusions can be drawn from
the characteristic eiemental compositions of the materials. This required that a Iist of datable,
detailed recipes had tobe established and to consider these within the context of the raw
materials that were available to the European workshops and the technologies that were re-
levant for the specific periods. The main goal ofthis study has, therefore, been tobring tagether
the available primary treatises that contain recipes directly relating to the output of European
art enamelling prior to the 20th century in order to evaluate and compare these.
The paper consists of five main parts:

Part 1 briefly summarises the key techniques and basic materials of enamelling.
Part 2 contains the select bibliography including key historical treatises on enamelling with
summaries of recipes and information on the materials. The most important published sources
for painting on majolica, glass and porcelain have also been evaluated, as the same or very
similar raw materials were used as for enamel painting on meta!. The earliest known written
information with recipes for fusible pigments is given as 1500. The Diversarum Artium
Schedula, by Theophilus Presbyter, dated to the 12th century, describes the Medieval
enamelling technique under Byzantine influence. However, the Theophilus treatise omits
information on the actual composition of the enamels, except a hint that the craftsmen could
re-use Roman mosaic glass tesserae. From the 16th to 18th centmies written records are not
very numerous, due in part to the traditional practice of an oral transmission of the knowledge
within the enamellers' workshops, usually restricted to certain families. It has become clear
that, unfortunately, the available 16th century information on Limoges School enamels is
incomplete, although early manuscript material relating to recipes still surviving in the early
19th century was collated and first brought out in published versions by Maurice Ardant. Of
these, the 16th century information includes recipes that cite enamels [ie the materials]
imported from Venice. However, with regard to Limoges. as an extremely important centre
for the making of medieval champleve and Renaissance-period painted enamels, we Iack
documentary proof of the local manufacture of the basic enamel glass. In the 19th century, with
increasing interest from many collectors, connoisseurs and the great expansion ofthe industrial
sectors, there was a growth of appropriate Iiterature on art materials and processes. With regard
to recipes and materialsrelevant for the manufacture of enamels and fusible pigments, quite
wide-ranging information was published in books, monographs and articles in specialist
journals. This has left a diverse and very important source for present day research, including
translations, or re-translations, of pre-17'h century texts. The select bibliography given here
Iists the major comprehensi ve sources used for the data presented in this document. The latest
sources used date from the early 20th century [as copies ofLimoges School enamels were still
being made up to the 1920s] and these include recipes with a few newly introduced materials
such as zirconium and titanium oxide.
Part 3 includes the summaries, evaluation and comments for the primary sources with detailed
recipes for enamels. Comparisons of the texts revealed connections between various authors
and evident similarities for some of the treatises. Thesesummaries are augmented with rele-
vant biographical backgrounds for the chief authors of the Iiterature that has been used.
Part 4 comprises a tablethat gives a chronological overview of the materials mentioned in the
Iiterature evaluated, which can be used as a dating framework for interpreting material analysis.
Most of the modern analytical methods applied for enamel analysis determine the element
oxide contents. The vitrification processes during the melting of the raw enamels changes the
nature of the primary materials in any case, therefore it was regarded as useful to Iist only the

44
elements and their combinations in this table. Dating markers for specific materials could be
established according to the earliest mention ofthese in the documentary records, which in turn
assist with relating these to known workshops or particular periods.

Part 5 is a glossary that summarises the materials occurring in the earlier texts giving enamel
recipes, with the modern equivalent meanings for terms that are now archaic or difficult to
interpret. Fora few of the expressions it has not been possible to find confirmation of their true
meaning now: any relevant advice and comments would be most welcome. Important or rare
recipes arealso discussed in this section. Und er the headings of some of the elements, abrief
history of their introduction into enamel making has been included.

We trust that this paperwill be a helpful basis for future scientific analysis and for dating
purposes , especially for Limoges School enamels but also for other enamelled objects. A
scientific analysis of selected specimens of Limoges School painted enamels and associated
pieces is currently in progress within our project. This will provide comparative data for the
materials of characteristic and proven reference objects: it will form, in conjunction with the
details from the archival and published Iiterature regarding the recipes, a source for the
purposes of examination and comparison of enamelwork.

1. General remarks on enamelling, its techniques and materials

Books and monographs on the materials and techniques of enamelling and of the historical
developments are listed in the select bibliography at the end of Part 5.

A few main points are summarised below:

The term 'enamel' is here only used in its more narrow meaning of low-melting glass fluxes
suitable for fusing, with heat, to a meta! substrate. The metals most suitable for art enamelling
are gold, silver and copper, while iron or steel are employed for industrial enamels and some
modern ornamental applications. For certain effects, the precious metals are also used in the
form of foil or leaf under translucent colours.

The composition of the enamels has to correspond to the meta! recipient, i.e. its coefficient of
expansion, melting point or other specifications (e.g . translucent gold ruby red cannot be
satisfactorily fired on silver because of a yellow discolouration due to formation of colloidal
si Iver). The usual temperature range for firing is between 700 to 900°C, and the firing time
for most art processes is between one and about 5 minutes, with the exact length of firing as
a crucial factor. Certain enamelling techniques require a special quality of enamel , e.g. white
enamel for grisaille work must have a high optical density, while allowing limited translucency
when applied thinly, and it should be more easily fusible than the grounding layer.

The main traditional enamelling techniques are described comprehensively in the Iiterature
e.g. Popelin (1866), Meyer ( 1897), Cunynghame ( 1899), Brepohl (1981) and Speel (1998) but
can be defined as follows:

Cloisonne- cell structurcd designs formed with upstanding flat meta! outlines attached to a
flat or shaped gold , silver or copper surface to form a raised grid. Coloured translucent or
opaque enamels are laid and fused into these cells. The fused surface is usually ground and
polished and only the tops of the meta] outlines remain visible between areas of the glaze.
Precious meta! has been used for small-scale cloisonne work since the Byzantine era,
flourishing particularly from the late 9th to the early 12th centuries. Filigree enamels, usually

45
with round sil ver wire cloisons, are a variation of this. Cloisonne work was adapted for large-
scale work with copper, notab ly in China from the 17th century onward s and in Ja pan from
the 19th century.

Champleve- structured fi g urative or orn ame ntal designs fo rmed by chasing or engra ving
sunken cell s into a meta! surface to leave outlines and borders rese rved at the ori ginal Ievel
of the meta!. The enamels are filled and fused into the sunken cells to the Ievel of the meta!
outlines and borders, and the surface is ground and polished to a smooth plane. This method
was perfected in the workshops of Western Europe in the Medieval period, when Limoges
became the greatest centre for religious objects of copper and e name l in thi s technique.

Bassetaille (email en basse taille) is the method offusing translucent enamels over an intaglio-
style desig n engraved and/or chased into the surface of a go ld or sil ver plaque. The enamel
coating is kept thin , and ground and poli shed smooth or fire-polished [Ce llini 1568], allowing
the underlying design to show clearly through the translucent glaze. The method of basse taille
was at its hei ght in late med ieval Europe mainly fo r plaques attached to liturgical goldsm it-
hing work and continued tobe in use during the Renaissance period for jewellery, devotional
articles and small sta nding ornaments. A later variation was to create geometric pattern s,
including those inci sed by engine-turning, cut into a silver surface and giv ing brilli ant guilloche
effects when coated with translucent ename ls.

Email en resille sur verre ("enamel in network on glass"), the miniature method fo r enamalling
on glass arose as a raer technique durin g the late Re nai ssance period. The floral deigns or
figurative scenes were ename lled on recesses areas of the glass on a gold foillining.

Fig. 1: "Joshua and Caleb carrying the grapevine fro m the Promised Land" (Height 13 cm).
Unknown artist, Frankfurt a.M. (?) before 1706. The figurines in gold with enamels appli ed
e n ronde bosse, the base with fusible overglaze pigments o n white ena me l. Green Vault
Dresden (Inv.-No. VI 23).

46
Ronde-bosse (email en ronde bosse) is a goldsmithing method of coating small-scale sculptural
or bas-reliefforms with opaque or translucent enamels. This technique is especially associated
with Renaissance jewellery but continued into the 18th century. (see Illustration No l ).

Limoges School painted enamels (fr. email peints, ger. Maleremail) produce controlled pictorial
effects and differ in many respects from the other processes. The bases areofthin gauge
copper, wholly coated with enamels on the top and the reverse (counter) sides of the plaques
or shaped objects. The correct shaping of the pieces [eg to avoid flat sections] and the al l-over
first coatings [grounding layers] minimise warpage of the copper and the formation of stress
cracks in the g laze. To create the pictures, the fi gures and chief details were worked up, over
a dark layer, using a semi-opaque (grisaille) white to give dense, bright highlights, while the
shadows were produced with a delicate sg raffito treatment (enlevage ä l 'aiguille) and thinning
down of the layer to fuse with a grey effect. For polychrome work the draperies and back-
ground features of the pictures were with translucent coloured enamels, sometimes over
paillons [shaped pieces of silver or go ld foil] . The grisaille treatment that was fashionab le in
the mid-16' 11 century chiefly restricted the whole composition to monochrome effects but these
were usually heightened with gilding for the details and surface tonin g for the flesh tints
[carnations]. This art originated in the second half of the 15th century and was at its peak in
the 16th centlll·y when the leading masters and their workshops produced many thousands of
these works in Limoges (see Illustration No. 2).

Fig. 2: Limoges School painted enamel on copper. The subject ofthis plate (diameter 20.3cm)
symbolises the month of September. By Pierre Reymond, after 1568. Grisaille on a dark enamel
background , the flesh tints (carnations) with a wash of overglaze opaque red , and details
heightened with gilding. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin , Kunstge werbemu se um (Inv.-No.
K5013) .

47
Fig. 3: Portrait miniature of King Louis XIV of France (1638-1715) by Jean Petitot ( 1607-
1691). Overglaze pigments on a grounding of white enamel on a base of gold (Height: 24.4
mm, Width 20.6 mm). The frame of gold repousse work and enamel, by Gilles Legare (17'h
century). Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Painting on enamel (fr. peinture sur email, ger. Emailmalerei): the overglaze and miniature
methods- work of various visual effects and artistic calibre can be created by using fusible
pigments (usually meta! oxides) as thinly applied surface tints e.g. by stippling or brush
painting methods (Illustration No 3). There are many variations in the processes. The most
controlled work in this method is of small format, but the term 'miniature painting' in this
context refers to the techniques and not only to the dimensions ofthe pieces. The methods were
perfected in Blois, France, in the 1630s. Adaptations ofthe 18th century included the finishing
treatment known as the 'Genevan method' for which the overglaze paintings were finally
coated with a thin layer of colourless enamel to add a brilliant, proteelive finish. The 18th
century variations included the method of transfer printing a small picture en bloc onto an
enamel surface, in the style known as Battersea work.
Plique-a-jour requires the making of an openwork design , without a meta! backing under the
apertures . The spaces are filled with pale translucent enamels , fused so that the glaze spans
across the apertures and allows light to pass through. Although known from earlier times, the
method is chiefly associated with Art Nouveau jewellery and Russian filigree-style objects,
of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

lndustrial enamels- the term is generally used to describe the great f!lanufacturing output of
utensil s and signage that began in the second half of the 19th century. Iron or steel forms and
plaques are coated with opaque enamels applied by industrial processes to allow mass
production and consistent quality of the glaze.

48
Fig. 4: Arched copper plaque in the Limoges School revival manner, with the subject of the
Madonna and Child (Height: 10.25 cm, Width: 7.25 cm) . Cipher of the Samson et Cie
workshop, Paris, in gold . Second half of the 19'h century. Grisaille on a dark grounding and
extensive gilding. Private collection Hamburg.

Nineteenth century revivals of Medieval and Renaissance enamels:

The considerable output of art work in the 19th century included enamelwork in the long
dormant Medieval and Renaissance methods, and brought a revival of Limoges School
methods (Illustration No 4). The interest in historical enamelwork brought research into the
earlier processes and recipes: this made it possible to make good copies and deliberate fakes
of early work. The revivals in turn led to new applications and styles, such as for Art Nouveau
jewellery and ornaments.

Summary of Historical background:

Themakingof the glass used by enamellers has always been a highly specialised manufacture
and the craftsmen and artists depended on the glass-makers for their supplies. For many
centmies the glass-makers of Venice (Murano) remained as the Ieaders for the production of
high quality coloured glasses and they were the chiefinternational source for enamels.
However, in rcspect of Limoges , there remains the unresolved question of whether the raw
enamel glass was entirely imported from Venice or whether a local production also existed .
.In either case, the small degree of variety detected in the compositions of the 16th century
Limoges School output suggests that a rather centralised source of supply of the enamel
materials existed. Presumably, the Limoges workshops used the imported enamels as semi -
products and they may have, at most, changed the actual hues by the addition of certain

49
pigments in the way that the glass-painters did. The technologies of glass-making, glass-
painting and enamelling on meta! were all part of the same basic trade network for raw
materials and semi-products. Fusible pigments and certain raw materials used for enamel
recipes were also needed in majolica ornamentation and in the later porcelain decoration.
Therefore , the introduction of new materials has close parallels with innovations in these
technologies .

The general structure of the enamel recipes remained unchanged over the centuries: A recipe
starts with the preparation of a transparent base glass (fondant, flux), or alternatively a crystal
glass is used. As fluxing materials (here in the meaning of alkaline compounds to lower the
melting range of a glass) for the preparation of the base glass, the same ingredients were used
as in contemporary glass-making: before the availability of synthetic soda, in the 19th century,
mainly plant-ashes and their purified products, with saltpetre, Iead oxides and borax, were used.
The colouring pigments and opacifiers mentioned in the 16th century are more or less the same
as those that were already known in antiquity. Compounds of copper, cobalt, iron, manganese,
tin and others were usually added in the form of their oxides. Little by little this palettewas
successively extended, especially by a number of newly discovered elements in the 19th
century with uranium and chromium as perhaps the best-known. T he purification and
calcination of the materials, including the colouring and/or opacify ing compounds, often
required several separate steps. These ingredients were then added to the base glass and the
mixture was remelted to produce the enamels.

The enamelling methods involve the application of the enamels to the meta) base: for this the
meta) had tobe prepared and cleaned and the enamels were applied in two, three or more thin
layers to produce the final depth of the glaze. The enamel glass was obtained , and stored in
the form of chunks (frit) and required preparation by pounding and grinding each colour to the
appropriate fineness of powder. The selection and application of the enamels and number of
layers varied according to each particular technique. For !arge scale Limoges School vessels
the ground layers were probably applied by sieving [pouncing] dry powdered enamel over the
meta! surface, or by dipping the object into a enamel slurry [an anticipation of the later indu-
strial methods]. For other art enamelwork, the meta! surface was coated, or a ce ll designwas
inlaid, with enamels prepared as wet pastes using a spatula or quill point. The painting enamels
were ground very finely with an oily medium and applied with a point or brush. Other
important factors included the need to add a counter-enamel forthin based copper forms, such
as those used for Limoges School work, to prevent warping of the meta! and the formation of
cracks in the glaze. This in turn required special methods of supporting objects du ring firing .
For Limoges School pieces up toten firing stages could be involved, and the undulating fire-
finished surface was retained. In contrast, for goldsmiths ' and metal-workers' enamelling the
methods offini shing the pieces usually required grinding smooth of the fired surface and then
polishingor re-firing to restore the gloss.

In evaluating works of the past additional technical factors may also have to be considered.
These include, notably, the development of the enamelling furnace itself as this, of course,
played a great part in the achievable temperatures and control of the firing. Theophilus, in the
12th century, described how enamels were fired within perforated iron box es, acting as muff! es,
then placed into a brazier heated with charcoal. The Renaissance engravings show go1dsmith-
enamellers using two-part brick ovens, with chimneys, and front-opening doors, needing fixed
or removable muftles, and these were fuelled by charcoal. We can presume that the enamellers
of 15'11 and 16th century Limoges were using glass-makers furnaces , or adaptations of these,
with muffles, to fire their pieces which could measure up to 55 cm in breadth. In the 18th
century, furnaces were fired with coal and coke. Gas-fired furnaces were introduced in the

50
second half of the 19th century and electrically heated furnaces came into use from the early
l900s.

Part 2: Reference Iist of historical recipe Iiterature 1500 - 1920

Thc rcferences are subdivided in two parts fo r reasons of comprehen siveness: The first Ii st
(included in part 2) contains the original recipe Iiterature on which the glossary and element
chronology are based. At the end of the glossary (part 5) a second bibli ography is added with
standard reference diction aries, a general bibli og rap hy o n e na me llin g and on sc ie ntifi c
investigations of enamels, a selecti on of bibliography on pigments and further specialliterature
quoted in the text.

[Anonymou s 1500]
see [Ashley 1801]
[Anonymous 1536]
Anonimo. Recette per fare vetri colorati et smalti d 'ogni sorte havute in Murww 1536. Ms.
n. H 486, Biblioteque de I 'Eco le de Medicine de Montpellier (France).
commented by Zecchin, Luigi: Le ricette vetrarie di Montpelli er. Journal of G1ass Studies
X (1964) pp . 75-82.
seeal so [Zecchin 1987]
[Anonymous Venetian manuscript 2"d half of the 16'h century]
Moretti, C. and Toninato T. Ricettari vetrari muranes i, Ricettari o a nonimo del ' 500. In
course of publication (probably in 2001 ).
[Anonymous 1705]
Wieder Neu mt{gerichtete und vergrösserte in Zwey Theilen angewiesene Curieuse Kunst-
und Werck-Schul. J.K. Nürnberg 1705. Teil I " Vollkomm ene r Bericht von der sc hönen
Schmelz-Kunst mit den Schmelz-Giaß auf Gold, Silber, Kupfer und Glaß wie es weyland
treffliche Künstler zu Venedig, Mayland und andern Orten gehandelt und annoch gebrau-
chen". pp. 212-220.
[ Arelais de Montamy 1765]
see [de Montamy 1765]
[Ardant 1842]
Ardant, Maurice M.: Notice Historique sur !es Emaux, !es Emailleurs leurs divers Ouvrages
et !es Procedes de Fabrication en V sage a Limoges. lmprimerie de Chapoulaud Freres.
Limoges 1842.

[Ardant 1844]
Ardant, Maurice: Emaillerie et Emailleurs de Limoges which contains: Secret Formulas and
Processes of the Limousin Enamellers. Limoges 1844.
[Ardant 1855]
Ardant, Maurice: Emaillerie et Emailleurs de Limoges. Limoges 1855 (Reprint ofthe 1844 ed.).
[Ashley 1801]
Ashley, John: The Art ofPainting on and Annealing in Glass, with the true Receipts ofthe
Colours, the Ordering of the Furnace, and the Secrets Thereunto betonging as p ractised
about the Year 1500; supposed tobe rhen in Pe1jection. Eye and Law Londo n 180 l.

51
[de Elancourt 1699]
see [Haudicquer de Elancourt 1699]
[Brongniart 1845]
Brongniart, Alexandre: In: Revue scient!fique et industrielle. Section III Des couleurs
Employees dans Ia Peinture sur Email, 1845.
[Brongniart 1846]
Brongniart, Alexandre: Handbuch der Porcellan-Malerei. Berlin 1846.
[Brongniart 1847]
Brongniart, Alexandre: In: Revue scientifique et industrielle. Recettes et Formu les des
couleurs vitrifiables, d 'apres Ies formules employees ala manufacture de Sevres, 184 7, pp.
309-316.
[Cellini 1568]
The Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on Goldsmithing and Sculpture. Reprint of the 1888
translation by C.R. Ashbee. Dover New York 1967.
[Cunynghame 1899]
Cunynghame, Henry: On the Theory and Practice of Art-Enamelling upon Metals. Archi-
bald Constab le & Co. London 1899.
[Dalpayrat 1881]
Dalpayrat, Louis: Limoges Enamels, or the Process ofthe early Limoges Enamellers. transl.
by G.A. Bouvier. Lechertier, Barbe & Co. London I 881.
[Darduin]
see [Zecchin I 986, 1990]
[de Mayerne ca. 1640]
Turquet de Mayerne, Theodore: Couleurs de Esmaulx ou Vernix de la Poterie defayence.
Copie de /'o riginal d 'un maistre potier Anglois. Included in the manuscript Sloane 1990
(British Library).
[de Montamy 1765]
d ' Arelais de Montamy, Didier Francoise: Traite des cmtleurs pour la peinture en email et
sur la porcelaine. G. Cavelier Paris 1765.
[de Vigenere 1578]
see [Popelin 1866] , Appendice, pp. 179-200.
see [Meyer 1895] pp. 61-77.
[Diderot et d 'Alembert 1755]
"Email" in : Encyclopedie ou Dictionnaire raisonne - Des Sciences, des Arts et des Metiers,
Vol. 5, David, Le Breton, Durand Paris 1755, pp. 533-545 .
[Dossie 1758]
Dossie, Robert: The Handmaid to the Arts, Vol. II London 1758.
[Dossie 1758a]
Dossie, Robert : The Etaboratory laidopen or the Secrets of Modern Chemistry and
Pharmacy Revealed. J. Nourse London 1758.
[Dossie 1764]
Dossie, Robert: The Handmaid to the Arts, Vol.l, Second edition. J. Nourse London 1764.

52
[Dossie 1796]
Dossie, Robert: The Handmaid to the Arts, Vol. II, A new edition. A. Miliar, W. Law and
R. Cater London 1796.
[Ferrand 1721]
Ferrand, Jaques Phillippe: L 'A rt du Feu ou de Peindre en Email. J. de Collombat Paris 1721.
[Fisher 1906]
Fisher, Alexander: The Art of Enamelling upon Meta! with a short appendix concerning
miniature painting on enamel. London 1906.
[Fran~ois 1622]
Fran~ois,Rene: Essay des meirveilles de nature et des plus nobles artifices. Romain de Beau-
maiset lean Osmont Rouen 1622. Chap. XXVI: La fa~on de 1'Esmaillerie. pp. 213-219.
[Fran~ois ,
no year]
see [Ardant 1844, 1855]
[Fromberg 1900]
Fromberg, Emanuel Otto: Rudimentary Essay on the Art of Painting on Glass. 7th edition.
Crosby Lockwood and Son London 1900.
[Gee 1918]
Gee, George E.: The Goldsmith 's Handbook. Ninth Impression. Crosby Lockwood and Son
London 1918.
[Gidde 1616]
Gidde, Walter: The Receiptsfor the true making ofCollorsfor glasse. British Library Add .
MS 6763, 1616.
[Grünwald 1917]
Grünwald, Julius: The Theory and Practice of Enamelling on lron and Steel with historical
notes on the use ofenamel. Charles Griffin & Co. London 1917.
[Grünwa1d 1922]
Grünwald, Julius: Chemische Technologie der Emailrohmaterialien. Berlin 1922.
[Haudiquer de Elancourt 1699]
Haudiquer de Blancourt, Fran~ois: The Art ofGlass. Printed for Dan Brown London 1699.
Originally published in Paris 1697.
[Hermann 1882]
Hermann, Fe1ix: Glas-, Porzellan- und Email-Malerei. A. Hart1eben 's Verlag Wien , Pest,
Leipzig 1882.
[Kunckel 1679]
Kunckel , Johann: Ars vitraria experimentalisoder vollkommene Glasmacher-Kunst. Frank-
furt , Leipzig 1679. Reprint of the 1'' edition Glas-Keramik, Volkseigener Aussen-
handelsbetrieb der DDR 1977.
[Lacroix 1884]
Lacroix, A. In: Manuel du Peintre ceramist amateur 1884, p. 47.
[Laudin 1736]
see [Ardant 1844, 1855]

53
[Laudon J 838]
Laudon, D.: Die Fabrikation des Porzellans, Steingutes und Fayance-Glases. Gottfr. Basse
Quedlinburg und Leipzig 1838.
[Leng 1854]
Leng, Heinrich: Vollständiges Handbuch der Glasfabrication nach allen ihren Haupt- und
Neben zweigen, 3"1 edition. Bernhard Friedrich Voigt Weimar 1854.
[Leo 1845]
Leo, Wilhelm: Die Schmelzmalerei oder: Die Kunst, auf Email, Glas und Porzellan zu ma-
len. Gottfr. Basse Quedlinburg und Leipzig 1845.
[Meindel 1848]
Meindel, C.: Emailfarben, Glasflüsse und Glaspasten Gottfr. Basse Quedlinburg und Leip-
zig J 848.
[Meyerl895]
Meyer, Alfred: L 'Art de /'Email de Limoges ancien et moderne. Traite pratique et scien-
tifique. 2nd ed ition Paris 1895.
[Montpellier manuscript 1536]
see [Anonymous 1536]
[Mouret 1583]
see [Ardant 1842, 1844 and 1855]
[Neri 1612]
Neri, Antonio: L 'Arte Vetraria. Firenze 1612. Engl. transl. of the first edition (= Libri Rari
4), Milano 1966.
Neri , Antonio: L'arte Vetraria del Neri - a cura di Rosa Barovier Mentasti. Edizione "11
Polifilo" Milano 1980.
[Nouhailer 1748]
see lArdant 1844, 1855]
[Palissy 1563]
Palissy, Bernard: Del 'Art de Terre, De son Urilite, des Esmaux et dufeu. La Rochelle de
l 'imprimerie de Barthelemy Berton 1563. Facsimile Reprint of 1941 , Paris.
[Piccolpasso 1574179]
Piccolpasso, Cipriano: Tre libri dell 'arte de Vasaio (The three books of the potter's art).
Facsimile and eng!. translation by B. Rackham and V. van de Put 1934.
[Je Pileur d'Apligny 1781]
Herrn le Pileur d'Apligny, richtige und vollständige Beschreibung aller Farbmaterialien.
Eberhard Kletts se. Wittib und Franck, Augsburg 1781 , pp. 3 14-336.
[Popelin 1866]
Popelin, Claudius: L ' Email des peintres. A. Levy Paris 1866.
[Randau 1905]
Randau , Paul: Uiefarbigen, bunten und verzierten Gläser. A. Hartleben's Verlag Wien und
Leipzig 1905. Reprint Edition Fricke im Rudolf Müller Verlag Köln 1987.
[Reboulleau 1844]
Reboulleau, M: Manuels-Roret. Nouveau Manuel Camplet de Ia Peinture sur Ven·e, sur
Porcelaine & sur Email. Pari s 1844. Nouvelle editions par Romaine, Paris 1883, 1900. Re-
print L.Y.D.Y. Inter-1ivres Paris 1984.

54
[Salmon 1701]
Salmon, William: Polygraphice. London 1701.
[Salvetat 1871]
Salvetat, Louis Alphonse: Über Decoration von Thonwaren und Emaillage. From the:
Dictionnaire des arts et manufactures, complement. W. Braumüller Wien 1871.
[Theophilus ca. 1125]
Brepohl, Erhard. Theophilus Presbyter und das mittelalterliche Kunsthandwerk. Gesamt-
ausgabe derSchriji De Diversis Artibus in zwei Bänden. Vol. 2 Goldschmiedekun st. Böhlau
Verlag Köln, Weimar, Wien 1999. pp. 136-140.
[Turquet de Mayerne ca. 1640]
see [de Mayerne ca. 1640]
[Whitefriars]
Whitefriars Glassworks (Ed.): Recipe Notebooks 1784, 1830s, 1880s. Museum ofLondon.
[Willis]
In: C. Saunier: The Watchmaker 's Handbook. The Techn ical Press London 1948. p. 131.
[Wynn 1817]
Wynn, Robert: Enamel compositions communicated to the Society of Arts in 1817. In :
Lardner, Dionysius: The Cabinet CyclopaediaA Trecttise on the Progressive lmprovements
and Present State of the Manufacture of Porcelain and Glass. A.&R. Spottiswoode Lon-
don 1832, pp. 94-96.
[Zecchin 1986]
Zecchin, Luigi: ll ricettario Darduin, un codice vetrario del seicento trascritto e commen-
tato, edito a cura Stazione Sperimentale del Vetro, Murano da Arsenale editrice Venezia
1986. pp. 265ff.
[Zecchin 1987]
Zecchin, Luigi: Vetro et vetrai di Murano, Vol.l. Arsenale editrice Venice 1987. pp.248-276.
[Zecchin 1989]
Zecchin, Luigi: Vetro et vetrai di Murano, Vol. II. Arsenale editrice Venice 1989. pp. 349-353.
[Zecchin 1990]
Zecchin, Luigi : Vetro e vetrai di Murano, Vol. IIJ. Arsenale editrice Venice 1990. pp. 290-311.

Part 3: Comments on the various authors and sources

• ' Anonymaus English Master Potter' - First half of 16th century, recipes of- see De Mayerne.

• Anonymous 1536
Recette per Jari vetri colorati et smalti d 'ogn i sorte havuto in Murano, 1536
This manuscript is now preserved in the library school of the Montpellier School of
Medicine. It revealed important information about 16'" century glassmaking practice in
Venice but was only examined in detail by Luigi Zecchin in the 1960s. The original text,
written in a Yenetian Italian , which apparently served as memorandum for a master
craftsman, was copied by someone with only little knowledge ofthe subject. This fact made
the text difficu lt to read and required not only a translation into modern terms but a full

55
 reconstruction. The recipes and comments by Zecchin were publi shed by the Stazione
Sperimentale del Vetro in Murano in 1962 and 1967.

• Anonymous 1705
Curieuse Kunst- und Werck-Schul- Wieder Neu aufgerichtete und vergrösserte in Zwey
Theilen angewiesene
This is a comprehensive treatise that combines diverse technical information e.g. on alchemy,
metallurgy, goldsmithing and painting. A first edition came out in 1696 with the same initals
JK but without giving the author's full name. Only the second edition of 1705 contains the
additional information on glass making and enamelling. This has several descriptions on how
to make crystal and gold ruby glass and in this it is very much contemporary "state of the
art" and must have been compiled from very knowledgable sources. It must be concluded
from the mis-spellings of terms as weil as the reference to "Hr. Kunckel" in the text, that the
initals JK can not be taken to be those of Johann Kunckel, author of the Ars vitraria
experimentalis. There are nine pages on enamelling that are presumably based on an inde-
pendent treatise by an unidentified enameller, because the style and formataredifferent to
those of the recipe compilations. The author does not give enamel recipes- the original book
seems to have included I 7 "Glaß-Müsterlein" , i.e. actual samples of various coloured
enamels. This source is focused on enamelling technique and it mainly describes the making
of painted enamels on copper and the ronde bosse method.

• Arelais de Montamy, Didier, d ' - see Montamy.

• Ardant, Maurice, Notice Historique sur les Emaux, les Emailleurs ... [1842], Emaillerie et
Emailleurs de Limoges [1844 & 1855].
Ardant [b. before c. I 800, flourished 1828- I 858], was a historian of Limoges School
enamels. From 1842 to 1858 he published his books and also monographs on the leading
named enamel painters during the Renaissance period. The most important information on
surviving enamel-making recipes was collected by Ardant and published successively in his
1842 monograph Notice Historique sur les Emaux, les Emailleurs ... andin the 1844 book
with the title Les Emaillerie et Emailleurs de Limoges which was republished in I 855.
Ardant was a member of severallearned Societies, including the Societe des Arts de Limo-
ges, Societe de l'Histoire de France and Societe des Antiquaires.
In the books published by Maurice Ardant he gave the information that had been found from
the old workshops or decendants of the old Limoges families. Ardant stated that these recipes
were given to a Monsieur Allaud aine, who had been the secretary of the Societe [either the
Societe des Antiquaires de Limoges or Societe d 'Agriculture, des Seiences et des Arts de
Limoges, Ed.], by the enamel artist said tobe the last ofthe Nouhailer family to work in this
art. These old recipes have a provenance from the workshops of Domenge (Dominique)
Mouret (16'h c. and with family connections to the workshop of Pierre Reymond), Laudin
and Nouhailer, and information conserved and compiled by Rene Fram;ois. The recipes given
from an anonymous origin possibly pre-date the manuscript of Mouret. This anonymous
writer ends with a description of earlier traditions- which appear tobe describing champleve
enamelling ' .. . les derniers emailleurs mettaient sur leur cuivre une gravure ... '. If this is
information of the 16'h century, it links to the Limoges School work with a continuing
tradition going back to the l3'h and 14'h centuries, when Limoges was famous for medieval
champleve enamels. The style of the information indicates familiarity with traditional
workshop materials and processes, but the final sentence of this section appears to be

56
 anecdotal or historical ' ... /l parait ce rtain que les eaux de la source ... ' - rather than
information noted by a craftsman who would not say 'i t appears certain that...' but would
actually specify the source for the water used in the workshop because of its purity.

• Ashley, John, The Art of Painting ... [I801]

The manuscript dated to the year 1500 consists of 12 rather short recipes. It appears tobe
reprinted without any annotations by John Ashley but nothing is known of how the authentic
text came into Ashley's possession.
There seems tobe a link to the manuscript by Gidde (1616) because disregarding a few minor
spelling differences both texts are identical.

• Biringuccio, Vannoccio, De la Pirotechnia [ 1540]

Biringuccio (1480-1538), a philosopher-ehernist with interests in metallurgy, gunpowder and
chemical techno1ogy, wrote his treatise in Venice including a chapter "Concerning glass and
all other semi-minerals in general". It was published after his death in 1540 and translated
by his contemporary, Jacques Vincent ofParis, into French in 1556. It came out also in 1572
and 1627. A reprint was brought out in 1977 by Adriano Carugo.

• Blancourt, Haudiequer de, [also cited as Haudiequer de Blancourt, Fran~ois]

Arte de la Verrerie [1697].
The translation into English The Art of Glass was brought out in London in 1699. Oe
Elancourt described hirnself as an expert alchemist. His published recipes are considered
tobe chiefly compilations, especially from Merret's work on Neri. Oe Blancourt's work was
used as a reference source by later compilers. Carpenter in a commentary [Glass on meta!
Vol7 No .2 ( 1988) pp. 19] found that de Blancourt's formula for rocaillewas a commercially
available product in the early 18th century and that this appears in the recipes published in
1844 by Alexander Brongniart.

• Brongniart, Alexander, [1845/47].

Brongniart [1770- d. after 1847] was a mineralogi st, geologist and a professor at the Sor-
bonne. He was the renowned director of the manufacture of porcelain at the Imperial
Porcelain Factory at Sevres from 1800 to 1847. He wished to establish a 'Conservatoire des
Arts Ceramiques', conducted a considerab le amount of research into inorganic materials ,
and was the founder ofthe museum at Sevres. Brongniart's published works included in 1845
the series of articles in Revue Scientifique et Industrielle: Des Couleurs Employees dans la
Peinture sur Verre; Sur la Preparation et l 'Emploi des Couleurs; Des Coulours employees
dans la peinture sur porcelaine. He would certainly have access to the recipes of this long-
established porcelain making and painting business: their recipes included the high tempera-
ture enamels for ornamenting hard-paste porcel ain that had been developed at Sevres in
1768. Brongniart became renowned for introducing a series of new fusible pigments.

• Cunynghame Henry H., On the theory and Practice ofArt-Enamelling on Metals [1899, 2nd
Ed. I 90 I], European Enamels [ 1906]
Sir Henry Hardinge Cunynghame, KCB , CB., [1848-1935] was a top ranking British Civil
Servant. He was also an enamel historian and knowledgeable in pigment chemistry. His
published books on these subjects included hi s own findings and commentaries on enamel
recipes and on Limoges School enamelling. He had studied enamelling under Alfred Mey-

57
 er, in Paris and under Alexander Fisher, in London. In his career as a Civil Servant,
Cunynghame was Barrister-at-law, Assistant Under Secretary Horne Office, Chairman for
the Royal Commission on Coal Minesandon various foreign Commissions including in
France & Germany; he served on committees, including that by which the London
Polytechnics were established and he was an honorary Member of the Royal & Colonial
Society of British Artists.

• Dalpayrat, Louis, Limoges Enamels [ 1881]

Dalpayrat [ 1838-190 1] was born in Limoges. He was a member of the Archaeological and
Historical Society ofLimoges. He was a painter, drawing master and teacher of enamelling.
He presented a series of demonstrations and lectures at the South Kensington School of Art
in London during the 1880s. Dalpayrat first came to London to work for the firm of Lech-
ertier, Barbe & Co. This firm , with Paris Connections, sold fusible pigments, enamels and
furnaces, and they commissioned and published Dalpayrat's short treatise on Limoges
Enamels in 1881. In his publication, Dalpayrat li sted recipes for fluxes , white and coloured
enamels. These are considered to be compiled from French information and are similar to
the tradition of the Limoges School revival. He was one ofthebest of the 19th century
copyists of Renaissance-period Limoges School enamel s making replicas of the pieces by
Pierre Reymond and other 16th century masters . Although not a pigment scientist his
background included working with hisbrother in Paris, the weil known ceramic artistAdrian
Dalpayrat [who invented the Rouge Dalpayrat and experimented with crystal glazes].

• Darduin , Segreti per fare lo smalto et vetri colorati

The glassmaker fami ly Darduin of Murano can be traced back totheGerman Enrico di
Arduino who came to Murano at the end of the 15'11 century. His descendants were active up
to the early 19'" century. One of Enrico 's sons, Nicolo, made notes concerning the preparation
of glass batches in the family factory, which were copied in a notebook by his son Giovanni
after Nicolo's death in 1599 and added with recipes Giovanni had collected from several
sources or gained by his own experiences as a glass-maker. The manuscript was then passed
into unknown hands but continued tobe used for g lassmaking records until 1711 thus
covering a time span of almost 200 years. This manuscript, con sisting of several hundred
numbered pages is preserved today in the StateArchives ofVenice. The first 62 recipes were
deciphered and pub1ished by Luigi Zecchin in 1968-70 and 1971 . A completed version
revised by Rosa Barovier Mentasti and Marco Verita was published in 1986.

• De Mayerne Manuscript , Des Esmaulx ... [c. 1640]

Sir Theodore Turquet de Mayerne [1573-1655] was of Genevan origin and he was a
Huguenot. He practised medicine first in Paris , but came to England and was appointed
physician to the English courts under Kings James I, Charles I, and the future Charles II. His
interests extended to artists materials and he a lso collected original recipes . He developed
an interest in ename1s when he assisted his compatriot, the famous miniaturist in ename1s,
Jean Petitot, to improve the avai1able co1ours . In the manuscript S1oane 1990, in the Bri-
tish Library, there is a short treatise on enamelling to which two pages of recipes have been
appended . The manuscript is bound into a volume under the name of John [Jean] Colladon ,
De Mayerne's nephew, and these pages predate 1640. The recipe pages- with the exception
mentioned be1ow - have never been published and are written under the heading Couleurs
des Esmaulx ou Vernix de La Poterie de Fayence. Copie de /'original d'un maistre polier

58
 Anglois. The handwriting for the recipe pages has not been examined by a palaeographist
and may be that of De Mayerne or of Petitot. Petitot's collaborators, including his son Jean
Louis Petitot, and brother-in-law, Jaques Bordier, would share the information. When Petitot
and Bordier subsequently worked in Paris they would take the recipe information to their
new ateliers .
There are 21 quantified recipes including those for glass enamels [smelted in colours] and
overglazes [pigments for on-enamel painting] . Transcripts of these recipes were sent in the
1980s to Woodrow Carpenter, who published six of thesetagether with his trial results and
commentary in Glass on Meta] Vol.6 No.S (1987). Carpenter also found that the 'gali colors
red ' in the manuscript corresponded closely to a red employed by the English enameller
Robert Wynn in the early 1800s.

• De Vigenere- see Vigenere

• Diderot et d'Aiembert [1755]

The Diderot Encyclopedie was compiled by leading mid-18'11 century experts in the various
disciplines . The text for enamels refers to Neri , Merret and Kunckel. Limoges School
painting did not feature in this entry as such work was not made generally in the 18'11 century.

• Dossie, Robert, The Elaboratory ... [1758] , The Handmaid to the Arts [ 1758, 1764, 1796]
• Doss ie [b. before I 730- d. not later than 1783]. Dossie was a prolific scientific author, who
was an 'agriculturalist' , ehernist and pharmacist. He was elected as a member of the Royal
Society for the Encouragement of Arts rRSA] in 1760, where he became a prominent
member and served on several committees, bringing out three volumes of the Society's
Transactions up to 1782. The Handmaid to the Arts, first published in 1758, was reprinted
in a second edition in 1764 and this was republished in 1796.

• Ferrand, Jacques-Philippe, L'art du Feu ou de Peindre en Email [1721].

Ferrand [ 1653-1732] was appointed as a Valet de Chambre and Painter to the French King,
[Loui s XIV] and he was a member of the French Academie. He worked for the Duke of
Savoy in Turin and had travelled in Europein the entourage of various other patrons during
the period 1688-99. He was a master of miniatme painting on all bases, including enamel,
working in this for 40 years. He was also a knowledgeable chemist of fu sible colours. He
privately published his book in 1721 , Paris, giving the detailed recipes and processes, thereby
going against the wishes ofthe enamelling fraternity of histim es. He was at the end of a long
working career, and, for personal reasons, he broke the long-standing code of secrecy
maintained by the enamellers in the old traditions . Ferrand mentioned that he had met Jean
Petitot in Paris and he bimself worked in the miniature or overglaze methods. His published
work was of considerable interest for later miniaturists.

• Fis her, Alexander, The Art of Enamelling upon Meta! [ 1906]

Fisher [ 1864-1936] was the best known British Arts and Crafts Enameller, and he was an
influential teacher and writer on enamelling art and history. He was an Associate ofthe Royal
Academy of Art and he wrote the entry for Enamels in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11 •h
edition [I 91 O-ll]. In 1896 Fisher was commissioned to write a report on the enamelling
studios in Paris, and his information records a recipe for grisaille white given by the impor-
tant French enameller and teacher, Alfred Meyer.

59
• Franc;ois, Rene, Essay Des Merveilles de Nature et des plus nobles artifices [1622]
Rene Franc;ois was the pseudonym of Etienne Binet. Franc;ois was the Preacher to the French
King, (Predicateur du Roy), [ie Louis XIII]. His text, that includes a chapter on La Far;on
de l'esmaillerie [Chap. XXVI], was probably written in about 1615, and was published in
Rouen in 1622 under the title Essay des Merveilles de Nature , and it was published in Paris
in 1639. In the 19'h century Maurice Ardant in Emaillerie et Emailleurs, included the
information under the heading: 'Enamel Recipes collected by Rene Franr;ois gatheredfrom
the ancient enamellers '. The choice of the pseudonym of Franc;ois may perhaps indicate a
long-established family link: Guillaume Franc;ois was recorded as a goldsmith-enameller
of Amiens known tobe working in 1448.
There areextensive similarities in formulation and mentioned materials to the treatise
compiled by Blaise de Yigenere in 1578 although the text from Franc;ois is considerably
shorter.

• Fromberg, Emamtel Otto, Rudimentary Treatise on the Art of Painting on glass [ 1900]
Fromberg was a 19th century German expert and scientific writer on fusible pigments and
painting on glass and enamel. In 1900 the English translation of The Rudimenary Treatise .. .
was published in conjunction with the Seventh Edition of Gessert's Treatise on the Art of
Painting on Glass.

• Gee, George E. , The Goldsmith 's Handbook [1918]

He was a goldsmith whose book came out in 9 editions; the last edition was published in
1918. He also wrote a companion volume The Silversmith's Handbook.

• Gidde, Walter, The Receiptsfor the true making ofColloursfor glasse [1616]
Gidde's manuscript under this title and date survives in the British library under reference
BL ADD. MS 6763 1616. This manuscript has not been published elsewhere. The content
of the Gidde manuscript, including the wording, is identical to a manuscript said to date from
1500, that was published by John Ashley in 1801 and which was undoubted1y based on the
same original early text.

• Grünwald, Julius, Enamelling on /ron and Steel [J 917]

Grünwald was a technical chemist and manager of a factory making industrial enamels.

• Gessert, M. A., Rudimentary Treatise on the Art of Painting on Glassand Glass Staining
[1900]

Dr. M. A. Gessert was a leading German expert and scientific writer of the 19'h century, who
published various books on g1ass painting. In 1900 the seventh edition of his Treatise was
published in English in conjunction with the treatise on the Art of Painting on Glass by E .
0. Fromberg.

• Haudiequer de, see de Blancourt, Haudiequer de Elancourt- Arte de La Verrerie [1697].

• Kuncke1, Johann, Ars vitraria experimentalis [1679] - see Neri/Merrett

Kunckel [Kunkel] von Löwenstjern, Johann [1 630 or J638- 1703] was a German chemist;
his father was a glass technologist, and alchemist to the court of Holstein . Kunckel was the

60
 leading glass scientist of his timesandwas incharge of the royallaboratory in Dresden. In
1679 he became director of the laboratm·y and glassworks of Brandenburg. Herehe invented
the process of making gold-ruby vessel glass. In 1688 he went to Stockholm where he received
the title of Baron of Löwenstjern in 1693; and was appointed as a member of the council of
mines. His treatise Ars vitraria experimentalis first published in 1679 andin the second edition
1689 included a translation of Neri 's L'Arte Vetraria. Kunckel 's annotations were based on
his experimental experiences and the translation of a commentary by Christopher Merrett,
who published Neri 's book in English. The Ars vetraria experimentalis remained the most
important treatise on glassmaking technology for a very lang time. The passage on enamel
recipes is only brief.

• Lacroix, A. Manuel du Peintre ceramist amateur [1884]

The firm of A. Lacroix was established at 184-186 Avenue Pamentier, Paris. It was associated
with the Imperial Porcelain Factory of Sevres, and the book was published by Lechertier,
Barbe & Co., who specialised in fusible pigments and retailed the Lacroix materials, and also
published Dalpayrat's treatise on Limoges enamels.

• Lardner, Dionysius, The Cabinet Cyclopaedia [the volume for Porcelain & Glass was
published in 1832].
He was a scientific writer ofTrinity College, Dublin, later a professor of natural philosophy
and astronomy in London University. He took Holy orders and became a Protestant
clergyman and was an eminent member of many scientific societies. Lardner's principal
work was the Cabinet Cyclopaedia, which was completed with the assistance of other experts
in 133 volumes in 1849.

• Laudin [recipes from 1736-44] - see Ardant.

Tbe Laudin family produced numerous enamel painters who worked in the Limoges School
manner during the 16' 11 century. Artists of this family continued to work with overglaze
techniques on enamel in the 17' 11 and 18'11 centuries. In the Dictionnaire des emailleurs [Emile
Molinier, Paris, 1885] the cbronology oftbis family is given over five generations, from Noel
[1586-1681] to Nicolas III [d. 1737] . Ardant's information gives the last recipe made by
Valerie Laudin as dated 1744 [Emaillerie et Emailleurs, 1855 , p. 37] This gives an
undoubted link to much earlier information as such recipes would have been inherited.

• Merrett, Christopber The Art of Glass [ 1662] - see Neri/Kunckel.

Merrett [ 1614-95] was an English physician and naturalist, a Faunder Fellow of the Royal
Society [created in London in 1660 for promoting scientific and technical progress]. His
Englisb translation of Antonio Neri 's book L'Arte Vetraria appeared in 1662. Tbis book also
contains Merrett's annotations, and the addition of the chapter on glassmaking from De re
metallica [written about 1550, published postbumously in 1556] by Georgius Agricola
[ 1490-1555] and information about tools and furnaces. Tbis combined textwas titled in full
as The Art ofGlass wherein are shown the Wayes to make and colour Glass, Pastes, Enamels,
Lakesand other Curiosities.

• Meyer, Alfred, L'Art de !'email de Limoges ancien et moderne [1895]

Meyer, Alfred [Bernard-Alfred] [ 1832-1904] was the son of a textile designer. He was one
ofthe pupils ofthe painter Picot, who recommended bis employment by the Imperial Porce-
lain Factory of Sevres in 1858. He worked at Sevres untill862, then returned to work tbere

61
 from 1863-1871. Independently of Sevres, Meyer had connections with the enamel painter
Apoil and his wife [copyists and forgers of old Limoges School enamels who worked for
some of the Paris dealers], and his later commissions came from Paris jewellers, including
Falize. Meyer exhibited enamels at the Paris Salon in the years 1864 to 1867 and 1870 to
1874, and worked on !arge Limoges School enamels as weil asjewellery insets. He was pro-
fessor of enamelling at the Ecole Bernard Palissy in Paris, and hisprivate pupils included
Claudius Popelin, with whom he first formed a business association, butthiswas later termi-
nated following disagreements. Meyer remained a key figurein the making of enamels in
the Limoges School style until at least 1896. He was involved with the rediscovery of certain
colours for this art, including, notably, the important translucent brown and grisaille white.

• Montamy, Didier Franc;:ois d' Arelais de, Traite des Couleurs pour La Peinture
en Email et sur La Porcelaine [1765]
Montamy [b. circa 1700- d. 1765] was a descendant of a very old-established titled French
family and he was attached to the court as mentor of the Duke of Chartres (later the Duke
of Orleans). Montamy had studied mathematics, physics and chemistry at the Universities
of Caen and Paris. His treatise was published posthumously in 1765, with an editorial
addition of an earlier document from another source for a Venetian white enamel.

• Mouret, Domenge/Dominique, [recipes dated 1583] - see Ardant

The recipes published by Ardant [Les Emaux, Les Emailleurs, and Emaillerie et Emailleurs]
under the name of Domenge Mouret are dated 1583. They are comprehensive recipes
surviving from the 16' 11 century Limoges School enamellers. The Mouret recipes give
information specific for Limoges School work, for example the recipe for the flesh tone
(carnation), which relates to the purple toning, as used by the earliest Limoges Schoo1
masters.

The Mouret family were enamel painters and flourished in the 16th century when at least
two of their female members married two men of the Reymond family [see E. Molinier
Dictionnaire des Emailleurs, 1885]. A goldsmith of the name of Mouret is recorded as born
in 163 L The Mouret recipes have the provenance of being passed down through the Laudin
and Nouailher families in the 18th century and acquired from the enameller Jean-Baptiste
Nouhailer [d. 1804] by the secretary of the Societe des Antiquaires ofLimoges (a M. Allaud)
and these were edited and published by Maurice Ardant.

• Neri, Antonio, L 'Arte Vetraria [1612]- see Kunckel and Merrett.

Neri was a Florentine priest who worked as a glass-maker andin 1612 brought out his book
L 'Arte Vetraria gi ving details of many of his own experi ments (later editions 1661 Florence,
1663 and 1678 Venice). Theinformation was a basis for later writers; his book was translated
into many languages and remained a standard reference source until the 19th century.

• Nouailher, Baptiste [recipes dated 174R and 1749] - see Ardant

The Nouailher family included numerous enamel painters working in the 16' 11 century in the
Limoges School manner. Later, artists of this fami ly continued in the 17'11 and 18' 11 centuries,
chiefly in the overglaze methods. In L 'Emaillerie , (Emile Molinier, Paris 1891, p.324f.)
there is a chronology of over 6 generations of this family of enamel painters, of whom the
lasttobe recorded was Jean-Baptiste III Nouailher (1732-1804). One of his brothers, Jean-

62
 Baptiste li ( 1731-1776), is mentioned as having worked as a painter at Sevres (for Sevres
seealso Brongniart). In 1842 Maurice Ardant (Les bnaux, !es emailleurs ... ) first published
the set of recipes which had been passed down in the form of incomplete manuscripts,
including those of the 16'11 century from the Mouret family, and those of the Laudins, and
Bte. [Baptiste] Nouailher perre (pere ), with recipes from the 18'h century. Two descendants
of Jean-Baptiste lii N. link with the early 19'h century and may have given the manuscripts
that came via Ardant.

• Palissy, Bernard, Del 'Art de Terre [1563]

This renowned French potter (c. 1510- c. 1590) had been apprenticed to a glass painter, and
had travelled around France, before he settled at Saintesand began his experiments in pottery
in about 1539. His patron, the Constable ofMontmorency also patronised the enameller
Leonard Limosin in the mid 16'11 century.
Palissy ' s Del'Art de Terre was published in the form of a dialogue giving theory and practice,
with a summary of the ename ls that he used (for pottery bases) on p. 36 of his book, as a
Straightforward Iist without further details:
"Les esmaux dequoy je fais besogne , sont faits: d 'esta ing, de plomb, de fer, d ' ac ier,
d ' antimoine, de saphre, de cuivre, d ' arene, de sal icort, de cendre gravelee, de litharge, de
pierrede Perigord." (The enamels I need are made from tin, Iead, iron, steel, antimony, zaffer,
copper, sand, salicornia, ash of wine Iees, litharge, Perigord stone).

• Piccolpasso, Cipriano, Tre libri dell'arte de Vasaio [1574179]

The manuscript on majolica making was written in the years 1574/9 and the original is now
in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London . ln 1860 Claudius Popelin
brought out a trans1ation in French , signing forthat volume as C. Popelyn. A facs imile
editionwas brought out with a translation into English by Cavaliere and Rackham, in 1934,
and a further facsimile edition with a new translationwas published in 1980 by Lightbown
an Caiger-Smith.

• Popelin , Claudius, L'Email des Peintres [1866]

Popelin was a highly educated man, an artist and designer of alphabets. He studied enamel
making originally under Alfred Meyer at the Sevres factory, followed by a period of
collaboration between the two men. Later both Popelin and Meyer claimed to have been the
originators of the revival methods of grisaille painting. Popelin pub1ished his book on the
history of ename1s and the revival method for grisaille considerab1y earlier than Meyer ' s
information. The appendix contains the treatise " Les images ou tableaux de platte peinture
de Philostrate Lemnien sophiste grec, mis enfran~ois par Blaise de Vigenere ... Paris,
MD LXXVII/" (1578). A trans1ation into French ofPiccolpasso's Tre libri dell' arte de Vasaio,
was pub1ished in 1860, under the name of C. Popelyn.
Cunynghame gives Popelin credit for his wide artistic knowledge and achievements, but said
he was in error in the published recipes and that the quoted proportians could not be followed
with success. However, the pigment scientist Woodrow Carpenter considers that several of
Popelin's recipes seem reasonable in many respects.

• Reboulleau, M., Manuels-Roret. Nouveau Manuel Camplet de La Peinture sur Verre ... [1844]

The Manuels-Roret were published since 1825 and are an important encyclopedia of art and
science of the 19' 11 century. The third part "Peinture en email, et art de I' Emailleur sur Metaux

63
 Precieux" refers among others to recipes of A. Neri, R. Wynn (Winn), A. de Montamy,
Clouet, M. Dumas, MM. Parisetami and M. Malepeyre (Manuel du Bijoutier, no date).

• Salmon, William, Polygraphice [1701]

Salmon [ 1644 - 1713] travelled widely in various European countries and subscq uently
settled in London practising medicine. He published works on medicine, surgery, astrology
and art subjects, but it is thought he was collaborating in these with an anonymaus writer.

• De Vigenere, Blaise [1522-1596].

As a renowned scholar of his time, Blaise de Vigenere published several important works,
including a French translation of Philostratus in 1596. A text by Blaise de Vigenere titled
Traicte du Feu et duSelwas published posthumously in Francein 1618. It was published
under the title A Discourse of Fire and Salt, in the English translation by Edward Stephens
in 1649.
Blaise de Vigenere' s collected recipes for enamels were published by Claudius Popelin and
Alfred Meyer in the l9'h century and the information contained in the original manuscript
was therefore known to the scientists associated with the Porcelain Factory of Sevres in the
19'h century.
This treatise apparently bases on a Greek manuscript "de Philostrate Lemnien sophiste grec"
and was translated into French by Blaise de Vigenere in Paris in 1578 (Meyer gives a date
of 1615 but this is after de Vigenere 's death). The origin of the original manuscript is
uncertain but it may dateback to as early as the 15'h century because the technique of painted
enamels is not yet described.

• Willis- Recipes for Dial White and Black - pre l960s.

The fami ly of Willis, of Huguenot descent, settled in London in the 18'h century. As an
apprentice of under 16 years of age, William Willis, is recorded as winning prizes from the
RSA in 1758 and 1760 for glass ornamenting (presumably painting). At least as early as the
19th century the firm were leading London clock and watch dial enamellers. During the 19th
century they also traded as Weston and Willis. The recipe for Dial White was published in
The Watchmaker's Handbook, 1948, p.l31. Two archival workshop manuscript recipes for
white and black enamels, were recorded by a former engraver who worked for the firm until
its closure in the l960s. The black includes titanium as one of the materials; the tin-based
recipe for white may be that of an earlier tradition.

• Whitefriars [18th to 20th centuries]

The businesswas in production from the 18th century. Whitefriars was the trading name
for the glassworks of James Powell and Sons, London. They were in business until the
l970s. James Powell was the glass expert who was the co-authorofthe long chapter on Glass
for the ll th edition [1910-11] of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

• Wynn, Robert-Enamel Recipes presented to the RSA [1817]

Wynn [active in first quarter of 19th century] was a mature and experienced English
enameller. In the documentation added when he presented his series of recipes for enamel
making to the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts, London- later the Royal Society
of Arts (RSA) he stated that the recipes from Continental sources were available and had

64
 been read by him. The manuscript and printed version of Wynn 's paper on enamel recipes
are in the archives of the RSA (the printed version is in Vol. 35 titled A Compleat and
infallible method ofmaking enamel colours, useful to the Artistsand Manufacturers). A good
selection of Wynn 's recipes were published by Dionysius Lardner in The Cabinet
Cyclopaedia , pp. 94-97 andin the Nouveau Manuel Roret- Peinture sur verre et porcelaine
[1844], pp 246-249. He is recorded as an established enameller ofWellington Place, Lon-
don. Trials were made of some of Wynn 's recipes by Woodrow Carpenter [Glass on meta!,
Vol.7 No. 2 (1988), pp. 18-22] and they were found to include good information regarding
a clear, soft flux (not acid-proof), an arsenic opacified white and an iron oxide orange
pigment that appears tobe similar to the colour contained in Sloane 1990 [see de Mayerne]
from before 1640.

Part 4: Chronological table of elements and eiemental combinations used for

different enamel colours
Note:
The following table has been planned to build up a chronological framework for the eiemental
analysis of enamelled objects. Therefore- in most cases- it does not contain the exact nature
or stochiometry of the substances as mentioned in the recipes.

Columns referring to coloured enamels contain the colouring elements and in addition also
show supplemen tary compounds, e.g. NaCI , borax , sa lpetre etc. , that are added for their
reducing I fining function, to intensify lhe colour or change its hue.
Parenthesis either contain substances that are optional in some recipes or further remarks.
Colour specifications are underlined.

Columns in light grey refer to Iiterature records directly linked to Limoges School work

65
0\ Anonymous 1500 Anonymous 1536 Piccolpasso 1574n9 de Vigenere 1578 Mouret 1583 Gidde 1616 de Mayerne c. 1640
0\
• glass-painting see [Zecchin 1987] Ma'olica Paris Limo~es Glass-paintinl!
Flux I ßasic Jet, Cri stal l tartar; lume grossa. sal tartar. fecce dei Vini , So ulde, Sali co r; sei sei <.~ka\i . chaux Seate, Cri stalle ßuros (? borax),
substances (choice) di cri stallo, sal com un sa iL: L evant ashes Alca li. ve rre cristall in. accou tumee, verre cristall. ta rt ar
salpestre, sei de ta rtre, bla nc. rocaille
Iead

Opaque white ? Pb+ Sn (+ Mn) Sn; Pb+ Sn

,, ? (Bia nc d' ltalie)
Sn+ Pb;
Sn+ NaCI
G rey Fe Co ? (azurton, a lu n de Fe Co+M n+Pb (ash
glace, NaC I) co lour. ('rey for hair);
Co+ Pb; I
ß lack Fe; Mn+ Co+ Sn+ S C u +Mn+ Pb+ Co Co+ Mn (+S n + S) Mn+ ?: Fe+ Cu Co+ Mn+
Fe +Cu Ni+Co (b lac k zaffre) azurton? +?
ß rown Mn + Pb (ta'l\')
Red ? (beads); rosachiero: e.g. Fe+ HgS C u + Fe + As2S 3, Cu; Sangui s draconi s: Fe + Sb + Pb + tartar
Sanugui s dracon is Sn+Pb+C u+sangue de Au +Hg+ Fe + Pb+ Cu+Pe+alun+NaCI ? (beads)
drago (+ Mn+Fe); Cu ("Rouge clair") +salpetre
Cu (+Fe) +S n;
As 2S.1 +Fe
Purple/vio let ? Co Mn+'! Co
ßlue ? (beacls) Co(+Mn) Co: Co+ Cu: Co Co: ? (beads) Co+ ?;
Co+ Pb+ NaC I Co+ ? Co+ Mn:
Co (water color)
Turquoise ? (beads) Co or Cu + Pb/Sn; Cu:
ultramarine + Cu Ag+S+Cu (azure
turrulin)
Green ? (beads); Cu: C u (+S+NaC I) + Sb+ Cu Cu+ Fe; Fe;
Cu Cu+ Fe Pb ? (azu rton ) Cu+ Fe;
Cu(?);
Fe+ Sb+ Pb
Yellow Ag + S + ye llow oker: Fe+HgS+Cu+ Ag+S; Fe+ Pb+ Sb; Ag+S: Ag+ Pb + Sb;
Ag + Sb(?) + ye llow Fe Sb+ Pb+ NaC I; Fe "animon ium"? + Fe+? (Minorall ):
oker + " old eanh from Sb+ Pb oc hre + ,.o ld Fe+ Sb+ tarlar +Z n
enamellcd work" earth ... fro m
ename ll ed wo rk"
Other colours
Gilding eft"ects Au+ borax
paillon meta!
Carnation Tin glass + red oker; Fe (terra ... ) + Pb/Sn Cu + Fe + As 2S 3 Mn+ ?; Tyn-glass +red Mn + Pb
glass tin + Fe +red Fe ochre
c halk
Shading/outlining ., (to diaper) Co+?;
Fe + black enamel;
Cu ;
Mn + Fe
 Anonymous Fran~ois 1622 Darduin Kunckel J679 Blancourt 1699 Salmon 1701
see [Ardant 1844] c. 1523-1711 Enamelling on gold Overglaze met hods
F lux I Basic c rys tal g lass ston e (''). Fougere (fern ). sale d i c ri stallo, lartar; rocca tharso, tartar, po tas h. Mn fritl of w hite tarso. ta rtar: salt frit of w hi te tarso, tartar , salt
substances (choicc) Fousteau (beec h). d i Levante : cristall o of Po l ve rin e ~ rocheua; soda; of Pulve rin e, roc hetta, soda.
Salicor( ni a), c ri stal. sei crysta l c rysta l, g lass of saturn ,
A lcali , [Link] rocaille

Opaque white Pb +Sn Pb/S n (+Mn ) bo ne JSh Pb + Sn ( +NaC I) Pb+S n+Mn Pb+ Sn (+Mn)
Grev Co Co+ Pb/S n
Black Co+ Mn+ Pb/Sn Mn +Co: Co+ Cu+ Fe; Co+ Mn ; Co+ M n:
Co+ S n: Mn+ tart a r; Co+ Fe; Co+Fe+C u;
Fe+ Co(+ M n); Mn+ ta rt ar Mn+ tartar
Mn
Brown ? Mn ;
Fe+ Cu+ Co
Red Cu+Fe+As 2S 3 (+ Pb); rosech i ero: Fe + Pb/S n + tartar: M n+sa l pcte r: S:
Au + Hg +Pb+Cu C u + Pb + Sn +(Fe + Cu+Pb/S n+Fe+C+ tartar: C u+tartar + ?: C u+ Fe:
(R o uge c lair) HgO ?) : Sb+ Pb + Fe Mn +a lun ; C u+ M n+Fc:
Sangue di drago + Sn +Ag+ C u+Fe+ Mn (+S ): Cu+ta rtar+Fe+S;
Cu+ As 2S 3 ta rt ar+C+Fe?; Mn+nilre; Mn+al um
Au C u; A u (ca lx of)
Purpie Co Mn (+Co) Mn Mn: Mn;
Mn +Cu Mn+Cu
Bluc Co Co+ C u (az ur): Co+Cu Co+C u; Co+C u
C u+Co (agu a marin a): Cu+ Z n
Co+ Pb/ Sn ([Link])
Turquoise Ao + S '?"'C u + Co+ Pb/Sn Cu +Co+M n C u+Co C u+Co+Mn
Green Cu C u+ Fe: Cu+ Fe C u+Fe C u+ Fe
Cu+ Pb/Sn+ ?
Yell o w Ag: Fe+ Mn: ? tartar/C + Mn: ? tartar +Mn S+tartar+Mn
Fe (a lso orane:e, ci tron ) Pb+S n;Sb+Pb+S n S b + Pb+ S n;
S b+Pb+Zn+S n Pb + Sb+ Fe
Ot he r colours 12_earl : Co+ sal Jestre
G ildin g efl'ects Au A u; Au+ bo rax
ocker + rn inium + bo li
arm eni (groun d);
Pb+ HgS (g ro und ):
SnS 2 (Mu sivgo ld)
paillon meta) Ag
Carnation C u+Fe+ A> 1S 3 (+Pb) Fe (+ Mn );
Mn
Shading/oullining Cu+ Fe: Cu+ C
Fe
::s Fc+Co - - -- - ------- - -- -- - - --- -
0\ Ferrand 1721 Laudin 1736/44, Dossie 1758/64/96 Montamy 1765 Je Pileur d ' Apligny Whitefria rs 1784
00
Painling on enamel Nouhailer 1748 Painting on e namel Pninling on eoamel 1781
F lux / Basic rocaill e: borax; niter: salpeter: NaCI: Lang uedoc gJass borax, arsenic, pearl -as hes, tart ar, potash, soda, pearl Flin t, soda or potash c ha lk: nitre ; flint c ull e t;
substa nces (choice) tartar; crystal fro m Venice ; soda NaC I, llin t glass; tartar; as h, borax , niter, saltpeter, nitre: Sb, Mn
Ve netian oJass arsenic, Mn

O paque white Pb+ Sn Pb/Sn Pb+Sn; Pb +Sn+As; Sn (ca lc. with NaC I); Pb+S n (+tartar+M n0 2 ) Pb+S n+As
Pb+As; Pb+Sb+Sn+As Pb+ Bi(?);
Pb+As+ HoS (exp.)
G rey (Co)
Black Mn; Co+Pb+Mn; Co+Sb+Fe+M n Co+ Mn
Fe+Co ; Co+Pb+Fe: Co+ Fe
Mn+C u+Co Mn (+lartar)
Brown Fe; um ber + yell ow e na mel Fe+Co; Fe
Sb+?; (hair colour) Au +Sn+Co+Fe+Sb;
Fe+black Fe+S b+Co
Red Fe; Fe+Sb: Au+Sn ; Fe (calc. with NaC I): Mn+Cu ( +tartar)
Fe+H2 Fe (red oker); C u Au + Sn
Purpie Au (+KNO," a lun, NaCI): Au+S n+Ag+S b; Au+Sb+S n (to black) Mn +C u
Au (S n)+C ; Au+S n+u ltramarine+Co;
Au+Sb (+KN0 3, NaCI or pumice) Au+S n+Co;
Au+H g: Au+ Ag; Au+S; Co+Cu+Sn
A u+hartshorn
Mn+saloeter(+Pb)
Blue Co ; ultramarine (+Cu); Cu (from Ag); Cu+Co (+ Mn02)
Cu Co; Co+ Cu uhramari ne;
ultramarine Co+Sn or Sb (sky); Co (+As)
" Biue of silver" (Ag, Ag+ Hg) ullramarine+Sn or Sb (sky)
Turq uoise Cu
G ree n - (commercial) ultra ma rine+ye llow; Cu C u+Fe
Cu+yell ow
Ycll ow Fe; Sn+Pb+NaCI; Ag+S+Sb or Sn (opaque): Pb+Sn+NaCI; Pb+S n+tartar+M n0 2
''Pb (mass icot); Ag+S Ag calc. (+Sb): nit er +S n;
Ag Ag+ Fe; Sn+S; I
(commerc ial) Sb+ Fe (+Sn): Pb+ Sb;
Fe; Ag+urin e sa lt(P)
As 2S 3 ;
Othcr colours oli ve: go ld+oc ker+bl ack fo nda ison: ora nge: Hg (red preci p.) ;
Co+Pb+Mn+Sb A u+S n+ Ag(+Sb); C u+S b
pin k/rase: any red+ Sn or
Sb
G ilding effects A uCI,+Hg
paillon m etal
Ca rnation see red ult ramari ne + purple;
Fe;
Mn+ Fe" (ye llow scale)
Shadin g/outlining B lue+chalk +Pb+As+S n
 Wynn 1817 Whitefriars l830ies Laudon 1838 Broogniart 1845 Leo 1845 Brongniort 1846/47
Painting on enamel Porcelain paint.i ng
Flux I Basic red Iead, white Iead, arsen ic, borax, salpeter, borax. potash, bismuth sub-nitrate, borax, KN0 3, chalk, borax, rock crystal, sa lpeter feldspath, borax, salpetre,
substances (choice) borax, tli nt powder, man ganese, petre. fe ldspar, man ganese, glass crystal, antimony chlorides; Na2C0 3, K2C0 3, Na 2C0 3, Bi
flint glass, nitre nitre, fritt NaCl

Opaque white As+Pb+nit re CaF 2?+P+Sn (no Pb); Pb+Sn+NaCI : Pb+Sn (+Zn) Pb+Sn ;
Sn (no Pb); Pb+Sn Pb+Sn+Mn Pb+Sn+As
Grey black+white (+blue/yellow); Co+ Fe;
Mn (+Co); Cu+Co+Mn+blue
Co+Zn+Fe (+M n)
Black Cu Mn+Cu+ Co (+Fe); Mn ; Cu+Sb; Ir;
umber+Co; Cu; Au+Sn+Co+Mn ; Mn ;
Pt sp on~e Mn+Cu+Fe+Co Co
Brown Mn Fe+M n+Cu; Fe; Mn ; Mn+Fe; Fe;
Fe ochre+Co or umber/si enna Mn+bluc; Fe chromate;
Mn+Ag+Sb+S +Zn
Red Fe Fe; Fe+ye llow; Fe+ochre Fe (+NaCI); Mn; FeS0 4 +alum
Ag+Sb+S
Purpie Au+ Sn; Au+Sn (+Ag or Sb); Fe; Mn;
Au+Sn +blue/+AgCI Au+S n+Co (violet) Au+Sn (+Ag)
Co+Zn+Sn+alum+AgCI (sky blue);
skye blue+Au-purple
Blue Cu (glass): Co+KN03 (no Iead); Co Co; ?+Zn; Cu
Co+'>; Co+Sb+?
Turquoise Co+ Zn +Co
Green Cr; Cr+Co; Cr+yellow; Cu; Cr (s. 1802);
Cu+Sb Mn+blue+Co (Grü nferne?); +Zn ;
Co+ Zn Cu
Yellow Pb+Sb+Sn U; Sb; U;
Sb+ Fe-sulfate (+Znü); Ag+Sb+S (+oker); K antimon ate;
Sb+Pb+al um+ NH, CI : Ag+Sb Sb+ Zn;
Sb+S n; Sb+KN0 3; Sb+ Fe;
Fe+Zn; Fe+s ienn a AgC I
Pb Chromate (orange-vellow) ;
AgO/AgCI/-borate/-sulph ate/-phosphate;
Sn+Pb+AgC I+alum;
Cassel yellow
Other colours oral)ßC: Pb+Fe+Sb
G ilding effects AuCI 1+FeS04 ;
Ag:Ag+Cu
I paillon meta!
Carnation Fe (FeSO, + alum)
Shading!outlining umber earth +Co Mn+Co+Cu ; AI+Fe Co+Cu+Fe+Sb:
0\ Fe+Cu+Sb
\0 · ·- · -- -- · - ··· -- --
--.)
Leng 1854 Popelin 1866 Salvetat 1871 Dalpavrat 1881 Whitefriars 1880ies Hermann 1882 Lacroix 1884
0
Fl ux I Basic
substatJCes (choice)
IK 2C03 , Na 2C0 3 • NaCI,
c halk , born x. potas h:
borax, niter (KN01 ). borax/boric ac icl :
potas h, salpeteL
nitre. borax flint g lass, petre KN0 3 , ash, po tash
K2C0 3 , tartar, borax, arsenic, nitre.
qua rt z+borax.+minium.
so da
m inium. boracic
m ~nganese. acid
talk. man ga nesc, arsenic, soda, min ium flu o rspa r, b ismuth. soda. soda ash,
Bi, salpetre; ni nt oJass clolomit e

Opa<1ue white I Pb+Sn+Mn+NaCI: Pb+ Sn Pb+ Sn Pb+ Sn fluorspar+cryolite+ Pb+Sn (+NaCI);

Sb; Z n (!>i nki sh), (Zn ?)
P (hartshorn) Pb+ Sn:
Pb+CaF2+As;

Grcy 1 black+w hit e

(+ blue/ye ll ow)
Co+ Fe
s:.!1_olite+Zn
Co+Cu+Mn+Fe

Blac k JMn ; Cu+Co+Mn Mn; Cu+Co+Mn M n: Fe Co+C u+M 11+Fe

Fe+Co+Cu C r+Fe+Co: Co;
------
Co+Fc (+Zn) M n+ Fe
ßrown I Fe (+ Mn+Co+Cu) Fe+Cr: Fe; Fe (ye ll ow-brown) Fe+Zn (shades:
Fe+Zn (+Co) C+Cu (g la ss) Co+ Ni)

Red C u; Fe; Au+Sn CuS04 +Fc Fe

Purplc/violet Mn M n (violet); Au+Sn: Mn (violet): Mn: Mn+white
A u+Sn Fe A u+Sn ( + ve ll ow)
llluc Co Mn; Co Co: Co+ Mn;
Co+ Zn
Co ICo+Fe+tartar
Fe+Cu+Co: Co: bluc a nd whit e; AI(O H), + soda

T urquoise Cr+Co Cu Cr-alum+Co

G reen Cu +Fe: C u+ Sb: Fe; Cr: Cu Cu: Cu+w hi le:
Cr: Ni: Cu+Cr; Cu+Sb+white
blue+ye llow Cr; Cr+Co (+ Fe );
Cu Cr+Co+Zn
Yellow I Sb (+Fe+Zn): Sb+Sn: Fe; Ag-ox ide/-c hloride U: I AgCI I C+ F (i n socl a glass) K chrom a te:
Ag+S b; AgCI/-borme Sb+ Pb; Sb+w hitc;
Pb chromate; U; Sb+ Pb+Zn
Cassel ye ll ow Sb+ Pb+Fe;
(N H4Ci+alunHPbC0 1); Zn+Fe
O the r colm~rs -~ I~ 1- I amber: Devo nshire o re (Fe iYillx Sb+Fe+Zn
ox ide)+Mn+ Pb+As
stain: Ag:
A •+ochre or kaoli n
G ildiug cffects AuCI 1+FeS04 :
AuC I3+ HgN 0 3 :
Shell go ld ( +NaCI);
Pt sponge (+NaCI);
Shellplatinum
I paillon metal
Carnation Mn+ Fe:
Mn+Fe+ P+As
S hading/outlining lining blue: Co+ Mn
black: Co+Fc
 Meyer 1895 Cunynghame 1899 Fromberg 1900 Randau 1905 Fisher 1906 Grünwald 1917/22 Gee 1918
Limoges stvle Limoges style Glass paintiug
Flux I Basic Na,co,, K2C0 3• soda, potas h, KN0 3, borax , KN0 3, potash, borax; soda, potash, silica+minium+nitrate borax , fe ldspar, soda, saltpetre, NaC I, broken
substances (choice) borax. KN0 3, tartar, NaN0 3, (borax), Bi. K2C0 3, saltpetre; salpetre; am monium of potash sa ltpe tre, magnes ia; crystal goblets, borax ,
(ZnO) (alumina for greens) carbonate ; magnesia, Sn (no Iead), chalk, glass of Sb, flim glass,
chalk, alu m. NaCI manoanese, potash I pearl ash, chal k
I
Opaque white Pb+S n Sn (grisaille, 25%Sn0 2); Pb+ Sn; Pb+S n Pb+ Sn cryolite+ flu orspar; Pb+Sn+Mn
As; Sb; Sn;
Ca2(P04 )J gypsum+rocaille (?); Sb;
p Ti;
Zr
Grey Ir (0.03 % oxide); Mn+graphite
Pt
Black Fe+ Mn/ Fe+Co+Mn Co+Mn+Fe; Cu+Mn+Co+Fe Mn+Co,
([Link]) Ir Fe, Co or Cu
Brown Fe+ Mn (u nstable); Fe+ Mn ; Fe+Zn+s ie nna/umbra: Mn+white Fe
Fe chromate+Mn; Ni Fe; Fe+Mn
Red Cu+C/tartar (earl ier) ; Au+Sn ; (not Cu); Au+Sn (+ AgCI); Mn+Sb; Au+Sn: Fe Au+Sn ,
Fe+Cu ; Fe (+Mn) Ag+S Fe+ Mn +whi te AuCI 3 ; Cu
Au+Sn
Purplc/violet Mn Mn (+Co) Mn ; Au+S n; Fe; Mn+Co; Mn
red+blue Mn+white
ßlue Co Co; Co; Cu+Co Co Co Co+ KN0 3
Co+U (i ndi Qo); Co+Sb; Co+Zn
Co+AII+Fe/+Mni+P
T urquoise Cu+Co Cu Cu
Green Cu ; Mix . of Fe. Cr, Cu, Zn , Co; Sb+Co; Sb+Cu, Cu; Cu+Fe (+M n) Cu Cr Cu+ Fe,
Cr +Co+Zni+A I; Cu+Z ni+Co/+Cri+U; mi x. of Cu. Cr. Fe Fe. Cr
Fe Fe+Cr (+Cu/+Co/+U);
U+Cu+Cr
Yellow Sb+S ; Pb+Sb; U; Sb+Pb ; Sb+ Fe; Pb+ Fe; Fe; Fe+Sb S b; Pb+Sb+N H4 CI+alum
Sb+Zn/+Fe; Sb; Fe+ Zn; AgCI+As 20 3
AgCI; Se AgCI (+yellow ochre); (opalescent)
Fe; U;
u Pb chromate
Othcr colours rase: Sc orane:e-red: l2iDl
oran ge: U+Au Au+Sn+AgCI
Gilding effccts AuC I3+Hg; A u;
AuCI3+8iN03 ; AuCI 3+FeSO,;
AuCI 3+NaCI;
AuCI1+NaOH
paillon metal Au ; Au (warm co lours).
Ag: Pt (blue and grec n).
Pt A'
Carnation Fe Fe (FeS04 )
-.J Shading/outlinine Ir (earlier Fe. Mn) Ir - - __1:_
 NewEiemenU 11irst reference
Compound
Flux I ßasic borax 1641 (?), 172 1
substances (choice) Bi 1845

Opaque white As 175R

p 1838
Bi ? 1765
Zn (+Pb/Sn) 1845
F 1838?, 1880ies
Zr ca. 1910, 19 17
Ti 1917
Grey Ir 1899
Pt 1899
ßlack Ir 1846/47
Pt 1845
Brown Fe chromate 1846/47
Ni 1899
Red Rouge clair 1578
Au+Sn 172 1(?), 1758
Purple/violet Au 172 1
ßlue ul tramarine 172 1
Turquoise ultramari ne 1536
Co+ Zn 1845
Green Cr 1845 ( 1802)
Ni 1866
Yellow Zn (+S b+Fe) before 1641
u 1845
Pb c hromate 1845
K chromate 1882
Other colours Se 1899
Gilding effects SnS 2 1679
AuCI 3+Hg 1765
Pt 1882
paillon metal Pt 1895
Carnation Fe+ Hg 172 1
Shading/outlining Ir 1895

Part 5: Selected glossary of the terms pertaining to Limoges School enamel

painting methods and derived methods
General remarks:

The glossary includes the chief terms used in the researched Iiterature on recipes covering the
period from the 16' 11 to th e early 20'h centuries, for which modern equivalents have been
ascertained. lt should be no ted that sources other th an European were not registered- as
scientific analysis has revealed, the introduction of certain materials e.g. for Chinese glass can
predate the European use considerably. The recipes especially related to Venetian enamel - and
g lass- making will be evaluated in more detail by G, Moretti in a forthcoming publication
(scheduled for 200 l ).

Terms for which equivalents can readily be found in modern Standard reference dictionaries
have not been included.

The original recipe sources are in generat only quoted for rare terms. A selection of certain
elements (mainly useful as dating markers) is added together with brief detail s of their initial
introduction into enamel recipes.

72
The secondary bibliography that has been added at the end of this part has been subdivided
thematically. Quatations from this secondary Iist are given in italics and are provided with an
additional index number (e.g. [Agricola 1556]5) referring to the following categories:
1 = Dictionaries
2 =General bibliography on enamelling
3 = Scientific analysis of historic enamels and enamelled glasses
4 = Se1ected bibliography on pigments
5 = Further Iiterature

Abbreviations: fr. = French, it. = Italian, ger. = German, gr. = Greek

0 Acier (fr.) [Ardant 1842, 1844, 1855] = steel.
0 Aes ustum [Diderot et d ' Alembert 1755] [Popelin 1866] = burned copper = mixture of
cuprous and cupric oxide. This also had the name of -Ferreto because of its resemblance
to calcined iron , or -Mars saffron.
0 Aethiops = l7 h century general term to denote black compounds.
1

0 Aggetta (it.) [Piccolpasso 1574]= ingredient for clay or glaze of unclear meaning,
presumably synonymaus to -Terraghetta.
0 Algae de Venice [B Jancourt 1699] = plant of unknown species, "In the state of Venice near
Salines de Triesse - there grow great quantities - Diofiorides calls it common Algae of
Venice and says the Venetians cover their glasses which they transport beyond the sea with
this algae".
0 Alicante =Soda of Alicante = see Soda-ash.
0 Allurne catino [Darduin] , Allurne catina= see Soda-ash.
0 Al um, Alun (fr.), Alom, Alaun (ger.) = potassium alum = potassium aluminium sulphate
KAI(S0 4 h x 12 H 20. Required e.g. for the preparation of -Rouge, -cassel yellow and
artificial -borax.
0 Alun de glace (fr.) [Mouret 1583] = rock alum (see Alum), mentioned in recipe for grey
enamel.
0 Amausen = see Enamel.
0 Animam Saturni [Kunckel 1679] = Iead acetate, prepared by -silberglett and vinegar.
0 Antimonium diaphoreticum = diaphoretic antimony = potassium antimonate(V).
0 Antimony, jovial = alloy consisting of 3 parts of tin and 2 parts of antimony. Mentioned
in a recipe for a gold purple colour "bordering on b1ack" by de Montamy [ 1765]: the usual
tint of-Purple ofCassius is here slightly changed towards black by usingjovial antimony
instead of pure tin.
0 Antimony yellow = see Lead-antimony yellow.
0 Aqua fortis = nitric acid.

73
0 Aqua regia (regalis) = nitro-muriatic acid (mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid,
King' s water).
0 Arabic gum = see Gum arabic.
0 Argall [de Mayerne ca. 1640] = white -Tartar.
0 Armenian Bole= see Bole.
0 Arabic KoJe= presumably -Gum arabic, the English term KoJe means glue.
0 Arsenic = arsenic(III) oxide, used since the 2nd half of the 17th c. as fining agent (also with
decolourising effect) and- combined with a Iead compound- as a white opacifier for glass
and enamels. Probably the first recipe with arsenic in a lead-free green glass is given in the
Montpellier manuscript of 1536 (n. 13), the first recipe with arsenic as opacifier datesback
to the l June 1663 [Darduin manuscript, n. 214]. Further early recipes for so-called girasole
glass in [Darduin 1693] (see also [MacCray 1996? for a compilation of girasole recipes
and their scientific analysis), for crystal glass [Kunckel 1689] [Anonymaus 1705] and for
enamel [Dossie 1758 ].
0 Auripigment, Orpiment = pig ment, King 's yellow, arsenic(III) sulphide.
[Anonymau s 1536] for "color di rubim" (together with iron)
[de Vigenere 1578] forared enamel (together with copper and iron)
[Darduin] for - "Rosechiero" (Because auripigment alone has no colouring effect, this
recipe seems doubtful. Ed.)
[Dossie 1758] for yellow C-Overglaze pigment)
0 Azure, Azuro (it.), Asiur = the Heraldic colour blue, sky blue = for the colouring compounds
see- Azurite and -Cobalt, in some 16th c. sources denotation for the natural-Ultramarine
pigment. Also named "Smalto azuro"- with this term probably "smaltino" is meant which
is used in painting. According to Merrifield [Merrifield 1849] 4 "smaltino" refers to two
types of pigments, one based on "zaffra" (cobalt), the second is a glass made from sand, nitre
and copper fi lings.
0 Azurite = blue mineral, basic copper carbonate (2CuC0 3 *Cu(OHh), naturally occuring
tagether with green malachite. In antiquity and also in the l7 1h c., it was called Lapis
armenius. The pi gment prepared from it was named e.g. Blue bice, Mountain blue, Cendres
blue (fr.) or Cen izas de azul (it.), frequently confused with -Ultramarine (Lapis lazuli).
0 Azurton [Mouret l 583] = term of unclear meaning, mentioned in Limoges recipes fo r green,
black and grey enamel s. "To make azurton: Take four !arge wax sticks (Iimousine), one-half
ounce of azurton, one-half of -Armenian bole, and put the wax in a very clean pot to melt.
When it is melted, mix all the ingredients tagether then plunge into a bowl of water." This
passage may refer to the preparation of -Ultramarine.
0 Barilla = see Soda-ash.
0 Barium = in 19th c . sources barium chromate (for yellow) is occasion ally among the
substances employed for -overglaze col ours [Brongniart 1847] [Hermann 1882].
0 Beraso, Boraso (it.) = see Borax.
0 Bianco commune (it.) = "ordinary white", term of unclear meaning . In the Venetian slang
bianco refers to " bianco opaco".

74
0 Bice = Copperpigments in blue and green varieties. In 17th c. recipes blue bice is usually
-Azurite (2CuCO/Cu(0Hh); Green bice is the mineral malachite, a basic copper
carbonate CuC0 3 *Cu(OH)z, for which the synthetic equivalent is green -.verditor.
0 Bisgreene [de Mayerne ca. 1640] = probably Bice Green I Green Bice, see Bice.
0 Bismuth = semimetal and rare element, used for enamel fluxes in the 19th cenlury (mainly
in form of the nitrate) , first mentioned by Albertus Magnus, Agricola and Paracelsus,
presumably discovered in Germany around 1400, but in this time often mixed with
antimony, tin and zinc. Earliest references for enamels de Montamy [1785], Brongniart
[ 1845].
0 Black sulphur = antimony sulphide.
0 Black zaffre [Piccolpasso 1574]= seealso Zaffre. Moioli and Seccaroni [Moioli 2000] 5
suggest a cobalt mineral with a high content of nicke! in this meaning .
0 Bleiasche, Bleiglaette (ger.) = Iead monoxide, litharge.
0 Blue from silver [Ferrand 1721] = see Silver coupelle blue.
0 Blue Verditer = manufactured equivalent of -Azurite (introduced in the 17th c.).
0 Bloodstone = variety ofthe mineral hematite with black-grey colour and metallic gloss. Raw
material for the preparation of iron pigments (see Rouge) . Recipe references: [B lancourt
1699] red for painting on glass, enamel and porcelain,
[Leo 1845] for a "very fine rose-colour" .
0 Bole= Armenian Bole, Bolo arminio or Bularminio (it.), Armenischer Bolus (ger.) = a native
earth containing 15 to 40% iron oxide =modern ' Gilders Red' , seealso Rouge.
0 Bone white = opal white colour in glass or enamel, due to calcium triphosphate added as
calcined bones or deerhorn. Low optical density compared to other opacifiers. Recipes by
Kunckel [ 1679] (glass) , Leng [ 1845] , Cunynghame [ 1899], Fromberg [ 1900] (enamel).
0 Boraeie acid I Boric acid = chemical formula H 3B03. Used as fluxing material since the 19th
c., seealso Borax.
0 Borax = Sodium tetraborate decahydrate. A colourless to yellowish or greenish mineral.
Formation du ring drying of-. Boraeie acid-containing salt lakes, often coated with a soap-
like film of earthy-fatty substance (often up to 20 % insoluble impurities like sodium
chloridel sulphate and calcium sulphate).
Earliest evidence: Known since antiquity to the Babylonians for soldering and to Egyptians
for preserving the dead. Mentioned as flux for goldsmiths in India 300 BC and found in
Chinese pottery glazes 300 A.D. [Travis 1984] 5
Name from Arab baurach or Persian burah. The Sanscrit word tincana is the root for its
European trade name tincal which came only from deposits ofTibet and Cashmere. Furt-
herdenotations auricolla ("gold glue"), chrysocolla!crisocola, capistrum auri, gluten auri,
borras, bon-es. Purification of tincal first in Venice and later in the Netherlands and France
[Popelin 1866] by pouring with milk of lime (calcium hydroxide) and dissolving in hot
water.
Borax was used in Europe from early Medieval time by goldsmiths as soldering agent for
gold and silverwork, as flux for refining metals and for niello work. With Marco Polo, who
in the l3 1h c. brought tinca/ from Mongolia to Venice, borax became a commodity in

75
 Buropean trade. Until the I 6th c. borax passed for a man-made product- 1540 Biringuccio
and 1556 Agricola distinguish between natural and artificial borax , the latter made from rock
-Alum and -sal ammoniac and thus boron-free.
Barliest use in glass-making: Before the late 17th c. only to fix gold foil on glass or between
glass pieces (as for "Mosaico d 'oro"). Johann Kunckel ri679] mentioned borax for making
artificial precious stones. In the 18th c. applied for fine crystal and coloured glass but because
of the exorbitant price only in small quantities.
Barliest Buropean use for enamels: A manuscript probably written down by Jean Petitot
before 1640 [de Mayerne ca. 1640] mentions buros or bouros.
Robert Dossie [ 1758] assesses borax as an excellent flux.
In the late 18th c. boracic acid was found in hot springs in Italy and a century later in Chile
and Turkey, but on1y the discovery of !arge borax deposits in California in the 19th c. caused
a price decline starting the wide use ofborax for industrial enamels, optical glasses and lead-
free glazes.
0 Buros I Bouros [de Mayerne ca. 1640] = most likely synonymaus to -Borax.
0 Brass =copper-zinc alloy of varying proportians (before the 18th century Buropean brasses
contained not more than 28 wt% Zn), Iead is sometimes added to the extent of 1 to 2 wt%.
0 Brimstone = sulphur.
0 Calcine = the general meaning of 'to calcine' is to heat something in contact with air. Also
French term for Iead-tin-oxide, see Calx.
0 Calamine, Calaminaris, Calamita, Calemanare = Zinc spar (see -Lapis calaminaris) .
References: [de Mayerne ca. 1640] for yellow enamel (together with iron and antimony),
[Ferrand 1721] for red-brown.
Moretti lists "CalaminaiZelamina" among the 16th c. materia ls used by Venetlan
glassmakers [Moretti 2000] 5 . See also -zinc.
0 Calx =Kalch (ger.), Calcine (fr.), Chaux metallique (fr.) = the calcination product of Iead
and tin in varying proportions, often with an approximate ratio of 1:1. Calx has been
traditionally used as a polishing agent for stone, glass and metalwork. High proportians of
tin in calx together with -Flux yields an opaque white enamel and opaque white glass. Tin-
based opacifiers widely replaced antimony compounds in the 3rct14th c. AD [Turner 1959] 5 .
However in Medieval Limoges enamels Iead-tin opacified enamels do not occur before the
beginning of the 13th c. [Biron 1996] 4 as old Roman tesserae were re-used for earlier Limo-
ges enamels.
0 Caput mortuum = 17thI 18th c. term for the residue of the calcination of green -Vitriol, which
is ferric oxide [Kunckel 1679] [de Elancourt 1699] [de Montamy 1765].
0 Carnation I Incarnat = term applied for flesh colour, usually a red iron pigment (see Rouge).
0 Casse1 yellow [Brongniart 1845], [Leng 1854] = Iead oxych1oride, yellow pigment prepared
by heating equal parts of ammonium chloride, -A1um and pure Iead white (see Ceruse) .
Cassel yellow was first manufactured as a painting pigment both by Turnerand by Flügger
and Hahnmann in 1781 . Synonymaus to Turner's yellow, Mineralgelb, Veronese yellow.
0 Cassius = see Purpie of Cassius.
0 Cendres b1eues (d' Angleterre) (fr.) = blue verditer (see Verditor)= native and manufactured
blue copper carbonate.

76
0 Ceruse = Iead white, basic Iead carbonate.
0 Cerusite = minerallead(II) carbonate.
0 Chalk = calcium carbonate. In cantrast to glassmaking (e.g. for the 18th c. Kreideglas) the
addition of calcium carbonate to enamels seems to have been an exception. More frequently
the term chalk has to be read in the sense of -calx.
0 Chaux accoutumee (fr.) [Mouret 1583] = literally "regular chalk" , Term of unclear meaning.
lngredient for -Email de place, transparent black and green enamel "bien clair" .
0 Chromium oxide = the element chromium was discovered by Vauquelin in 1797 and
chromium oxidewas used from 1802 in the Sevres porcelain manufactory. The first recipes
for painting on enamel are given by Brongniart [1845] in green and orange-yellow colours
(the latter due to Iead chromate). Meyer [1895] developed a recipe containing iron chromate
and manganese for the brown enamels used as grounding for Limoges School style.
Chromium oxide is widely used for intense green hues in modern glass, glazes and enamels.
0 Cinnabar, Cin(n)abre (fr.), Zinnober (ger.), Cenaprio, Zenaprio (it.) = native red mercuric
sulphide, red pigment used by painters. References:
[Anonymous 1536] foragolden Maiolica colour (together with iron, copper, silver and
sulphur) - probably related to Piccolpasso's "gold maiolica" which is a reduced or
" smoked" lustre" [Lightbown 1980] 5
[Piccolpasso I 574/79] for Maiolica red (together with iron and probably copper)
[de Montamy 1765] tagether with Iead and arsenic, experimental replication gave an opaque
white enamel.
Also found in recipes for calcedonio glass, probably as a reducing agent, and to produce
ruby glass which is technically difficult to explain.
(Remark: Regardless of its natural orange-red colour cinnabar alone has no colouring effect
in glass when dissolved in the melt. Ed.).
0 Cire ucomelie (fr.) [Mouret 1583] = wax sticks/ tallow candles (?). Mentioned in this early
manuscript for the preparation of -Azurton . The use of wax is usually described in the
process of extracting pigment from Iapis lazuli (e.g. [Piesters 1997] 5 ).
0 Cobalt= meta! with intense colouring properties in glass, enamel and ceramic glazes. Even
fractions of one per cent give a dark sky blue in enamel. Known since antiquity and used
throughout up to the present [Kerstan 1993] 5 . Traded as -zaffer and -smalt. Since at latest
the 16th c. cobalt mines in Saxony (Germany) were extensively exploited [Riederer 1968] 5 .
De Montamy [1765] mentions cobalt from Spain as well. Naturalcobalt ores are associated
with Ni , As, Bi, In , Pb, Sb and/or Zn depending on their provenance [Rinuy 1994] 3 [ Gratuze
1995] 5 . The presence or absence of these particular elements in glass and enamels may
indicate the provenance and an approximate exploiting date of the cobalt ore as different
cobalt sources were used over the time. Since the 19th c. exclusively applied in enamel
recipes as pure cobalt oxide (prepared from the carbonate).
0 Colcothar = Ferric oxide (red iron oxide), employed for flesh colour (-Carnations] and as
a polishing material for glass surfaces, see also Rouge.
0 Common salt = sodium chloride.
0 Coperta (it.) =transparent Iead glaze applied over white slip in majolica [Piccolpasso I 574].

77
0 Cornwall (Cornouaille, Cornüaille) = main area in Britain for tin mining since Roman times
[de Vigenere 1578], [de Elancourt 1699].

0 Corps (fr.), Corpo (it.) = used to denote opacity in enamel and glass colours.
0 Couperose [Mouret 1583] , Coupero le [Ferrand 1721]= iron sulphate.
0 Crisocola [Ferrand 1721] , Crisokola, Chrysokolla =in the original meaning the term derives
from chrysos (gr.) = gold and colla (gr.) = glue and refers to -borax as an efficient soldering
and fluxing agent offoremost greenish colour [Agricola 1556] 5 [Ferrand 1721]. The present
meaning is different in that it is restricted to the green mineral CuSi0 3 ':' nH 20, wh ich is often
exploited in association with -Azurite and malachite. This copper silicate has been
analysed in connection with wall paintings of Antiqu ity [Gettens 1966] 5 .

0 Cristal(l)/ Crystal/ Cristallo (it.)/ Yerre cristallin (fr.) = (almost) colourless glass of high
purity frequently mentioned as silica source in 16'h to l9 1h c. enamel recipes. Cristallo was
produced in Yenice from the middle of the 15°' c. by melting pure quartz (crushed pebbles
from the river Ticino ), purified soda-ashes and manganese as decolouri ser. J7 1hl18' 11 c.
Enamelling records occasionally specify crystal g lass as coming from Venice [de Mayerne
ca. 1640] [Ferrand 1721 ], whereas later it denoted a lead-potassium glass (the Continental
term for -flint glass according to Cunyngham [1899]). Sporadically also in the meaning
of rock crystal (native si lica) [Leo 1845].

0 Crocus =in the 15' 11 century this tenn was only applied to yellow pigments , later it more
generally described coloured compounds of metals in powder form. Used synonymously
with -ochre and -saffron [Crosland 1962] 1•

0 Crocus antimonii = yellow antimony compound, presumably antimony oxysulphide,

decomposes to antimony oxide and antimony sulphide during calcination.

0 Crocus martii/ Crocus martis = yellow hydrated ferric oxide =Mars Saffron =Spring wheat
yellow.
0 Crocus Saturni =red Iead oxide C-Minium).
0 Cryolite = Sodium aluminium fluoride. It has been used as an opacifier for white enamels
and glazes since the 1880s after the establishment of industrial cryolite mining in Green land.
The opaque effect is caused by villiaumite crystals.
0 Cyanus = archaic term for -LapisLazuli.
0 Electrum = see Enamel (Theophilu s in hi s Treatise used the term synonymously with
enamel.) The term electrum generally applies to a native alloy of gold and silver.

0 Email de place (fr.) [Ardant 1844] = dark enamel which is either laid where grisaille white
is tobe superimposed or applied for drawing outlines on white. The recipe by the anony -
maus writer published by Ardant requires high amounts of -zaffer which yields a very dark
blue or black.

0 Enamel = a low melting glass capable of being fused at temperatures between 700 and 900° C
(there are exceptions to this range) to certain metals (for art purposes gold, silver, copper,
iron, steel) , to ceramic surfaces or to other qualities of glass to form resistant, durable and
decorative glazes. The term in its historic and usual application refers to glass on a meta!
carrier. Historie terms include: electrum, smalt, Smalti, Smaten, Schmeltzwerk, Schmeltz-

78
 glas, Glasfluß (latter term for enamel, glass or gern imitations made of glass), Amausen,
Encausten, email, emal, esmal, amell. Preparation by melting a high-purity si lica with
fluxing compo unds (e.g. -Soda, -Potash, -.salpetre, -Lead oxid, -Borax etc.) and
-.opacifying and/or colouring materials.
The term enamel has also been adopted in a wider sense, for general purposes to describe
hard , shiny surfaced material that is not necessary subjected to fusion, such as cold-applied
lacquers and paints.
0 Fardement (fr.) [Ardant 1844, recipe by an anonymaus writer] = colour for shading and
darkening parts of a painted picture, and recommended e.g. to show suits of armour. Made
from sanguine (probably bloodstone), for black mixed with copper scale.
0 Fecce dei vini (it.) [Piccolpasso 1574] =Lees of wine = crude -Tartar. Synonymaus to "fe<;a
de botti de vino", "fezza", "grepola or gripola (bianca or negra)".

0 Ferraccia (it.) = term for iron rust.

0 FeiTetto (it.) [Popelin 1866] = here burned copper (red cuprous oxide), can also be ferric
oxide.
0 Ferretto of Spain [Piccolpasso 1574] [Kunckel 1679] =red ferric oxide (see Rouge) or
copper oxide. The artificial preparation from iron/steel and sulphur is described for example
by Haudiequer de Elancourt [1699].
0 Ferrugine (It.) = iron oxide. seealso Rouge.
0 Festoons [de Elancourt 1699] = small thin shects of copper or-. Erass with golden colour.
0 Fixed su lphur [de Elancourt, 1699 , 'un soufrejixe'] [Salmon 1701] = (incomb ustible)
sulphur cleansed in oillvinegar and a potash solution , chiefly for red enamel colours and
"for goldsmiths to make use of on gold".

0 Flint = silex.
0 Flint glass = lead-potassium glass of high brilliancy and refractive power, frequently used
as starting material in 191h/20th c. enamel recipes. The term occurs for the firsttime in Dossie
[ 1758] - this is not until about 80 years after the invention of this Iead crystal technology
by G. Ravenscroft in 1674. Whether the term Glass of Saturn [de Elancourt 1699] might be
synonymaus is not certain. Cunynghame [ 1899] refers to two varieties offlint glass: dense
(with 50 per cent. Iead oxide) and a light one (with one third of its weight Iead oxide). He
also mentions -.crystal as the contemporary Continental denotation for flint glass.
0 Flour of Crystal [de Elancourt 1699] =herb for -Soda production from the Languedoc
(South France) growing at seashores.
0 Flour of zinc I Flores zinci = see Zinc oxide.
0 Fluorides= see Cryolite and Fluorspar.
0 Fluorspar =Calciumfluoride, used as opacifer for white ename1s and glazes in Europe since
at least the 19th c. [Laudon 1838]. Low opacifying effect compared to -.cryolite (high
solubi lity in the melt, loss as volatile silicon fluoride). Fluorspar was mentioned in
Agricola 's De re metallica [ 1556] as an addition for the smelting of ore. Henderson detected
the presence of calcium tl uoride crystals in 16th and 17th c. opaque white enamels from

79
 China [Henderson 1989] 3 but the Chinese use offluorspar as glass opacifier was traced back
to the Tang Dynasty (616-907 A.D.) [Werner 1963] 3 .

0 Flux = 1) traditional term in enamelling for a clear glass which is the base of all enamels.
Synonymaus to Fondant (fr.), Materia (ger.) and Principal matter.
2) in glassmaking alkahne compounds which are added to a glass batch to lower its melting
temperature.

0 Fondant (fr.)/ Fondason (it.) = see Flux.

0 Fougere, Foulgere (fr.) [Fran~ois 1622]= fern . The ash was used as potassium-rich fluxing
material in glassmaking, especially in France.

0 Fousteau, Fouteau (fr.) [Fran~ois 1622] = beech. The ash was used as potassium-rich fluxing
material in glassmaking north of the Alps since Medieval times .

0 Fulminating gold I Aurum fulminans =explosive mixture of gold(III) oxide, ammoniac and
diamido-imido-gold(III)-chloride (formula 2AuN 2H 3 *H 2 0) prepared by the action of
concentrated ammonia on gold hydroxide. Ferrand [1721] gives a recipe for a "deli cate
violet" describing that the whitest-+ Rocaille of Holland has to be put on a grain of
fulminating gold, crushed and heated in a flat crucible over a low flame of a charcoal fire.
Jt is remarkable that no further reducing agent (like tin for -+Purple of Cassius) is added.

0 Gerne salt [Ferrand 1721 ]= Salgemma (it.), marine salt, sodium chloride.
0 Giallolino, Giallorino (it.) = opaque yellow glass coloured either by Iead antimonate (see
Lead-antimony yellow) or Iead stannate. E.g. in the [Bolognese manuscript] (recipe n. 273)
the use of -+calx of Iead and tin, minium and sand is described and all recipes of the
Montpellier manuscript [1536] also base on Iead stannate. In contrast to this, the Darduin
manuscript contains four recipes for Giallolino (n. 177 dated 1696 and n. 178, 180 and 182)
where antimony is used instead of tin.

0 Glass of Saturn = see -+Flint glass.

0 Gold = see Purpie of gold.
0 Grepola = Italian term for -+Tartar.
0 Grisaille white = a white enamel that fuses with more or less opacity according to the
variation in thickness with which it is applied over a dark grounding.

0 Gum Arabic = a water based gum from the Acacia arabica used for making up enamel paste
when adhesion is required. Also known as Senegal gum.

0 Hammerschlag (Eisen-/Kupfer-) (ger.) = oxides of iron or copper scale.

0 Heraldic red= bright opaque red (Gutes in heraldic terminology) .
0 Horn si lver = the mineral chlorargyrite = silver chloride.
0 Iridium= platinum group element discovered as accompanying element in -+Platin um ores
in 180311804. First application for enamels in the 1840s. Brongniart [1847] wrote: "The
iridium oxide has not been applied in the art of vitrifiable painting prior to recent years; the
first attempts were made in Germany. Metalliciridium gives only a nice grey; but in the state

80
 of the sesqui-oxide it gives black which coming into the mixtures is more beautiful than all
the other known blacks yielded from the oxides of iron and cobalt or iron and manganese."
According to Cunynghame [1899] only 0.03 per cent. of iridium oxide give a good grey in
glass. Meyer [1895] stated: "It serves me for applying on the gold, silver or platin -Paillons
the contours or drawings in black that shall be visible under the translucent enamels covering
those metals. Its stability against high temperatures Iet us prefer it to all other black colours."
0 Iron red = see Rouge.
0 Jeate [Gidde 1616] = archaic spelling of -Jet in the meaning described below.
0 Jet [Anonymous 1500]
= 1) a low-melting Iead-giass made of 4 parts Iead oxide (minium) and 1 part silica. The
common flux of the glass-painters which was called 'Jet' by the glass-painters from The
Netherlands and 'Rocaille' by the glass-painters from France.
= 2) a material used for insetting into jewellery, a compact velvet-black type of coal (Iignite)
that can be given a facetted cut and polished to a high gloss.
0 Jovial antimony = see Antimony, jovial.
0 Jupiter = archaic term used in connection with the meta! tin.
0 Kali = see Soda-ash.
0 Kelp = the ash from a species of marine plant (Sea-wrack, fucus vesiculosus), called "Kelp"
in Scotland, "Varec" in Normandy. Kelp salt, a mixture of potassium chloride with some
alkaline sulphates and carbonates, is prepared from kelp [Knight 1833] 5
0 King 's yellow = see Auripigment.
0 Languedoc glass [Laudin 1736/44] [Nouhailer 1748] = most Iikely synonymaus to soda ash-
based -Crystal glass. The region of Languedoc (Southern France) was known for the
production of -Soda ash from marine plants ("Fiour of Crystal"). Both written sources
mentioning this term were compiled by M. Ardant and are related to mid-18th c. enamel
painting traditions in Limoges (France).
0 Lapis amatigis [Anonymous 1536] =in Italian manuscripts Lapis amatitis , amatita or
ematitis. The mineral hematite (iron oxide, red or black). In the anonymaus recipe of 1536
used for making -Rosechiero. Iron oxide, together with other substances, has the function
to reduce cupric oxide to cuprous oxide or metallic copper.
0 Lapis calaminaris = Zinc spar, Spathic zinc ore. The term is applied to both the silicate and
carbonate of zinc. Usually the carbonate is found native. Mentioned in De re metallica by
Agricola [ 1556]. The calcination of the ore yields a fine white powder, called Calamie.
Reference for enamel preparation:
[de Elancourt 1699] "To prepare zaffer: Copper and sand and some proportion of Iapis
calaminaris" (but seealso Zaffer for the true nature of this compound).
0 Lapis Lazuli = blue, heterogeneaus mineral , mainly a mineralised Iimestone containing
grains of a blue cubic minera1 called Iazurite which is the essential constituent of the pigment
-Ultramarine. The archaic termwas "cyanus". Already in antiquity imported from Afgha-
nistan. Marco Polo (1271) described the mining near Badakshan.
0 Lapis petracorius [Ferrand 1721] = the mineral marcassite (e.g. from the Perigord), iron
sulphide.

81
0 Lattimo/Latimo = Italian term for a typical Venetian opaque white glass (Iatte (it.)=milk)
due to the precipitation oftin oxide (cassiterite) in the glass. Tinoxideis introduced in the
batch as calx of tin or calx of Iead and tin (see also Calx).

0 Lead-antimony yellow = Antimony yellow = Naples yellow. Sometimes synonymaus to

-Giallolino (it.). The pigment, a Iead pyroantimonate, is of the chemical composition
Pb 2Sb 20 7 . Analogous to the mineral bindheimite. Synthesised by roasting mixtures of Iead
and antimony oxides or salts (other additional ingredients can be -Tartar, -common salt
or -sal ammoniac). Frequently confused with other yellow pigments, e.g. -cassel yellow.
One ofthe oldest artificial pigments known it was found as an opacifier in glass in the palace
of Amenhotep TI ( 1450-1422 B .C.) in Thebes. The earliest written record for its use as
colora nt in mafolica and glass, respectively, was given by Piccolpasso [ 1574] and
Biringuccio [ 1540].
Use for enamels:
[Ashley 180 I]: For painting on glass a recipe recorded from an anonymaus writer and said
to date from 1500 refers to antimony for a yellow colour in the following way: "Take a
quantity of fine silver, cut in small pieces and put thereto a little antimonium beaten to
powder, and put them together in a melting pot and set them on the fire ... the space of an
hour... ; after it is cold, beat it into fine powder and grind it on a painter's stone .. .take six times
as much yellow -Oker as the silver weighs, and seven times as much old earth that has been
scraped off from enameled work; after that Iet it be weil ground; then put all this together
in a pot with gum water, stir it weil about, and so use it."
This colour is notapure antimony yellow, but a mixture of silver, antimony and iron
(interesting as weil in this context is the hint on the reuse of old enamels).
[de Mayerne ca. 1640].
There is no reference to lead-antimony yellow in the 16th to 18th c. sources related to Limo-
ges (their recipes for yellow colours are based exclusively on either silver and sulphur, iron
or Iead stannate).
Lead-antimony yellow remained in use until the 20th century.

0 Lead cinders = see Litharge.

0 Lead oxides = see Litharge and Minium.
0 Lead white = Ceruse, Basic Iead carbonate, used as enamel fluxing compound and painting
pigment.

0 Levant ashes = see Soda-ash. Synonymaus to allume catina, in the past coming from Acris
(now Israel), Aleppo (Syria) , Alexandria (Egypt) and Tripolis (now Lebanon) .

0 Lignure de carsine (fr.) = a term used by Mouret [ 1583] which is probably a tin -based
opacifier to make white enamel.

0 Litharge = yellow Leadmonoxide (PbO) = Terraghetta (it.) = gelber Bley-Kalch (ger.) =Lead
cinders = Bleiglaette I Silberglaette (ger.), won as a byproduct in silver extraction. Massicot
is also a Iead monoxide of slightly different colour made by roasting Iead .

0 Lume grossa [Anonymous 1536]= see soda ash .

0 Malacca tin [Brongniart 1845] = the contemporary Venetian enamel supplier Bertolini used
a pure oxide of tin from Mal acca (Malaysia).

82
0 Magnesia = see Manganese.
0 Manganese = black manganese dioxide = Magnesia/Magnesie. Colorant in purple, tan and
black enamels used over the whole period regarded here . European provenances for this
mineral were the Perigord (France) , Piemont (Italy) or Spain. Manganese was also used as
a decolouriser in glass-making ("glassmaker ' s soap").
0 Mare (Fr.) = term for a residue.
0 Mars = a term used archaically for iron .
0 Mars red = red ferric oxide = Crocus Martis = see Rouge.
0 Mars Saffron = yellow, hydrated ferric oxide = Crocus martii =Spring wheat yellow [de
Montamy 1765] = Mars yellow.
0 Mars yellow = see Mars safft·on.
0 Martial aethiopis = according to de Montamy I_ 1765] synonymaus to -Mars saffron, despite
the tenn aethiops used to denote rather black compounds.
0 Marzacotto (it.) [Piccolpasso 1574] = fusion product of sand and lees of wine (-Tartar) ,
for making pottery and majolica glazes. According to Merrifield [Merrifield 1849] 4 mixture
of sand, soda and potash used as base material in the production of coloured glass.
According to Zecchin, marzacotto is the Tuscan word for "fritta". Synonymaus to the Dutch
Masticot/Mastichot (not tobe mixed up with Massicot, Iead monoxide).
0 Massicot = see Litharge.
0 Mastichot = see Marzacotto.
0 Ma teria [Kunckel 1679] = see Flux .
0 Mercury [Ferrand 1721] = applied forared colour (carnation) together with "c rystals of
Mars" (ferric oxide). See also cinnabar.
0 Minium =Red Iead = Menninge (ger.) = Crocus Saturni =roter Bley-Kalch (ger.). Oxide
of Iead (Pb 30 4 ) of orange-red colour.
0 Minorall [de Mayerne ca. 1640] = tenn of unknown meaning occurring in a recipe for a gold
yellow colour (containing among other compounds iron rust) . Possibly linked to "Mineral
yellow", the yellow oxychloride of Iead (-Cassel yellow) used as a pigment or tobe read
as mini um as explained by Fran<;ois [1622] "Minium ou Mineral, ou artificielfait de plomb
ca/eine, rouge comme Cinnabre".
0 Moilon [Dossie 1764] = "There is a sort ofstone, which the French ca /1 moilon, thatforms
the upper crust, and lies round the free-stone in most quarries." Probably a -silica
containing material , listed together with sand and tlints. Moiron (fr.) = quartz.
0 Mountain blue = see Azurite.
0 Naples yellow = see Lead-antimony yellow.
0 Natron= Naturalsoda (trona). Mainly sodium carbonate decahydrate. see Soda.
0 Nickel= this meta! was occasionally used in the 19111 c. as colorant: Popelin [1866] claimed
that nicke! gave a light green emerald colour in borax glass, Cunynghame [ 1899] that 2 to
3 per cent. nicke! carbonate impart to the glass as finecold sepia brown .

83
0 Niter/Nitre = mostly potassium nitrate, also known as Saltpetre/ Salpeter. Used as flux and
oxidant especially in lead-containing enamels and glasses. Blaise de Vigenere [1578]
recommended "Salpestre" to enhance the brilliance of transparent colours. History: Used
for gun powder since the 8th19th c. in China and since the 13th c. in Europe. Production
(partially in salpeter plantations) by pouring a solution of -Potash on organic waste thus
inducing bacterial oxidation of the releasihg ammoniac to nitrate.
When in the firsthalf of the 18th c. the alkaline elements sodium and potassium were
chemically distinguished, their nitrates were named Cubic nitre for the sodium salt (referring
to its crystalline form) and nitre or Common nitre for potassium nitrate. Since the 1820s
import of sodium nitrate from Chile.
0 Noir de Venise (fr.) = Black ofVenice [Mouret 1583] "To make black for shading over silver
(foils or Ieaf Eds.) Grind and wash five parts of iron -scale and one part of Black of
Venice." Most Iikely black enamel brought from -venice- this is one ofthe terms that give
evidence for a 16 1h c. enamel trade link between Venice and Limoges.
0 Ochre/ Ocher I Oker =an earthy (often impure) iron ore (usually red or yellow), also
synonymaus to Crocus.
0 Opacifier = Compound which, by forming crystals or droplets in the 11m- and sub-11m range
in a vitreous material, causes diffuse scattering of light so that the light can not be
transmitted. The range of enamel opacifiers includes various compounds of tin (-Calx),
-Arsenic, antimony (-Lead antimony yellow), phosphorus (-Bane ash), -Fluoride,
-Titanium and -zirconium.
0 Oripeau (fr.) [Diderot et d 'Alembert 1755] = piecesofthin foil of a gold-coloured meta!.
The termwas used for both highly polished copper leaf (to appear Iike gold) or actual gold
foil. The Encyclopedie refers to oripeau in two recipes for blue enamel (together with
-zaffer) and therefore presumably copper leaf is meant here.
0 Orpiment = see Auripigment.
0 Overglaze colours = The unsmelted pigments derived chiefly from metal oxides, which are
laid on a fused (usually opaque white) enamel grounding and are fired into the surface =
peinture vitrifiable (fr.). The term "vitrifiable" was used to differentiale the unfused
pigments from the smelted-in colours, described as "substantial" or "vitrified" colours (ie
the true "glass" enamel).
0 Paillon (fr.) = silver or gold foil or leaf, cut and laidunder transparent enamels to increase
the brilliance of their colour (usually silver for blue and green and gold for red). Meyer
[ 1895] and Cunynghame [ 1899] described also the use of platinum foil as paillons but with
poor adhesion of enamel fluxes to this meta!. Another decorative use of foils, employed
chiefly for encrusted styles of enamelling, from the late 18th century onwards, was in the
form of paillettes: they were fused into the glazed surface and usually additionally coated
with translucent colours for bright effects. The paillettes, in such shapes as circlets, stars
or crescents, were made by stamping out from the foils by using dies or punches.
0 Pearl glass = a type of glass coming from Bohemia (now Czech Republic) , presumably
crystal glass made of -Pearl ash and chalk invented in this region in the second half ofthe
l7 1h c. Mentioned in the treatise of de Montamy [ 1765] in a recipe of different handwriting
predating the date of publication.

84
0 Pearl Ash(es) [Dossie 1758] [de Montamy 1765] = potassium carbonate = a highly refined
quality of -Potash used as fluxing material.
0 Peinture vitrifiable (fr.) = see overglaze colours.
0 Perigord stone = -Manganese bearing stone from the region of Perigord/Perigueux near
Limoges (France). See also Lapis petracorius.
0 Pierre-ponce (fr.) [Ferrand 1721] = pumice stone, volcanic vitreous melt (composition ca.
55% Si0 2, 22% Al 20 3 and 11 o/o alkaline oxides). Mentioned in a recipe for gold purple
probably as silicatic source.
0 Pin dust [de Mayerne ca. 1640] = steel or copper pin filings, colorant in green enamels.
0 Pine Oil = a mixed high-boiling solvent fraction obtained from the distillation of the Oleo
Resin of the pine tree. Pine oil is a very strong solvent and is used to impart flow and
brushability to overglaze pigments and is also used in cleaning mixtures.
0 Platin um= ore samples of this element were brought to Europein 1753 from Jamaica by
William Eowles. The publication of a powder metallurgy process developed by William
Hyde Wo! Iaston in 1828 followed first commercial applications (for the history of platin-
um compounds see [McDonald 1982] 5 ). Platinum was used in enamel fabrication from the
middle of the 19th c. onwards for black and grey colours in enamels [Erongniart 1845]
[Cunynghame 1899], for decoration either in the form of "Shell platinum" (the preparation
is simi lar to -.shell gold) or in form of -.sponge as weil as for -Paillons as meta! foil.
0 Polverine/ Pulverine = powdered -Soda-ash.
0 Potash = Potassium carbonate. In use as fluxing material for glass and enamels since at least
the l7 1h c. (see also -Pearl ash and -.Pearl glass). Preparation from wood-ash which was
extracted in hot water and dried, thus separating the highly soluble potassium carbonate
from less soluble impurities, especially the colouring iron compounds. The purity of the
refined product varied with the number of leaching steps.
0 Potassium nitrate = see Nitre.
0 Potassium Tartrate= see Tartar.
0 Principal matter [de Elancourt 1699] "La matiere qui sert de base afair les emaux" = clear,
colourless enamel , see Flux.
0 Purpie of gold = term to denote purple or red enamel colours based on the colloidal
distribution of gold. From the end ofthe 17 1h c. onwards this colour was exclusively prepared
with a precipitate of gold and tin, called- Purpie of Cassius.
There is evidence from the evaluated recipe Iiterature for the use of gold in red/purple
enamels pre-dating the earliest reference of R. Dossie [1758] to "Purple of Cassius".
Haudiequer de Elancourt [1699] gave a 'Recipe forasplendid enamel of carbuncle colour
by mixing a gold precipitate with -Crystal. ' The preparation of the precipitate is done
simply from a solution of gold in Aqua regalis (that means without an additional reducing
or stabilising agent) probably basing on the explanation of A. Neri [1612] (chap. 129).
Perrand [ 1721] described two different recipes basing on gold: one is chemically similar
to the de Elancourt recipe requiring smelting of -Fulminating gold with white -Rocaille
of Holland or -.crystal of Venice. The second one for a "hard violet (light purple Eds.)
colour. .. rarely used" contains unspecified "Purple of gold" (possibly identica1 to- Purpie
of Cassius) and -.silver coupeile b1ue.

85
0 Purpie of Cassius = purple solution of colloidal gold prepared by the addition of stannous
chloride to a solution of gold dissolved in -Aqua regalis. Discovered by Andreas Cassius,
the recipe for this "Praecipitatio Solis cum Iove" was first published by Cassius' son in 1685
[KerfJenbrack 1997] 5 .
Alfred Meyer [1895] quotes the story of the famous goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini having
witnessed the preparation ofthis gold purple by an alchemist named Lalique a1ready in 1543
who -without knowing the true nature of the second meta!- was not able to reproduce this.
Interestingly, Claudius Popelin [1866] also writes about a red elixir made hom gold and
mercury known by the 15th c. German monk Basil Yalentin.
Following its discovery, the precipitate became the colouring basis for gold-ruby vessel
glass which became fashionable especially in the firsthalf of the 18th c. and for which
invention the credit is given to Johann Kunckel. The earliest enamel recipe for a "crimson
or scarlet red" using "Calx cassii" was given by Dossie [1758], from then it occurs in almost
all written records on enamelling. See also Purpie of gold.
0 Putty I Putty Powder = English tenn for an impure stannic oxide, used as opacifier and also
for polishing glass.
0 Quarteron (fr.) [Fran<;;ois 1622] = small package of 25 leaves of precious meta! foil (i.e. red
gold, or silver and fine gold) as sold by gold beaters for gilding and silvering.
0 Red iron oxide = Ferric oxide. See Rouge.
0 Red Iead = see Minium .
0 Red sulphur = presumahly reddish allotrope of eiemental sulphur.
0 Regulus = a meta! in its eiemental stage.
0 Reverberatory furnace = A type of furnace or kiln with shallow hearth and low roof. The
flame passes over the charge on the hearth causing the charge to be heated by both direct
flame and by radiation from the roof and side walls of the furnace.
0 Rocaille (fr.) = The tenn was used by the glass-painters of France for a low-melting
colourless, clear enamel or tlux, rich in Iead (qualities: white, yellow, green). Synonymaus
to -Jet (see also Jet for recipe).
0 Rocchetta/ Roquette/ Rocca = Blocks or lumps of -soda-ash.
0 Roman vitriol = see Vitriol.
0 Rosechiero/Rosachiero = Italian tenn to denote a transparent red glass/enamel based on
copper in reduced form (Cu 20 or colloidal Cu). The name probably derives from the French
"rogia clero" =-Rouge clair. The term appears for the firsttime in Yenetian documents
in 1493- the technology seems tobe imported from France around this time (see L. Zecchin
[1990], p. 228). An early recipe is given in the [Bolognese manuscript, first quarter- middle
of the 15th century] and another in the third part of the [Trattatelli Toscani]. The numerous
recipes handed down always additionally contain tin, manganese, iron and/or Iead
[Anonymous 1536] and tin, Iead , iron, mercury and/or silver in varying combination and
proportion mainly as reducing agents . In accordance, Kunckel 's recipe for "Rosenfarbichte
Smalte" [1679] requires "Fritta crystalli", Iead-tin-oxide, red copper oxide, -crocus marti ,
calcined -Tartar and soot (the latter to reach a reducing furnace atmosphere).
0 Rosenfarbichte Smalte (ger.) [Kunckel 1679] = see Rosechiero.

86
0 Rouge= Mainly ferric oxide, with vary ing amou nts of natural argi ll aceous compounds. To
this group of redpigmentsalso belong Colcothar, Armenian bole, Capuu t Mortuum, Rouge
de Mars, English Red, Iron Red, Red Ochre, Red Chalk, Red Earth, Terra di Siena, Terra
Rossa, Prussian Red, Blood Red, Iron Safft·on, Scarlet Ochre, Ferreto di Spagnia and others.
Some ofthem arenatural products (ochres and earths, burnt and unburnt) but the names were
also applied to purified products usually obtained as red residue from the calc ination of the
sulphate of iron (green vitriol) with- Alum . The pigment's final hue may vary (all shades
from yellow-orange to red and brow n) depending on the remaining water content of the
ox ide and therefore on the degree of ca lc in atio n. Rouge was especia ll y important for
painting flesh colours c-carnations) and also as a very fine abras ive material for the
polishing of gold .
0 Rouge anglais (fr. ) [Meyer 1895] = Eng li sh red , see Rouge.
0 Rouge clair (fr. ), rouge cler (fr. ), -Rosechiero (it.) = a tran sparent red enamel. Opposite
to the opaque red enamel (generated by metallic copper or cuprite cry stals), which has been
known since the Antiquity, the " Rouge clair" is mentioned for the firsttime in inventories
ofthe kings ofFrance and dukes ofBurgundy in the 14th century [Eickelmann 1984, Baum-
stark 1995 ]5 . The earliest preserved examples of Rouge clair can be fo und o n 14th century
encrusted and bass-taille enamels exclusively on gold. The difficulties during the firing
process of Rouge clair are described by Cellini [1568] . Scientific analysis proved that
typical copper contents in the range of 0.5 to 2.5 wt% are generating co ll oida l copper in ruby
enamels of the I 4th to 18th centuries [Birnson 1983] 3 [ H-~ypyski 1997] 3 [Müller 2000af Gold
is mentioned several times in connection with hi storic recipes for translucent red enamels:
B. de Yigenere [I 578] gave a recipe for " Rouge clair" , a colour which the author described
as " very rare now and known only to few people". The metals in thi s recipe are a mixture
of gold, mercury, iron , Iead and copper. One ofthe recipes gathered by Rene Frant;:ois [1622]
shows extended similarities. Neri [I 6 12] describes the making of a transpa rent red colour
by using gold but no further reducing component. However, there is so far no ev idence for
the actual success in manufacturing of a gold ruby before the invention of the -Purpie of
Cassius in 1685 [Kerßenbrock 1997] 5 .
0 RougedeMars (fr.) = Purified ferric oxide. T he termwas used by e namel painters for the
red pi g ment that was very hi ghl y valued for flesh tones . See also Rouge.
0 Rouge de Prusse (fr.) [Meyer 1895] = Pru ssian red. See Ro uge.
0 Saffera (it. ) = see Zaffer.
0 Saffron = see Crocus.
0 Safft·an de fe r (fr.) = see Crocus martii .
0 Sal am moniac = ammonium chloride.
0 Sal com un = common salt, sodium chloride.
0 Sal gem(m)e, Salgemma (it.) = sodium chl oride.
0 Salicornia, Salicorn, Salicor = saltwort, marine herb used for the production of -Soda as h.
0 Salpeter= Saltpeter, Saltpetre, Salpestre, Sal petrae, Salpetra, Salmitrio, Salnitro = "Salt
of the rock" = Potassium nitrate = see Nitre.
0 Salsola kali = marine plant used for the production of -Soda as h.

87
0 Sandiver, Sandever = salts from the scum produced in glass manufacture = Suin de verre
(fr.) , Glasgalle (ger.).
0 Sangue de/di drago, Sanguis draconis [Anonymous 1500] [Anonymous 1536] [Darduin]
= " Dragon's blood", Cinnabaris (Latin). Rarely mentioned material in recipes for
-Rosechiero and "calcedonio" (a glass resembling thc mincral chalcedony). A red resin
extracted from various trees, e.g. in Asia from palms of the genus Calamus. Employed as
pigment in oil- painting and also for the preparation of red laquers and varnishes. As an
organic compound a resin is not stable in glass-melts and would have no colouring effect
(rather a reducing one which is beneficial for copper-reds).
0 Sanguine (fr.) [Ardant 1844] = presumably synonymaus to -Bioodstone.
0 Saphre (fr.) = see Zaffer.
0 Saturn = an archaic term related to the metal Iead.
0 Scale = Scaglia (it.). Clinker of a metal, partially oxidised (usually iron or copper) used for
colouring enamels. Synonymaus to Hammerschlag (ger.).
0 Searce = archaic term to mean passing fine powder or ashes through a fine mesh, sieving.
0 Selenium =20th c. colouring material. Earliest reference by Cunynghame [ 1899] who gave
recipes for (orange-)yellow enamel colours making use of metallic selenium and potassium
nitrate. In the presence of a reducing agent selenium gives a rose colour.
0 Senegal gum = see Gum Arabic.
0 Shell Gold - the term used up to the 20th century to describe pure gold in the form of an
impalpable powder. This was stored and sold commercially in clean sea-shells. Preparation
was by grinding pure gold leaf on a glass slab with honey, sugar or other suitable water-so-
luble substance which was washed away after the grinding.
0 Silbergien (ger.) [Kunckel 1679] = see Litharge.
0 Silex = flintstone, see Silica.
0 Silica = the oxide of silicon. Corresponding to the manufacturing of -crystal glass a si lica
material of high purity is required for enamels, especially with low amounts of iron. Suitable
sources were silex , pebbles like quartz pebbles from the Ticino river ("cogoli del Tesin")
and from the Toscana mountain s c-Tarso) and Specialsorts of sand. The Yenetians used
the sand from Pola (lstria) and Lissa (now Yis, an island of Dalmatia) from the 17th c. on
andin 18t 11 /19rh c. enamel recipes the locations Etampe, Fontainebleau, Nevers, Aumont (all
France) and Pegwall Bay (England) are mentioned for sand.
0 Silver coupeHe blue (fr.) = a single recipe [Ferrand 1721] requires this ingredient tobe mixed
with -Purple of gold to make a violet colour. It seems highly likely that the term is
synonymaus with the precious blue pigment alleged tobe obtained from silver. In fact, the
colour is due to impurities of copper, forming basic copper carbonates (-Azurite) during
the reaction of silver and vinegar [Oma 1985, Fuchs 1990] 5 which was already realised by
de Montamy [1765].
0 Smalt = a -Cobalt silicate prepared from -zaffer, sand and -Potash [Kunckell679]. The
product contained about 6 per cent cobalt oxide. Also used as a painting pigment. Prove-
nance often Saxony (Germany). Other trade names Smalte (ger.), Esche I (ger.), bleu d'email
(fr.), Saxony Blue, King's Blue, Azure Blue.

88
0 Soda= sodium carbonate, in nature in various degree of hydration . Common fluxing
material in glass and enamel production. Mineral deposits (trona) were exploited only in
antiquity. Du ring the 16th to 18th c. exclusive use of vegetable -soda-ash. The purification
process for the latter to gain a pure soda included single or repeated leaching with hot water
and subsequent evaporation of the liquid. Trade names of the refined products were e.g. Sale
di cristallo, Sale di Vetro, Sei alcali, Bollito. From the 19th c. on substitution of vegetable
soda by artificial soda (produced by Leblanc and later Solvay synthesis).
0 Soda ash = impure form of sodium carbonate produced by the combustion of halophytic
plants growing chiefly on sea shores or insalt marshes. Several species such as salsola
(glass-wort) or salicornia (sandwort) [Knight 1833] 5. Used as a fluxing agent in glass and
enamel production until the 19th century. Lumps of greyish to bluish crystals, containing
impurities of iron, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, chlorine etc. Produced
around the Mediterranean sea (Syria, France, Spain, Egypt). Often named after its origin
(soda or ash from the Levant, Alicante, Alexandria, Tripolis). Other trade names were
barilla, kali, A( l)lume catino, tune catine, lume grossa, cenere vegeta fe, rocchetta!rocca
(lumps of soda ash), polverino (powdered product), Anthilloides.
0 Soot = applied to produce reducing conditions by introducing carbon in a glass melt (e.g.
for copper-red colours).
0 Soulphre vif (fr.) [de Vigenere 1578] =native or " virgin" su lphur, can be partially fused,
greyish or black.
0 Spießglanz (ger.) [Leng 1845] = see Crocus antimonii.
0 Spießglas (ger.) [Kunckel 1679] = Antimonium glass [Ferrand 1721] = antimony (III)
sulphide.
0 Spirit of Saturn
[de Elancourt 1699] = lead(II) acetate, prepared from -Litharge and
vinegar =Sugar of Saturn.
0 Sponge of p1atinum = powder of finely divided platinum meta!. Preparation: To a solution
of platinum in-Aqua regia ammonium chloride or mercury nitrate is added, the precipitate
is washed and heated yielding the black sponge.
0 Spring wheat yellow = see Mars saffron.
0 Sublimato, Sublime [Darduin] [Ferrand 1721] = Mercuric chloride HgCI 2 (corrosive
sublimate). Also Solimado or Solimatto (it.). Ferrand describes it as "poisonous mineral
salt...but which produces marvels in the calcination of metals" . Part of an Italian recipe for
-Rosechiero.
0 Sugar of Iead = sugar of saturn = lead(II) acetate.
0 Suin de verre (fr.) = see Sandiver.
0 Syderee (fr.) [Popelin 1866] = manganese, used to whiten glass or for colour.
0 Tale, Talk [Ferrand 1721] [Leng 1845]
= 1) according to Leng "a mixture of silica, alumina, alkalines and chalk or iron oxide". The
author quotes Neri for using talc instead of sand, but evaluates it as being unlikely to give
an enamel. Used extensively in Britain from about 1750 for the manufacture of porcelain.
= 2) Min. magnesium dihydroxytetrasilicate.

89
0 Tarso, taso, tharso (it.) = a pure form [Link] (river pebbles, flint or rock crystal). Term
used by Kunckel and de Blancourt basing on Antonio Neri's L'Arte vetraria.

0 Tartar= Potassium tartrate. Weinstein (ger.) Qualities: red and white (the latter also named
Argall), crude or burned (to potassium carbonate). Fluxing and reducing agent frequently
mentioned in 16th to 18 111 c. recipes.

0 Terra di Siena (it.) = see Rouge.

0 Terra rossa (it.) = see Rouge.
0 Terraghetta (it.) = see Litharge.
0 Tin (opacifier) = see Calx.
0 Titanium dioxide =Modern opacifier in enamels and glazes. The element titanium was
discovered independently by W. Gregor (J791) and M.H. Klaproth ( 1795). Naturally
occuring crystal forms of titanium dioxide are rutile, anatase and brookite - the first two
arealso synthesised as pigments. Barliest use of synthetic titanium dioxidein the ISOOs for
ceramic glazes and enamels. Since the 19th c. widespread application especially for the fact
of increasing the acid-resistance of enamels. In the l920s introduction as white painting
pigment.

0 Tragacanth = Gomme adraganthe (fr.), Gummi Tragant, Bassoringummi (ger.) = A water

soluble gum derived from Astragalus Shrubs CAstragalus is imported from Iran, Iraq,
Greece, Turkey, Asia, India and Syria). It resembles -.Gum Arabic in being composed of
calcium, magnesium and potassium complexes of organic (uronic) acids . lt is used as a
stabiliser for emulsionsandas a holding agent for enamel pastes prior to firing , leaving no
deposit.

0 Thuyle (fr.) [Ardant 1844] = term of unknown meaning, colouring compound?

0 Tuzia (d'Aiessandria) [Darduin], Tucia, Tuccia (it.) = impure zinc oxide. Grey powder
which sublimates at the outer part of furnaces used for melting zinc-containing minerals .
The recipe book of the Darduin family contains two 18th c. recipes for yellow enamels,
requiring Tuzia together with antimony, Iead and tin compounds. See also Zinc.

0 Ultramarine, Outremer (fr.) = blue pigment gained from the mineral-Lapis lazuli, very
highly prized by artists and manuscript illuminators. Chemical composition: sulphur
containing sodium aluminum silicate. The blue colour, actually the minerallazurite, is due
to sulphur radicals fixed in the silicatic lattice. Separation of the pigment from the dead rock
was done by incorporating the crushed Iapis lazuli in a mixture of molten wax, resins and/
or oils and kneading the mass, usually wrapped in a cloth, under water or dilute lye (potash
solution)- the blue particles of Iazurite are washed out and settle at the bottom ofthe vessel.
This extraction was carried out several times, collecting several grades of pigment of
diminishing quality (the last product known as ultramarine ashes). Adulteration with
-Azurite possible.
Most extensive use as painting pigment in Europein the 14th to midi5th c. in illuminated
manuscripts and Italian panel paintings (at this time as valuable as gold).
References in enamelling:
[Anonymous writer 1536] for a turquoise enamel take " azuro oltra marina" and some
copper.

90
 [Ferrand 1721] "Bleu d 'Outremer ou de Lapis Lazuly"- the ultramarine pigment is mixed
with a quart of its weight of white _.Rocaille from Holland and fused on a first layer of green
enamel. To imitate Lapis little veins of gold may be applied in a third very weak firing.
[Dossie 1758] ultramarine "for the brightest blue" and together with copper for green; ul-
tramarine ashes for a lighter blue. (Replication experiments of these recipes carried out by
the authors were not successful despite of varying fluxes, sorts of ultramarine and melting
conditions because of the thermal instability of ultramarine in glass melts. Already de
Montamy [ 1765] describes this phenomenon: "its colour may be carried away by the fire,
when it is pushed to the point necessary for melting" and "Iapis lazuli ... only produces on
enamel a greenish and earthen colour".
The only analytical evidence of ultramarine in enamels so far was found by Freestone and
Stapleton who described unmelted Iazurite particles in 13th/I 4th c. Islamic enamelled glasses
(which indicates a very short firing time) [Freestone 1998] 3 .

0 Ultramarine Ashes = see Ultramarine.

0 Umber, Umbra earth =Terre d 'ombre (fr.) = Ochres colonred brown by oxides of manganese
(mainly manganese oxide hydroxide) and containing various amounts of silica and iron
oxides.

0 Venice, Loaves frorn [Ferrand 1721] = "Raw" enamel was traded in form of cakes/loaves,
often stamped with the name of the glasshouse [Charleston 1964] 5 . Over centuries Venetian
glassmakers have had a wide international reputation as enamel suppliers which is reflected
in the references by Mouret [1583] , Ferrand [1721], Diderot [1755], Dossie [1758]), Le
Pileur d' Apligny [ 1781] and Brongniart [ 1845]. Wehave no detailed knowledge about the
start and the extent of enamel trade frorn Venice.

0 Venice Turpentine = semi-liquid pine resin.

0 Venu s = an archaic term used to designate copper.
0 Verdigris, Verdde-gris, Verdigrice = mixture of basic cupric acetates. A greenish or blue
crystalline coating forming on copper, brass or bronze, resulting from the action of acetic
acid. The oldest manufactured copper green pigments, known since ancient tirnes.

0 Verdera me (it.) [Anonymous 1536] = basic copper acetate (verderame azzuro).

0 Verditor [de Mayerne ca. 1640] = verditer = basic copper carbonate. Artificial pigment, the
equivalent of -Azurite (rnanufactured from ca. about 1600 onwards). Green and blue
varieties.

0 Vitriol = vedriol, vitriolum, vitreolus = the sulphate of any of various metals: sulphate of
iron =Green vitriol (e.g. used for the preparation of -Rouge); sulphate of copper = Blue
vitriol; sulphate of zinc = White vitriol. Often named after the place of origin, e.g . Cyprian
vitriol (copper sulphate); Romanvitriol (iron sulphate) or Hungarian vitriol (copper
sulphate). The true nature of the meta! is not always clear and can differ in various literary
sources.

0 Vitrifiable colours = see Overglaze colours.

0 Weinstein (ger.) = see Tartar.
0 White Iead = see Lead white.

91
0 Zaffer, Zaffre, Zaffera, Safer, Azuro, Gafaro, Cafarone, Saferina =an impure oxide of
-+Cobalt, diluted with quartz pebbles or sand. The cobalt oxide is obtained by roasting
cobalt ores (cobaltite, smaltite). Used in the manufacture of -+Smalt and as blue pigment
for glass, enamel and glazes. (Apparently very rarely confusion with true nature of zaffer
[de Elancourt 1699] "Copper or -+Brass to prepare zaffer. .. " .)
0 Zinc, zinc oxide = Zinc and its compounds alone have no colouring or opacifying effect in
glass and enamel , but they serve for the modification of blue, green, turquoise (mainly
together with cobalt or copper), yellow (with iron or antimony) or brown shades, occa-
sionally required also for white enamels. The earliest recipes from the 16th and 17th c. refer
to -+Calamine or -+Lapis calaminaris, the spathic zinc ore. In 1721 the element zinc was
isolated and around 1730 the refining of zinc ore began in Europe but the use of zinc oxide
(see Tuzia) in 18th c. enamelling seems to have remained very limited. Zinc oxide ("Fiour
of zinc") was manufactured on a Iarge scale not earlierthan the middle of the 19th c. Starting
with Brongniart [ 1845], zinc can be found in numerous recent recipes for glass, enamel and
porcelain painting. The green-colouring combination of cobalt and zinc oxides has a
pigment equivalent (Rinmann 's Green, Zinc Green, Cobalt Green), a compound of the
spinel type .
0 Zirconium = used in the form of the dioxide or a silicate as white opacifier in 20th c.
enamelling. Identification of zirconium dioxide (zirconia) 1789 by M.H . Klaproth in the
mineral zircon, first isolated by 1.1. Berzelius in 1824. First application in enamel industries
araund 1910 [ Grünwald 19JJ] 5 . Trade name of zirconia: Terrar. Even 4 wt% of the oxide
generates a completely opaque enamel or glaze of high chemical resistance and temperature
stability.

92
2"d Reference Iist for dictionaries, modern monographs and further publications quoted in the
text:

Dictionaries (Index 1)
Crosland, Maurice P. Historical Studies in the Language ofChemistry. Dover Publications, Inc.
New York, l" ed. 1962, 1978.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, I 51 Edition 1768-1771; the edition chiefly used for glossary items
- 11' 11 Edition 1910-1911 [published in 29 volumes], New York : The Encyclopaedia
Britannica Company.
Gardner, William. Chemical Synonymsand Trade Names . 8th ed. revised and enlarged by
Edward I. Cooke and Richard W.I. Cooke. Oxford: Technical Press , 1978, Reprint 1981.
Glaser, Christoph. Novum Laboratorium Medico-Chymicum. Neu eröffnete Chymische
Artzney- und Werck-Schul. Michael und Johann Friderich Endtern Nürnberg 1677.
Facsimile Ed . Leipzig 1998, pp. 37-46 (Glossar).
Mayer, Ralph. The Artist's Handbook of Materialsand Techniques (Ed. E. Smith) Faber and
Faber London. 1951 , pp. 289-292 (Iist of common , obsolete, and foreign names for
chemieals and raw materials, and their correct equivalents).
Partington, J .R. A History of Chemistry. 4 Vols. Macmillan St Martin 's Press London , Vol.1
1970, Vol.2 1961 (Reprint 1969), Vo1.3 1962, Vol.4 1964 (Reprint 1972).
Postlethwayte, Malachy. The Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce incorporating
Savary 's Dictionary. 4'h ed. 1775.
Römpp Chemie-Lexikon. Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart, New York 1995.
Ullmann , Fritz. Enzyklopädie der technischen Chemie. Urban & Schwarzenberg Berlin, Wien
1916 (Emaille: 4'h vol. pp. 543-559).
Ure, Andrew - Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy, 1" edition 1821 , last edition 1831.
Watts, Henry. A Dictionary of Chemistry, [originally intended as a new edition of Ure ' s
Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy, in its last edition of 1831.] 8 vols . Longman,
Green, Longman, Roberts & Green London 1863.

Selected general bibliography on enamelling (Index 2)

Journal: Glass on Meta1, published by The Enamelist Society, e.g. the following series:
Carpenter, W. Enamel is glass - What is gl ass? Glass on Meta! , 1 No.6 (1982) , pp. 65-68.
Carpenter, W. Enamel Preparation. G1ass on Meta! , I No. 2 (1982) , pp. 1-4.
Carpenter, W. Glass structure. Glass on Meta! , 2 No. 1 (1983), pp. 1-3 , 15.
Carpenter, W. Primary Properties of glass Part I Fusibility and fluidity. Glass on Meta! , 2 No.
2 (1983), pp. 16-19.
Carpenter, W: Primary properties of enamel Part 2 : Thermalexpansion and contraction
including stresses and strains. Glass on Meta! 2 No. 3 (1983), pp. 28-32.
Carpenter, W. Primary properties of enamel Part 3: Resistance to environment. Glass on Meta! ,
2 No. 4 (1983) , pp. 39-42.
Carpenter, W. Optical properties of enamel Partone Glass on Meta! , 3 No. I (1984) , pp. 1-5.
Carpenter, W. Optical properties of enamel Part two - Color. Glass on Metal , 3 No. 2 ( 1984),
pp. 17-21.
Carpenter, W. Optical properties of enamel Part Two continued: Colloidal colorants. Glass on
Meta! , 3 No. 3 (1984 ), pp. 29-33.
Carpenter, W. Physical and mechanical properties of enamel and enamel coating . Glass on
Meta!, 3 No . 4 (1984), pp. 41-44.

93
Carpenter, W. Painting on enamel- Materials. Glass on Meta! 6 No. 3 (1987) , pp. 38-41.
Carpenter, W. Painting on enamel- 17th century materials. Glass on Meta16 No. 5 (1987), pp.
88-89.
Carpenter, W. Painting on enamel- 18th century enamels. Glass on Metal6 No. 6 ( 1987), pp.
J 17-119.
Carpenter, W. Painting on enamel- 19th century materials. Glass on Metal 7 No. I ( 1988), pp.
18-22.
Carpenter, W. Painting on enamel- 20th century materials. Glass on Metal 7 No. 2 ( 1988), pp.
42-43.
Speel , E. Painting on Enamel- the Forerunners. Glass on Meta!, Vol. 6 No. 3 ( 1987), pp 38-
40.
Speel, E. Enamel Portrait Miniatures. Glass on Metal, Vol. 6 No. 5 (1987) pp 84-87.
Speel, E. Enamel Portrait miniatures - 18'h century. Glass on Meta!, Vol. 6 No. 6 (1987) pp
113- 116, 119.
Speel , E. The Enamel Painters- Henry Bone. Glass on Meta!. Vol. 7 No. I ( 1988) pp 12-16
Speel, E. Enamel Portrait miniatures- 19/20' 11 centuries. Glass on Meta!. Vol. 7 No. (J 988)
pp 36-39, 43.
Helwig, H.B. Partide Article. G lass on Meta!, I No. 2 (1982), pp. 4-10.
He1wig, H.B. Enamel color change due to chemical or phys ical relationships during firing.
Glass on Meta!, 1 No. 1 ( 1982), pp. 5-7.
Salzer, L. "Limoges" enamel revived . Glass on Meta! 5 No . 4 (I 986) , pp. S3 -S 15.

Monographs and reviews

The seventh British Museum Enamel Colloquium . On materials and techniques of Enamelling
(1985). Resumes of papers in: Jewellery Studies 3 (1989), pp. 83 ff.
Aldinger, R. Der praktische Emailfachmann. Dresden 1950.
Bates, K.F. Enameling- Principles and Practice. Constable and Company London 195 J.
Bates, K.F. The Enamelist, A comprehensive study of enameling techniques , Funk & Wagnalls
New York 1975.
Brepohl, E. Kunsthandwerkliches Emaillieren. Second edition , VEB Fachbuchverlag Leip-
zig 1981.
Dietzel, A.H. Emaillierung- Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen und Grundzüge der Technologie.
Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 1981.
Gebhardt, B . and Dannheim , H. Mechanical and chemical durability of glass enamels.
Glastech. Ber. 61 9 (1988) , pp. 263 -272.
Hasenohr, C. Historische Entwicklung des Emails für kunsthandwerkliche Zwecke. Silikat-
technik 2 ( 1951) pp. 281-282.
Hasenohr, C. Email. VEB Verlag der Kunst Dresden 2"<~ ed. 1962.
Kohl , H. Anwendung von Emails und Schmelzfarben in der Glasindustrie. Glastech. Ber. 14
(1936) pp. 129-137.
Landgrebe, B. Technik und Geschichte der Emailmalerei. Maltechnik 3 (1983) pp. 187-203.
Lehnhäuser, W. Glasuren und ihre Farben. Wilhelm Knapp Verlag Düsseldorf 1973.
Lochmüller, W. Die Kunst zu emaillieren- Diebners Handbuch des Goldschmieds Bd 5 Stutt-
gart 1965.
Petzold A. and Pöschmann H. Email und Emailiertechnik. 2"d ed. Deutscher Verlag für
Grundstoffindustrie Leipzig 1992.
Rose, A.F. and Cirino A. Jewelry Making and Design. Chap. 13: Enameling. 4'" revised ed.
Dover Publications New York 1967.

94
Shaw, K. Science for Craft Potters and Enamellers. David & Charles Newton Abbot 1972.
Speel, Erika: Dictionary of Enamelling Ashgate Aldershot (UK) 1998.
Wratil, J. Vitreous Enamels. Borax Holdings Ltd. London 1984.

Scientific analysis of historic enamels and enamelled glass (Index 3)

Becker L., Schorsch D. , Williams J.L. and Wypyski M .T. Appendix 2. In: (A. Gonsova and Ch.
Kondoleon Eds.) Art of Late Rome and Byzantinum in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts.
Richmond, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts 1994, pp. 410-415.
Berrie, B. and Sturman S. Investigations on a mediaeval spanish enamelled ciborium. IIC
congress- Conservation of the Iberian and Latin American Cultural Heritage (H.W.M .
Hodges , J. S. Mills and [Link] , Eds.) Madrid 9-12 Sept. 1992 pp. 11-15.
Biron I., BaratteS. l'alteration des emaux- La Vierge doulourense en prieve. Techne n°7
(1998) , pp. 79-80.
Biron I., Dandrige P., Wypyski M.T.. Techniques and Materials in Limoges Enamels. In:
Enamels of Limoges 1100-1350, Exhibition Catalogue of the Metropoliran Museum of Art
New York. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York 1996, pp. 48 -62 and 445-450.
Biron 1., Taburet-Delahaye E. Evolution de l'emaillerie: trois emaux limousins. Techne n°7
(1998), pp. 75-78.
Biron I., Study of XVth and XIth century painted enamels through scientific analysis: causes
of glass deterioration, Berliner Beiträge zur Archäometrie 16 (1999) pp. 163-174.
Bimson M. and Freestone I.C. "Rouge clair" and other late 14' 11 Century Enamels on the Royal
Gold Cup of the Kings of France and England. Annales du 9eme Congres de I' Association
Internationale pour l 'Histoire du Verre . Nancy 22.-28 .5. 1983 , Liege 1985, pp. 209-222.
Bowman S.G.E. and Freestone I.C. Early 14'11 c. enamelwork: a technical examination of the
hanap cover of All Souls College, Oxford. Techne 6 ( 1997) pp. 41-4 7.
Brill, R.H. Scientific Investigations of some Gl asses from Sedeinga. Journal of Glass Studies
33 (1991) pp. 11-28.
Brill R.H. Chemical analyses of early glasses . Vol. 1: Catalogue of samples, Vol. 2: Tables of
Analyses . The Corning Museum of Glass Corning, New York 1999.
Bronk H., Adam K., Müller W. and Köcher Ch . Electron Probe Microanalysis of a Jean II
Penicaud grisaille plaque from the Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin- a first dating attempt of
Limoges painted enamels by scientific investigations. Berliner Beiträge zur Archäometrie
16 (1999) pp. 175-181.
Brun, N. and Pernot, M. The opaque red glass of celtic enamels from continental Europe.
Archaeometry 34 (1992), pp. 235-252.
Carboni S., Pilosi L. and Wypyski M.T. A Gilded and Enamelled Glass Plate in the Metropolit-
an Museum of Art. The Prehistory and History of Glassmaking. Ceramic and Civilization
VIII (P. McCray and W.D. Kingery, Eds.) The American Ceramic Society Westerville Ohio
1997, pp. 79-102.
Daokova A. The Preservation and Restoration of the collection of Renaissance Glass. In:
Sedlaekova H. RenaissanceGlassand Other Archaeological Finds from Nymburk. Libice
nad Cidlinou 1997, pp. 68-73.
Dandrige, P. and Wypyski M.T. Preliminary Technical Study of Medieval Limoges Enamels.
Mat. Res . Soc. Symp. Vol. 267 (1992) Materials Research Society pp. 817-826.
Distelherger R., Luchs A., Verdier P. et al. Western Decorative Arts, Part 1. The Collection of
the National Gallery of Art, Washington, Systemarie Catalogue. Cambridge University Press
1986 pp. 108-118 (technical appendix I) .

95
Eveno M., Fromageot D., Kusko B. and Lahanier C. Etude de I 'alteration d 'une plaque
emaillee attribuee a Ia production de Limoges. 9th Triennal Meeting, ICOM Committee for
Conservation, Vol.l, Dresden 1990, pp. 18-23.
Freestone I.C. Theophilus and the composition of medieval glass. Mat. Res. Soc. Proc. Vol.
267 (1992) pp. 739-745.
Freestone I.C. Compositions and Origins of Glasses from Romanesque Champleve Enamel.
In: Catalogue of Medieva1 Enamels in the British Museum. Vol. li. Northern Renaissance
Enamel. London 1993, pp. 37-45.
Freestone I., Bimson M. Early Venetian enamelling on glass: Technology and origins. Mat. Res.
Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol. 352 (1995) pp. 415-431.
Freestone I.C. and Stapleton C.P. Composition and technology of lslamic enamelled glass of
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In: Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle
East (R. Ward Ed.) British Museum Press London 1998, pp. 122- 128.
Freestone I.C., Bowman S.G.E. and Stapleton C.P. Composition and Origins ofByzantine and
Early Medieva1 Enamel Glasses . Presented as Posterat the International Symposium on
Archaeometry Mexico City, May 2000. Tobe published in full in: D. Buckton. Catalogue
of Medieval enamels in the British Museum, vol. 1.
Germaine-Bonne D., Biron I. and Trocellier P. Ladegradation des emaux peints de XVe et
XVIe siecles. 11 '11 triennal meeting, ICOM Committee of Conservation Edinburgh Vol. II,
(1996), pp. 826-832.
Griffin, P. Jewelry from Kiev. Jewelry studies, Vol. 6 (1993), pp. 5-18.
Henderson J., Tregear M. and Wood , N .. The technology of Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-
Century Chinese Cloisonne Enamels. Archaeometry 31, 2 (1989), pp. 133-146.
Henderson J., Wood N. and Tregear M . The relationship between glass, enamel and glaze
technologies. Ceramies and Civilization Vol. 4 (1989) The American Ceramic Society
Westerville Ohio, pp. 315-346.
Henderson J . and Allan J. Enamels on Ayyubid and Mamluk Glass Fragments. Archaeo-
materials 4 (1990) pp. 167-183.
Henderson J. Chemical and Structural analysis of Roman enamels from Britain. In (E. Per-
nitzka, G.A. Wagner, Eds) Archaeometry '90. B irkhaeuser Verlag Basel 1990, pp. 285-294.
Henderson J. Technological characteristics ofRoman Enamels. Jewellery Studies 5 (1991),
pp. 5ff.
Henderson, J. Chemical characterization ofRoman Glass Vessels, Enamels and Tesserae. Mat.
Res . Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol. 185 (1991) pp. 601-607.
Hopke P.K. Two Medieval Enameled Objects Studied by X-Ray Fluorescence. Archaeological
Chemistry 4 (1989), pp. 233-247.
Hughes M .J. Enamels: Materials, Deterioration and Analysis. In: From Pinheads to Hanging
Bowls: The Identification, Deterioration and Conservation on Archaeological Artefacts.
Occasional Papers, United Kingdom Institute for Conservation No. 7 London (1987),
[Link].
Michael S.P.E., Technical observations on early painted enamels from Limoges, their materials ,
structure and deterioration . Journal of the Walters Art Gallery XXVII-XXVIII (1964-65)
pp. 21-43.
Müller, W. Modellhafte Untersuchungen zu Umweltschädigungen in Innenräumen anhand des
Grünen Gewölbes. BAM Forschungsbericht 215. Verlag für Neue Wissenschaft Bremer-
haven 1995.
Müller W. , Torge M. , Kruschke D., Adam K. Sicherung, Konservierung und Restaurierung
historischer Glasmalereien. Forschungsbericht 217 der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung
und -prüfung, Berlin 1997

96
Müller W., Adam K., Kruschke D. et al. Deterioration of Historie Art Enamels by lndoor
Pollution. Proceedings of the 18'h Int. Congress on Glass San Francisco Sept. 1998. Am er.
Cer. Soc. Westerville Ohio (on CD-ROM).
Müller W. et al. Emailprojekt (with 11 contributions of various authors). Restaura 6 (2000)
pp. 402-462.
Müller W., Adam K. and Kruschke D. Die Emails der Barockpreziosen aus dem Grünen
Gewölbe der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden. Berliner Beiträge zur Archäometrie
17 (2000), pp. 105- 111 .
Pacey N.R. A Scientific Appreciation of Some Recent Chinese Enamels. Glass on Metal12
No. 6 (1993) pp. 118-122.
Perez y Jorba, M. Rommeluere und C. Bahezre. Microstructure d 'une plaque d 'email peint de
Limoges du XVIe siede. Studies in Conservation 36 (1991) , pp. 76-84.
Perez y Jorba, M ., Rommeluere, M., Mazerolles L., Etudes de Ia deterioration d'une plaque
d'email peint de Limoges. Studies in Conservation 38 (1993) pp. 206-212.
Richter R.W. Between Original and Imitation: Four Technical Studies in Basse-taille
Enameling and Re-Enameling of the Historicism Period. The Bulletin of The Cleveland
Museum of Art 81 No. 7 (1994), pp. 223 -251.
Richter R. Crizzling in Enamels- A Museum Labaratory Study of the Relevant Factors and
Phenomena. Proceedings of the 18'h Int. Congress on Glass San Francisco Sept. 1998. Amer.
Cer. Soc. Westerville Ohio (on CD-ROM).
Richter R., Adam K. and Begov E. Enameled Gems in the Green Vault, Dresden. Glass on
Meta! 19 No. 2 (2000) pp. 28-34.
Rinuy A. and Schweizer F. De 1'authenticite de deux emaux medievaux. In: L 'CEuvre d 'Art
Sous Le Regard des Sciences. Musee d 'artet d 'histoire. Editions Slatkine Geneve 1994 pp.
103-119.
Ross, M. A method of detecting false Limoges painted enamels. The Journal of Walters Art
Gallery, Vol. 12, Baltimore 1949, pp. 41-53.
Smith, J.H., Carlson J.H . and Newman R.M. An Investigation into the Deterioration ofPainted
Limoges Enamel Plaques c. 1470- 1530. Studies in Conservation 32 (1987), pp. 102-113 .
Stromberg, C. A technical study of three cloisonne enamels from the Botkin collection. The
Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore (1988), pp. 25-36.
Troll C. and Pilz M. Simulation of degradation phenomena on model enamels with historical
compositions. Glastech. Ber. Glass Sei. Techno!. 71 No. 10 (1998), pp. 307-314.
Verita M. Analytical Investigation of European Enameled Beakers of the 13' 11 and 14' 11
Centuries. Journal of Glass Studies 37 (1995) pp. 83-98.
Wypyski M.T., Richter R.W. Preliminary study of 14'h and 15'h c. European Enamels. Techne
6 (1997) pp. 48-57.
Zamora Campos, B., Schmitz I., ClarkA. Schreiner, M. Transluzides burgundisches Email auf
Silber. Restaura 5 (1995) pp. 322-325.
Zamora Campos B., Schmitz 1., ClarkA. and Schreiner, M. Transluzides burgundisches Email
auf Silber- Naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchung der Schadensphänomene. Restaura 6
(1995) pp. 418-421.

Select bibliography on pigments (Index 4)

Bersch, Josef. The Mannfacture of Mineral and Lake Pigments. Translated from the second,
revised edition by Arthur C. Wright. Scott, Greenwood & Co. London 190 l (includes
enamel colours pp. 319-325).
Brachert, Thomas. Lexikon historischer Maltechniken. Callwey München 2001.

97
Cennino Cennini. Illibro deii ' Arte. a cura di F. Brunello, Neri Pozza editore 1998.
Doerner, Max. The Materials of the Artist. 1" German ed. 1921, Trans!. by Eugen Neubaus,
Harcourt, Brace & Co. New York 1934.
Eibner, Alexander. Entwicklung und Werkstoffe der Tafelmalerei . Heller München 1928 (new
edition: Walluf!Nendeln 1974 ).
Feiler, Robert L. , Roy, Ashok and West FitzHugh, E. (Eds .) Artists 'Pigments - A Handbook
of Their History and Characteristics. 3 Vols. Distributed for the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, Oxford University Press New York Oxford 1986, 1997, 1997 .
Gettens , Rutherford , Stout, George. Painting materials - A short encyclopedia. Dover
publications New York 1966.
Harley, R.D . Artists ' Pigments c. 1600-1835 - A study in Eng1ish Documentary Sources.
Butterworths London 1970. second ed. 1982.
Hoofnall , John . Practical Improvements and Observations on some of the Experiments and
Considerations Touching Colours of the Honorable and J udicious Robert Boy Je- Tinctures
& Pigments. Printed in London for R . Gosling 1738.
Kühn , Hermann, Roosen-Runge, Heinz, Straub, Rolf, Koller, Manfred. Recla1ns Handbuch der
künstlerischen Techniken, Vol. 1 Farbmittel - Buchmalerei -Tafel- und Leinwandmalerei.
Reclam Stuttgart 1984.
Merrifield M.P. Medieval and Renaissance Treatises on the Art ofPainting. 1849. Original Text
with English Translations. Dover Publications Inc. Mineola, New York 1999
Schramm, Hans-Peter and Hering, Bernd. Historische Malmaterialien und ihre Identifizierung.
VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften Berlin 1989.
Wehlte, Kurt. Werkstoffe und Techniken der Malerei , Otto Maier Verlag Ravensburg 1981.

Further Iiterature quoted in the text (Index 5)

[Agricola 1556] G. Agricola. De Re Metallica Libri XII. Engl. transl. ofthe first edition of 1556
by H.C. Hoover and L.H. Hoover. Dover Publications New York 1950. German transl. by
C. Schiffner. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag München 1977.
[Baumstark 1995] R. Baumstark (ed.) Das goldene Rössl. Ausstellungskatalog des Bayrischen
Nationalmuseums München. Hirner Verlag München 1995 .
[Biringuccio 1540] V. Biringuccio. De la Pirotechnica. Engl. translation of the first edition
1540. M .I.T. Press Cambridge (Massachusets), London 1966.
[Biron 1996] I. Biron, P. Dandrige, M.T. Wypyski. Techniques and Materials in Limoges
Enamels. In: Enamels of Limoges II 00-1350, Exhibition Catalogue of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York 1996, pp. 48-62 and 445-450.
[Bimson 1985] M. Bimson and I.C. Freestone. " Rouge clair" and other late 14' 11 Century
Enamels on the Royal Gold Cup of the Kings of France and England. Annales du 9eme
Congres de I ' Association Internationale pour l 'Histoire du Verre. Nancy 22.-28.5. 1983,
Liege 1985 , pp . 209-222.
[Bolognese manuscript, first quarter-middle of the 15 '11 century] Anonimo, Segreti per colori,
15'hcentury, Ms. n. 2861 , Biblioteca Uni versitaria di Bologna. Transcription and translation
into English in the text ofM.P. Merrifield (1849), pp. 322-600. recipe 268 "Affare vetrio
rosso".
[Charleston 1964] R. J. Charleston. Glass "cakes" as raw material and articles of commerce.
Journal of Glass Studies 6 (1964), 54-67.
[Eickelmann 1984] Eickelmann, Renate. Die franko -flämische Emailplastik des Spätmittel-
alters. PhD thesis , München 1984.

98
[Freestone 1998] I.C. Freestone and C.P. Stapleton. Composition and technology of Islamic
enamelled glass ofthe thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In : Gilded and Enamelled Glass
from the Middle East (R. Ward Ed.) British Museum Press London 1998, pp. 122-128.
[Freestone 2000] I.C. Freestone, S.G.E. Bowman and C.P. Stapleton. Composition and Origins
of Byzantine and Early Medieval Enamel Glasses. Presented asPosterat the International
Symposium on Archaeometry Mexico City, May 2000. To be published in full in: D .
Buckton . Catalogue of Medieval enamels in the British Museum, vol. 1 (2000).
[Fuchs 1990] R. Fuchs and D. 01trogge. Das Blau in der mittelalterlichen Buchmalerei -
Quellenschriften als Basis naturwissenschaftlicher Farbuntersuchungen. In: Blau: Farbe der
Ferne, Gercke, H. (Ed.) Verlag Das Wunderhorn Heidelberg. 1990. pp. 110/111.
[Gratuze I 995] Gratuze B., Soulier I., Barrandon, J.-N. and Foy, D. The origin of cobalt blue
pigments in French glass from the I 3'11 to the 18' 11 centuries. British Museum Occasional
Paper 109 (l995), pp. 123-133.
[[Link] 1911] J. [Link]. Über Zirkonerde in der Emailindustrie. Chemisches Zentral-
blatt (1911) , I, 1015.
[Henderson 1989] J. Henderson, M. Tregear and N. Wood. The technology of Sixteenth- and
Seventeenth-Century Chinese Cloisonne Enamels. Archaeometry 31, 2 (1989), pp. 133-146.
[Kerßenbrock 1997] von Kerßenbrock von Krosigk, D. Rubinglas des ausgehenden 17. und
des 18. Jahrhunderts. PhD thesis Humboldt-Universität Berlin, p. 66.
[Kerstan 1993] Kerstan , W. Die Rohstoffe zur Herstellung farbiger Glasuren und keramischer
Farbkörper, Kobalt. Sprechsaal 126 No. 1/2. ( 1993) pp. 55-70.
[Knight 1833] Ch. Knight (Ed.). Library of Entertaining Knowledge - Vegetable Substances-
Materials & Manufacture: Chap. XV Alkali Soda- Ba1illa- Kelp. London 1833, pp. 257-269.
[Lightbown 1980] C. R. Lightbown and A. Caiger-Smith. The Three Books of the Potter's Art
by Cipriano Picco1passo (1574). Engl. trans1ation and introduction. Scolar press London,
Vol. 2, p. 86.
[McCray 1996] W.P. McCray and W.C. Kingery. The unusual optical properties oftwo Venetian
glasses. G1ass Techno!. 37, 2 (1996), pp. 57-68.
[McDonald 1982] D. McDonald and L.B. Hunt. A History of Platinum and its Allied Metals.
Johnson Mattbey London 1982.
[Moioli 2000] P. Moioli and C. Seccaroni. Analysis of Arts Objects Using a Portable X-Ray
Fluorescence Spectrometer. X-Ray Spectrometry 29 (2000) , pp. 48-52.
[Moretti 2000] C. Moretti and S. Moretti. Le materie prime dei vetrai veneziani- Natura,
lessico e fonti di approvvigionamento rilevate dai ricettari da! XIV al XIX secolo. Annales
du 14e congres de l'Association Internationale pour l'Histoire du Verre Venezia-Milano
1998. Lochem 2000, pp. 326-330.
[Moretti, forthcoming] C. Moretti. Le materie prime dei vetrai Veneziani citate nei ricettari
da! XIV al XIX secolo- II. parte: Eieneomaterie prime, materie sussidiarie e semilavorati.
[Laver 1997] M. Laver. Titanium Dioxide Whites. ln: West FitzHugh, E. (Ed.) Artists'Pigments
- A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics. Vol. 3. Distributed for the National
Gallery of Art, Washington, Oxford University Press New York Oxford I 997, pp. 295-355.
[Newman 1997] R. Newman . Chromium Oxide Greens, Chromium Oxide and Hydrated
Chromium Oxide. In: West FitzHugh, E. (Ed.) Artists 'Pigments- A Handbook of Their
History and Characteristics. Vol. 3. Distributed for the National Gallery of Art, Washing-
ton , Oxford University Press New York Oxford 1997, pp. 273-293.
[Orna 1985] Orna, M.Y., Low, M.J.D. and Julian , M.M. Synthetic Blue Pigments: Ninth To
Sixteenth Centuries. 11. ' Silver Blue'. Studies in Conservation 30 (1985), pp. 155-160.

99
[Plesters 1997] Plesters, J. Ultramarine Blue, Naturaland Artificial. In: Roy, Ashok (Ed.)
Artists 'Pigments- A Handbook ofTheir History and Characteristics. Vol. 2 Distributed for
the National Gallery of Art, Washington , Oxford University Press New York Oxford 1997,
pp. 37-65.
[Riederer 1968] J. Riederer. Die Smalte. Deutsche Farbenzeitschrift Heft 9 ( 1968), pp. 3Ro-
395.
[Speel 1999] Speel, Erika: Limoges School Innovations Berliner Beiträge zur Archäometrie
16 (1999) pp. 145-154.
[Trattatelli Toscani] Anonimi . Dell'Arte del vetro per Musaico- tre trattatelli dei secoli XIV
e XV ora per Ia prima volta pubblicati. Ristampa dal Manoscritto n. 797 all 'Archivio di Stato
di Firenze. Testo pubblicato da Gaetano Mi lanesi nel 1864 a Bologna.
[Travis 1984] N.J. Travis and E.J. Cocks. The Tincal Trail-AHistory ofBorax. Harrap London
1984, pp. 28-35
[Turner 1959] W.E.S . Turnerand H.P.A. Rooksby. A study of the opalising agents in ancient
glasses throughout three thousand four hundred years. Glastechnische Berichte, Sonder-
band: V. Internationaler Glaskongress, 32K, Heft VIII (1959), pp. 17-28.
[Wainwright 1986] I.N.M. Wainwright, J.M. Taylor and R.D. Harley. Lead Antimonate Yellow.
In: Feiler, Robert L. (Ed.) Artists 'Pigments- A Handbook of Their History and
Characteristics. Vol. 1. Distributed for the National Gallery of Art, Washington , Oxford
University Press New York Oxford 1986, pp. 219-254.
[Werner 1963] A.E. Werner and M. Bimson. Some opacifying agents in oriental glass.
Proceedings of the Vlth international congress on glass: advances in glass technology (Eds .
F.R. Matson and G.E. Rindone), Plenum Press New York, pp. 303-305.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the financial support provided by the German Federal Ministry of Education
and Research (BMBF) within 'New Technologies in Human Sciences' under Grant No. 03-
MU9TUB-l. We would also like to thank Woodrow Carpenter, Rainer Richter, Cesare Moretti ,
Ian Freestone, Detlef Kruschke and Jo Kirby for reading the manuscript and for the many very
helpful comments.

Correspondence should be addressed to: Erika Speel

60 Deancroft Road, Eastcote, Pinner
Middlesex HA5 1SP, UK
Heike Bronk
Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für
Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, Sekr. C2
Strasse des 17. Juni 135 , 10623 Berlin, Germany

100