CHAPTER-4 Dr.

Palvi Gupta

Voltage Measurements in Oscilloscope

Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts, between two points in a circuit.
Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but not always. Voltages can also be measured
from peak-to-peak - from the maximum point of a signal to its minimum point. You must be
careful to specify which voltage you mean.

The oscilloscope is primarily a voltage-measuring device. Once you have measured the voltage,
other quantities are just a calculation away. For example, Ohm's law states that voltage between
two points in a circuit equals the current times the resistance. From any two of these quantities
you can calculate the third. Another handy formula is the power law: the power of a DC signal
equals the voltage times the current. Calculations are more complicated for AC signals, but the
point here is that measuring the voltage is the first step towards calculating other quantities.

Following figure shows the voltage of one peak - V[p] - and the peak-to-peak voltage - V[p-p] -,
which is usually twice V[p]. Use the RMS (root-mean-square) voltage - V[RMS] - to calculate
the power of an AC signal.

Voltage Peak and Peak-to-peak Voltage

You take voltage measurements by counting the number of divisions a waveform spans on the
oscilloscope's vertical scale. Adjusting the signal to cover most of the screen vertically, then
taking the measurement along the center vertical graticule line having the smaller divisions,
makes for the best voltage measurements. The more screen area you use, the more accurately
you can read from the screen.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Measure Voltage on the Center Vertical Graticule Line

Many oscilloscopes have on-screen cursors that let you take waveform measurements
automatically on-screen, without having to count graticule marks. Basically, cursors are two
horizontal lines for voltage measurements and two vertical lines for time measurements that you
can move around the screen. A readout shows the voltage or time at their positions.

Time and Frequency Measurements in Oscilloscope

You take time measurements using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope. Time measurements
include measuring the period, pulse width, and timing of pulses. Frequency is the reciprocal of
the period, so once you know the period, the frequency is one divided by the period. Like voltage
measurements, time measurements are more accurate when you adjust the portion of the signal to
be measured to cover a large area of the screen. Taking time measurement along the center
horizontal graticule line, having smaller divisions, makes for the best time measurements. (See
Figure Below).

Measure Time on the Center Horizontal Graticule Line

Phase Shift Measurements in Oscilloscope

The horizontal control section may have an XY mode that lets you display an input signal rather
than the time base on the horizontal axis. (On some digital oscilloscopes this is a display mode
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

setting.) This mode of operation opens up a whole new area of phase shift measurement
techniques.

The phase of a wave is the amount of time that passes from the beginning of a cycle to the
beginning of the next cycle, measured in degrees. Phase shift describes the difference in timing
between two otherwise identical periodic signals.

One method for measuring phase shift is to use XY mode. This involves inputting one signal into
the vertical system as usual and then another signal into the horizontal system. (This method only
works if both signals are sine waves.) This set up is called an XY measurement because both the
X and Y axis are tracing voltages. The waveform resulting from this arrangement is called a
Lissajous pattern (named for French physicist Jules Antoine Lissajous and pronounced LEE-sa-
zhoo). From the shape of the Lissajous pattern, you can tell the phase difference between the two
signals. You can also tell their frequency ratio. Figure shows below Lissajous patterns for
various frequency ratios and phase shifts.

Lissajous Patterns

Dual Trace Oscilloscope

Definition: In dual trace oscilloscope, a single electron beam generates 2 traces, which undergo
deflection by two independent sources. In order to produce two separate traces, basically, 2
methods are used, known as alternate and chopped mode. These are also known as the two
operating modes of the switch.

Now the question arises what is the need for such an oscilloscope?

So, we know to analyse or study multiple electronic circuits, the comparison between their
voltages is really important. Hence to compare the different circuits, one can use multiple
oscilloscopes. But simultaneously triggering the sweep of each oscilloscope is a quite
difficult [Link] we have used dual trace oscilloscope provides two traces by making use
of a single electron beam.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Block diagram and Working of Dual Trace Oscilloscope

The figure below shows the block diagram of a dual trace oscilloscope:

As we can see in the above figure that it has two individual vertical input channels namely A
and B.

Both the inputs are separately fed to the preamplifier and attenuator stage. The outputs of
the two separate preamplifiers and attenuator stage are then provided to the electronic
switch. This switch only passes a single channel input particularly at a time to the vertical
amplifier.

The circuit also has a trigger selector switch that permits the circuit triggering with either A
or B channel input or with the externally applied signal.

The signal from the horizontal amplifier is fed to the electronic switch by either sweep
generator or channel B by switch S0 and S2.

In this way, the vertical signal from channel A and horizontal signal from channel B is
provided to the CRT for the operation of the oscilloscope.

This is the X-Y mode of the oscilloscope and permits accurate X-Y measurements.

Basically, the modes of operation of the oscilloscope rely on the choice of front panel
controls. Like either the trace of channel A is needed, channel B is needed or separately
trace of channel A or B is required.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

As we have already discussed that there exist two modes of operation of dual trace
oscilloscope.

Let us have a look at both the methods separately.

ALTERNATE MODE OF DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE

Whenever we activate the alternate mode, then it permits the connection between both the
channels alternately. This alternation or switching between the channels A and B takes place
at the beginning of each upcoming sweep. Also, there exists synchronization between the
switching rate and the sweep rate. This leads to the spotting of traces of each channel on
one sweep. Like in first sweep traces of channel A will be spotted, then in the next sweep
traces of channel B will be considered by the CRT. In this way, the alternate connection of
the two-channel input with the vertical amplifier is performed. The change in the electronic
switch from one channel to the other occurs at fly back sweep duration. At the flyback
period, the electron beam will be invisible and so the changeover from one channel to other.
Hence a complete sweep signal from one vertical channel will be displayed at the screen.
While for the next sweep, the signal from another vertical channel will be displayed.

The figure below represents the waveform the oscilloscope output operating in
alternate mode:

This method allows us to maintain the proper phase relationship between signals of channel
A and B. However, along with advantage, a disadvantageous factor is also associated with
this mode. Alternate mode leads to a display that will show the occurrence of both the
signals at different time. But in actual practice, the two events occur simultaneously. Also,
the method cannot be used for the representation of the low-frequency signal.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

CHOPPED MODE OF DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE

In this mode of operation during a single sweep, several times switching between the two
channels occurs. And this switching is so quick that even for the very small segment the
display is available at the screen.

The figure below shows the waveform representation in case of chopped mode:

Here, the electronic switch undergoes free running at a very high frequency of about 100
KHz to 500 KHz. And the frequency of electronic switch does not rely on the frequency of
the sweep generator. Hence in this way, the small segments of the two channels get
connected to the amplifier in a continuous manner. When the chopping rate is faster than
the rate of horizontal sweep, then the separately chopped segments will be merged and
recombine to form originally applied channel A and B waveform at the screen of CRT.
However, if the chopping rate is lesser than the sweep rate then it will definitely lead to
discontinuity in the display. Therefore, in such case alternate mode is more suitable.

The dual trace oscillator permits the choice of respective mode of operation through the
front panel of the instrument.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Digital oscilloscope

A digital oscilloscope is an instrument which stores a digital copy of the waveform in the digital
memory which it analyses further using digital signal processing techniques rather than using
analogue techniques. It captures the non-repetitive signals and displays it consciously until the
device gets reset. In digital storage oscilloscope, signals are received, stored and then displayed.
The maximum frequency measured by digital oscilloscope depends upon two things: one is
sampling rate of the scope, and the other is the nature of the converter. Converter is either
analogue or digital. The traces in digital oscilloscope are bright, highly defined, and displayed
within seconds as they are non-stored traces. The main advantage of the digital oscilloscope is
that it can display visual as well as numerical values by analyzing the stored traces.

The displayed trace on the flat panel could be magnified and also we can change the brightness
of the traces, and minute detailing can be done as per requirement after an acquisition.
There is a small screen, which shows input voltage on a particular axis for the period of time.
Even it could display three-dimensional figure or multiple wave forms for comparison purpose
by doing some changes. It has an advantage that it can capture and store electronic events for the
future purpose. The digital oscilloscopes are widely used today because of its advanced features
of storage, display, fast traces rate and remarkable bandwidth. Although, the digital scope is
costlier than the analogue oscilloscope, still it is popular in the market.

Sometimes, people get confuse between digital voltmeter and digital storage oscilloscope. They
thought that both dealt with voltage. But there is a huge difference between the two. Digital
oscilloscope shows the graphical representation of the signals for visual diagnosis and it helps to
find out the unexpected voltage’s source. It also represents timing, affected circuit, and shape of
the pulse so that technicians could easily find out malfunctioning part. It locates an even minor
problem in the operations and send an alert for replacement or tuning. On the other side, digital
voltmeter only records voltage fluctuation which requires further diagnostics.

In its simplest form, a digital oscilloscope features six elements — the analog vertical input
amplifiers, analog-to-digital converter and a digital waveform memory, a time base which
features a triggering and clock drive, the circuits for waveform display and reconstruction, the
LED or LCD display, and the power supply.

Digital oscilloscopes periodically samples a time varying analog signal and stores in the
waveform memory the signal’s values in correlation with time.

Using an internal clock, digital oscilloscopes chops input signals into separate time points. The
instantaneous amplitude values are then quantized by the oscilloscope at those points. The
resulting digital representations are then stored in a digital memory.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

At a predetermined clock rate, the display is regenerated from the device’s memory and is
consequently viewed as connected dots or a series of dots. Digital Oscilloscopes provides
powerful features on how they trigger the digitized data from its memory.

Some of the advantages of a digital oscilloscope over analog oscilloscope include the scope’s
ability to store digital data for later viewing, upload to a computer, generate a hard copy or store
on a diskette and its capacity to instantly make measurements on the digital data.

After a trigger event, digital oscilloscopes can be made to display the waveforms as compared to
an analog oscilloscope that needs to be triggered first before it starts a trace.

A digital oscilloscope also has the ability to examine digitized information stored in its memory
and make automatic measurements based on the selected parameters of the user, such as voltage
excursion, frequency and rise times.

It can also display similar captured data in various ways. This capability is attributed to the
presence of more captured data than what shown on the screen. It also offers the flexibility of
providing a vast array of storage, processing and display options, such as graphics and one-
quarter and one-half screen displays and multiple step processing programs.

A digital oscilloscope is ideal for displaying intricate signal waveforms where calculations and
measurements on specific portions of the waveforms must be made to provide numerical and
waveform output displays which reflects the chosen parameters of the waveforms.

The two general categories of digital oscilloscopes are single shot oscilloscopes and random
interleave or equivalent time sampling oscilloscopes.

Single shot oscilloscope starts real-time sampling of an event after a trigger condition has been
satisfied. The speed of the analog-to-digital converter determines the limitations of the sampling
speed of single shot oscilloscopes. The size of the device’s acquisition memory, which receives
the output from the converter, limits the time on which a single event can be sampled.

Meanwhile, random interleave oscilloscope or equivalent time sampling oscilloscope relies on

sampling repetitive events at different points over certain periods of time.

Analogue Storage Oscilloscope

In original storage oscilloscope had analogue input stages, and then convert the signals into
a digital format so that it could be stored in special storage memory called cathode-ray
tube. These signals processed before being converted back into an analogue format.
Cathode-ray tube retains the images on an electrode by plotting it as a charge pattern, then
these patterns modulate the electron rays to deliver the picture of the stored signal.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Definition: The digital storage oscilloscope is defined as the oscilloscope which stores and
analysis the signal digitally, i.e. in the form of 1 or 0 preferably storing them as analogue
signals. The digital oscilloscope takes an input signal, store them and then display it on the
screen. The digital oscilloscope has advanced features of storage, triggering and measurement.
Also, it displays the signal visually as well as numerically.

Working Principle of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The digital oscilloscope digitises and stores the input signal. This can be done by the use
of CRT (Cathode ray tube) and digital memory. The block diagram of the basic digital
oscilloscope is shown in the figure below. The digitisation can be done by taking the sample
input signals at periodic waveforms.

The maximum frequency of the signal which is measured by the digital oscilloscope depends on
the two factors. Theses factors are the

1. Sampling rate
2. Nature of converter.

Sampling Rate – For safe analysis of input signal the sampling theory is used. The sampling
theory states that the sampling rate of the signal must be twice as fast as the highest frequency of
the input signal. The sampling rate means analogue to digital converter has a high fast
conversion rate.

Converter – The converter uses the expensive flash whose resolution decreases with the
increases of a sampling rate. Because of the sampling rate, the bandwidth and resolution of the
oscilloscope are limited.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

The need of the analogue to digital signal converters can also be overcome by using the shift
register. The input signal is sampled and stored in the shift register. From the shift register, the
signal is slowly read out and stored in the digital form. This method reduces the cost of the
converter and operates up to 100 megasample per second.

The only disadvantage of the digital oscilloscope is that it does not accept the data during
digitisation, so it had a blind spot at that time.

Waveform Reconstruction
For visualising the final wave, the oscilloscopes use the technique of inter-polarization. The
inter-polarization is the process of creating the new data points with the help of known variable
data points. Linear interpolation and sinusoidal interpolation are the two processes of connecting
the points together.

In interpolation, the lines are used for connecting the dot together. Linear interpolation is also
used for creating the pulsed or square waveform. For sine waveform, the sinusoidal interpolation
is utilised in the oscilloscope.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Uses of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

 used for testing signal voltage in circuit debugging.
 Testing in manufacturing.
 Designing.
 Testing of signals voltage in radio broadcasting equipment.
 In the field of research.
 Audio and video recording equipment.

Probes

Now you are ready to connect a probe to your oscilloscope. It is important to use a probe
designed to work with your oscilloscope. A probe is more than a cable with a clip-on tip. It is a
high-quality connector, carefully designed not to pick up stray radio and power line noise.

Probes are designed not to influence the behavior of the circuit you are testing. However, no
measurement device can act as a perfectly invisible observer. The unintentional interaction of the
probe and oscilloscope with the circuit being tested is called circuit loading. To minimize circuit
loading, you will probably use a 10X attenuator (passive) probe.

Your oscilloscope probably arrived with a passive probe as a standard accessory. Passive probes
provide you with an excellent tool for general-purpose testing and troubleshooting. For more
specific measurements or tests, many other types of probes exist. Two examples are active and
current probes.

Descriptions of these probes follow, with more emphasis given to the passive probe since this is
the probe type that allows you the most flexibility of use.

Using Passive Probes

Most passive probes have some degree of attenuation factor, such as 10X, 100X, and so on. By
convention, attenuation factors, such as for the 10X attenuator probe, have the X after the factor.
In contrast, magnification factors like X10 have the X first.

The 10X (read as "ten times") attenuator probe minimizes circuit loading and is an excellent
general-purpose passive probe. Circuit loading becomes more pronounced at higher frequencies,
so be sure to use this type of probe when measuring signals above 5 kHz. The 10X attenuator
probe improves the accuracy of your measurements, but it also reduces the amplitude of the
signal seen on the screen by a factor of 10.

Because it attenuates the signal, the 10X attenuator probe makes it difficult to look at signals less
than 10 millivolts. The 1X probe is similar to the 10X attenuator probe but lacks the attenuation
circuitry. Without this circuitry, more interference is introduced to the circuit being tested. Use
the 10X attenuator probe as your standard probe, but keep the 1X probe handy for measuring
weak signals. Some probes have a convenient feature for switching between 1X and 10X
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

attenuation at the probe tip. If your probe has this feature, make sure you are using the correct
setting before taking measurements.

Many oscilloscopes can detect whether you are using a 1X or 10X probe and adjust their screen
readouts accordingly. However with some oscilloscopes, you must set the type of probe you are
using or read from the proper 1X or 10X marking on the volts/div control.

The 10X attenuator probe works by balancing the probe's electrical properties against the
oscilloscope's electrical properties. Before using a 10X attenuator probe you need to adjust this
balance for your particular oscilloscope. This adjustment is called compensating the probe and is
further described in the next section. Following Figure shows a simple diagram of the internal
workings of a probe, its adjustment, and the input of an oscilloscope.

Typical Probe/Oscilloscope 10-to-1 Divider Network

Following Figure shows a typical passive probe and some accessories to use with the probe.

A Typical Passive Probe with Accessories

 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Using Active Probes

Active probes provide their own amplification or perform some other type of operation to
process the signal before applying it to the oscilloscope. These types of probes can solve
problems such as circuit loading or perform tests on signals, sending the results to the
oscilloscope. Active probes require a power source for their operation.

Using Current Probes

Current probes enable you to directly observe and measure current waveforms. They are
available for measuring both AC and DC current. Current probes use jaws that clip around the
wire carrying the current. This makes them unique since they are not connected in series with the
circuit; they, therefore, cause little or no interference in the circuit.

Where to Clip the Ground Clip

Measuring a signal requires two connections: the probe tip connection and a ground connection.
Probes come with an alligator-clip attachment for grounding the probe to the circuit under test. In
practice, you clip the grounding clip to a known ground in the circuit, such as the metal chassis
of a stereo you are repairing, and touch the probe tip to a test point in the circuit.

Signal Generators

Definition: A signal generator is an equipment that is used to produce signals of varying

amplitude and frequency. It is usually a source for generating sinusoidal signals. However, it can
also produce a signal in the form of a square wave, triangular wave or sawtooth wave etc. It
induces the repeating and non-repeating analogue or digital [Link] signal generator is
extensively used in troubleshooting, signal tracing, testing, adjustment of amplifier response and
alignment of radio and T.V circuit. The signal generator has inbuilt modulation property. The
amplitude and modulation property are very common in signal generators.

The adjustable frequency range of the generated signal falls between a few Hz and MHz. While
the amplitude can be adjusted from some millivolts to volts.
An oscillator also generates sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waveforms. But, a signal generator
holds the ability to modulate the output signal with another signal.
The major use of the signal generator is to provide proper signals for the purpose of testing,
calibrating or troubleshooting of electronic circuits.

Usually, the signal generated can be amplitude or frequency modulated. However, it is not
necessary that every time only the modulated signal is produced.

If signal generators produce an unmodulated signal at the output, then these signals are known as
continuous height wave signal.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

The block diagram of the signal generator is shown in the figure below. The main part of the
signal generator is a VCO (voltage controlled oscillator). The input control voltage determined
the frequency of the VCO.

In the above figure, it is clearly seen that an oscillator is placed at the beginning of the
arrangement. This oscillator generates a carrier signal having a frequency range 100 KHz to 30
MHz. The frequency of this carrier signal can be varied by making use of a selector switch.
Also, a modulation oscillator is placed that produces a modulating signal. This waveform
selector is basically used to have sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal waveforms at the output.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

This amplified output is then given to an attenuator. The reason for providing the output voltage
to an attenuator is to adjust the voltage of the signal generated at the output in the range of 1 µV
to 0.1 V.
In the case of low-frequency signals, either resistive or waveguide attenuators are used.
However, in the case of high-frequency signal waveguide attenuators are used.

It is to be noted here that for continuous variation in the output voltage, its input must be
variable. A signal generator must exhibit high amplitude stability. As when the radio frequency
is varied then the amplitude must not show any significant variation.

Requirements of a Signal Generator

 It must produce a signal of stable amplitude.

 The frequency of the waveform should be controllable.
 The generated signal must be free from harmonics and distortion.
We can clearly say that a signal generator is able to produce modulated signals of different
waveforms.

Types of Signal Generator

Signal generators are majorly classified as follows:

Function generator:
A function generator is a device that generates various types of waveforms at its output like a
sinusoidal wave, sawtooth wave, a triangular wave, square wave etc. It offers variable frequency
in the range of few Hz to several KHz.

The generation of a variety of waveforms proves its versatility as various waveforms are utilized
in different applications. Sometimes different waveforms (generally 2) can also be generated at
the same time by a function generator.

Sweep frequency generator:

It is a type of signal generator that has the ability to generate variable frequency sinusoidal
waveform. Basically, in a sweep frequency generator, the output frequency automatically varies
between 2 selected values. But, in this case, the amplitude of the signal is kept constant with the
variation on frequency.

Its frequency range has 3 bands i.e., 0.001 Hz to 100 KHz, 100 KHz to 1500 MHz and 1200
GHz.

Pulse generator:
Pulse generators produce pulsed waveform at its output. More specifically, this type of
generators produces rectangular pulses at its output.

Either analog, digital or combination of the two techniques can be utilized by the pulse
generator. By varying the width of the pulses various forms of pulsed signals can be achieved.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types of
waveforms as its output signal. The most common output waveforms are sine-waves, triangular
waves, square waves, and sawtooth waves. The frequencies of such waveforms may be adjusted
from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz.

Actually, the function generators are very versatile instruments as they are capable of producing
a wide variety of waveforms and frequencies. In fact, each of the waveforms they generate is
particularly suitable for a different group of applications. The uses of sinusoidal outputs and
square-wave outputs have already been described in the earlier Arts. The triangular-wave and
sawtooth wave outputs of function generators are commonly used for those applications which
need a signal that increases (or reduces) at a specific linear rate. They are also used in driving
sweep oscillators in oscilloscopes and the X-axis of X-Y recorders.

Many function generators are also capable of generating two different waveforms simultaneously
(from different output terminals, of course). This can be a useful feature when two generated
signals are required for a particular application. For instance, by providing a square wave for
linearity measurements in an audio-system, a simultaneous sawtooth output may be used to drive
the horizontal deflection amplifier of an oscilloscope, providing a visual display of the
measurement result. For another example, a triangular-wave and a sine-wave of equal
frequencies can be produced simultaneously. If the zero crossings of both the waves are made to
occur at the same time, a linearly varying waveform is available which can be started at the point
of zero phase of a sine-wave.

Another important feature of some function generators is their capability of phase-locking to an

external signal source. One function generator may be used to phase lock a second function
generator, and the two output signals can be displaced in phase by an adjustable amount. In
addition, one function generator may be phase locked to a harmonic of the sine-wave of another
function generator. By adjustment of the phase and the amplitude of the harmonics, almost any
waveform may be produced by the summation of the fundamental frequency generated by one
function generator and the harmonic generated by the other function generator. The function
generator can also be phase locked to an accurate frequency standard, and all its output
waveforms will have the same frequency, stability, and accuracy as the standard.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Function Generator Working & Block Diagram

Function Generator Block Diagram

The block diagram of a function generator is given in the figure. In this instrument, the frequency
is controlled by varying the magnitude of the current that drives the integrator. This instrument
provides different types of waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and square waves) as its
output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources. Current supply source 1
supplies a constant current to the integrator whose output voltage rises linearly with time. An
increase or decrease in the current increases or reduces the slope of the output voltage and thus
controls the frequency.

The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined maximum level, of the
integrator output voltage. This change cuts-off the current supply from supply source 1 and
switches to the supply source 2. The current supply source 2 supplies a reverse current to the
integrator so that its output drops linearly with time. When the output attains a predetermined
level, the voltage comparator again changes state and switches on to the current supply
source. The output of the integrator is a triangular wave whose frequency depends on the current
supplied by the constant current supply sources. The comparator output provides a square wave
of the same frequency as output. The resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular
wave as its amplitude changes and produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.

Square and Pulse Generator Block Diagram(Laboratory Type):

Square and Pulse Generator Block Diagram are used as measuring devices in combination with a
CRO. They provide both quantitative and qualitative information of the system under test. They
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

are made use of in transient response testing of amplifiers. The fundamental difference between a
pulse generator and a square wave generator is in the duty cycle.
Before we speak on a pulse generator we have to differentiate between a square wave and pulse.
The pulse and the square wave differ primarily in their duty cycle. Duty cycle is defined as the
ratio of the average value of the pulse over one cycle in the peak value of the pulse. As the
average value and peak value are inversely related to their time duration the duty cycle can be
defined in terms of the pulse width and the period or pulse repetition time.

Therefore duty cycle = Pulse width/Period

In a square wave the output voltage will have equal on and off times, such that the duty cycle is
0.5 or 50 %. The duty cycle remains unchanged even if the frequency is changed.

In case of a pulse the duty cycle is not constant, it may vary. Short durations of pulses give a low
duty cycle. Short duration of pulse has the advantage that the dissipation of power in the
component under test is low.

Requirements of a Pulse
1. The pulse should have minimum distortion, so that any distortion, in the display is solely due
to the circuit under test.
2. The basic characteristics of the pulse are rise time, overshoot, ringing, sag, and undershoot.
3. The pulse should have sufficient maximum amplitude, if appreciable output power is required
by the test circuit, e.g. for magnetic core At the same time, the attenuation range should be
adequate to produce small amplitude pulses to prevent over driving of some test circuit.
4. The range of frequency control of the pulse repetition rate (PRR) should meet the needs of the
experiment. For example, a repetition frequency of 100 MHz is required for testing
fast circuits. Other generators have a pulse-burst feature which allows a train of pulses rather
than a continuous
5. Some pulse generators can be triggered by an externally applied trigger signal; conversely,
pulse generators can be used to produce trigger signals, when this output is passed through a
differentiator circuit.
6. The output impedance of the pulse generator is another important In a fast pulse system, the
generator should be matched to the cable and the cable to the test circuit. A mismatch would
cause energy to be reflected back to the generator by the test circuit, and this may be re-
reflected by the generator, causing distortion of the pulses.
Types of Pulse Generators :

There are two types of pulse generators. They are :

Active Pulse Generators

Passive Pulse Generators

The active pulse generators are relaxation oscillators. Multivibrators and blocking oscillators are
the relaxation type pulse generators.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

The passive pulse generators generate a sine wave in original and suitable wave shaping will be
done to get the required wave shape.

(c) Pulse Generator :

Pulse generators usually have their range from I Hz to 10 MHz. A linearly calibrated dial will be
provided. There will be provision for variation in the duty cycle. There will be two independent
output terminals. The pulse generator can be free running or can also be synchronised with
external signals.
d) Explanation of the Block Diagram of a Pulse Generator :

The block diagram of a pulse generator is shown in figure. The frequency control circuit controls
the sum of the two currents from the current sources. It applies control voltages to the base of the
current control transistors in the two current generators. There are two current sources, ramp
capacitor, schmitt trigger and the current switching circuit in the generating loop.

The current source gives a constant current for changing the capacitor (ramp capacitor). The ratio
of these two currents is determined by the setting of the symmetry control. This control latter
determines the duty cycle of the output waveform. The capacity of the ramp capacitor is selected
by the multiplier switch. The last two controls provide decade switching and vernier control of
the frequency of the output.

The upper current source supplying a constant current to the ramp capacitor, charges this
capacitor at a constant rate and the ramp voltage increases linearly. When the positive slope of
the ramp voltage reaches the upper limit set by the internal circuit components, the schmitt
trigger changes states.
.
 CHAPTER-4 Dr. Palvi Gupta

Block Diagram of a Pulse Generator

The trigger circuit's output goes negative changing i.e. reversing the conditions of the current
control switch and the capacitor starts discharging. The discharge rate is linear, controlled by the
lower current source. When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower level, the schmitt
trigger switches back to its original state. This now provides the positive trigger output that
reverses the condition of the current switch again cutting off the lower current source and
switching on the upper current source. One cycle of operation is complete now. The entire
process is repeated. The schmitt trigger circuit provides a negative pulse at a continuous rate.

The output of the schmitt trigger circuit is passed to the trigger output circuit and to the 50Ω and
600Ω amplifiers. The trigger output circuit differentiates the square wave output from the
Schmitt trigger, inverts the resulting pulse and provides a positive triggering pulse. The
60Ω amplifier is provided with an output attenuator to allow a vernier control of the signal
output voltage. In addition to its free running mode of operation the generator can be
synchronised or locked in to an external signal. This is accomplished by triggering the schmitt
trigger circuit by an external synchronization pulse. The power supply is a regulated power
supply and supplies all the subsystems of the pulse generator.