Element 7: Waste Management 2018. This document was downloaded on Monday, 1 May 2023, 12:14 PMElement 7: Waste Management. Learning Outcomes. (Once you have completed this element you will be able to: 1. Explain the need for responsible waste management. 2. Describe the benefits of waste management. 3. Outline the requirements to monitor waste. 4. Outline appropriate control strategies and measures for solid wastes. Recommended study time for this element is no less than 8 hours.Learning Outcome 1. Learning Objectives Explain the need for responsible waste management.What will be Covered in Learning Outcome 17 In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Responsible waste management * The use of hierarchies in waste management plans. * Principles of waste minimisation. * Hazardous and non-hazardous landfill * The importance of responsible waste management. * The concept of a circular economy. * The role of design in reducing waste. * Steps to responsible waste management: segregation, identification and labelling, storage, transportation and disposal.1.0 - What is Waste? Waste is any unwanted, non-useful substance, object or by-product discarded after use or needs to be disposed of due to being damaged, spoiled, contaminated or worn out Globally the United Nations estimates that 2.12 billion tonnes of waste is dumped every year. This is an enormous amount which is set to increase to 3.40 billion tonnes in 2050 due to the combined effects of rapid population growth and urbanisation. In developing countries with low incomes, it is estimated that more than 90% of waste is either openly bumed or disposed of to unregulated waste dumps. The consequences of such actions create not only environmental issues but health and safety related ones as well. The poor management of waste can lead to increases in diseases as well as rises in methane production; a contributor to climate change. To ensure that cities remain liveable and sustainable, waste needs to be managed properly, with efficient, sustainable and socially supported integrated systems.1.1 - The Waste Hierarchy. Awaste hierarchy orders the possibilities for managing waste according to the best option for the environment. ‘As waste disposal options incur some environmental impact, itis only through preventing waste in the first place, that this impact can be avoided. Therefore, in the hierarchy, priority is given to the prevention of waste or reduction, where waste cannot be prevented. Waste management policies need to be established an plemented ensuring that waste is, dealt with as high up the hierarchy as possible. Waste Hierarchy Prevention Preparing for re-use Other recovery Disposal} Figure 1. The Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) waste hierarchy. Preventing waste is achieved through the efficient design and manufacture of equipment, etc. substituting a harmful substance for a less harmful one, and designing products so that they canand are used for longer. Preparing for re-use involves ensuring that whole items or component parts are cleaned, repaired or refurbished. Recycling involves products/substances etc being converted into new substances, products, materials, etc. Other recovery involves using energy recovery or production techniques form methods such as incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, ete. Disposal involves sending waste to landfill or incineration without any energy recovery.1.2 - Waste Minimisation. Excessive waste is often generated due to an inefficient use of resources. The removal of waste has an impact on the environment and therefore the production of waste needs to be addressed if both resources and the environment are to be sustainable. Waste minimisation involves processes and practices that aim to design-out or generate less waste, helping to promote a more sustainable environment. However, it can also involve trying to change the patterns of consumption and production currently adopted by society today. Avoiding the creation of waste is the most sustainable type of waste management technique and is the primary focus for waste management strategies, The principles of waste minimisation need to be adopted or designed-in at the earliest stage possible. Waste minimisation requires knowledge not only on the production process but on lifecycle analysis and waste composition to be able to determine where and what controls are best suited to the type of waste produced Good practices in waste management is to minimise waste by using resources more efficiently and ensuring that less waste needs to go for disposal. Many businesses are unaware of the true costs of disposing of their waste, yet economic benefits for an efficient waste management system could save companies an estimated 1% of their turnover.1.3 - Hazardous & Non-Hazardous Landfill. Waste needs to be classified as part of a waste duty of care. This includes nearly all household and industrial wastes. Waste holders need to determine if their waste contains any hazardous properties to be clearly classified as hazardous or non-hazardous waste. To determine if a waste is hazardous, the composition of the waste must be known. This information can be gained from a materials safety data sheet (MSDS). Once the waste is correctly classifiet hazardous landfill site can be disposed of to the correct hazardous or non- The cost of landfiling hazardous waste is increasing, encouraging more waste to be correctly classified and separated from non-hazardous waste, whilst encouraging a move towards alternative methods of disposal.1.4 - Importance of Responsible Waste Management. Being responsible with waste is an important issue from an environmental point of view as it involves being more efficient, sustainable and environmentally friendly. With increased process efficiency and recycling, less raw materials are extracted. This reduces the impacts on the environment from the extraction process. Pollution will be reduced because of fewer resource extractions being undertaken and more efficient processes. As less waste is produced there will also be less going to landfill, reducing the environmental risks arising from landfills. However, itis not just the environment that benefits from responsible waste management, organisations can too. Organisations with efficient waste management systems will have less environmental incidents, therefore will have a better reputation and image. Environmentally friendly organisations may have better employee retention and employees with increased morale, as the organisation is seen to be taking its environmental performance seriously. There will also be cost savings because of the more efficient use of resources, meaning less must be bought and energy saving costs with being more efficient. Costs can also be saved via reductions in landfill taxes when less waste is sent. Organisations may benefit from increased incentives and investment from investors that value environmentally friendly organisations.1.5 - Circular Economy. ‘As discussed in Element 4, the circular economy is about using resources for longer periods and less going to the disposal option; with more being recovered and recycled. Therefore, the adoption of a responsible waste management system is a key component of the circular economy. Circular Economy euls pelt Figure 2. The circular economy.1.6 - Role of Design in Reducing Waste. The design stage of a product is an ideal time to think about reducing the environmental impacts This requires consideration of the environmental impacts over the full lifecycle of the product. Designers can look at how they can reduce the amount of raw materials used for production, how they can reduce pollution and waste generated during the production process, and even ensuring that the product has more potential for recovery and recycling. Designers need to research product lines to see if there have been any technological advancements that can help in designing and producing a more environmentally friendly product, that does not impact on performance or quality1.7 - Steps to Responsible Waste Management. In this section, we will be looking at the responsible waste management strategies required for waste which shall include: Identification and labelling. Segregation and storage. Transportation. Disposal Identification and labelling, ‘Substances which may harm the environment should be identified and then labelled so that everyone knows at a glance which substances are deemed hazardous or non-hazardous. This will help enable the necessary precautions to be taken during use, storage, transportation and disposal Therefore, the correct identification and labelling of substances is the first step in an effective waste management plan/strategy. Segregation & Storage. Hazardous and non-hazardous substances and incompatible substances should be segregated to prevent any unwanted reactions/ releases of cross-contamination The storage of substances needs to be in accordance with any local or international legislation but should be in a suitable vessel which will not corrode or leak. Storage needs to be protected from unauthorised access from possible vandals and the weather and protected from collisions with vehicles such as forklifts. Storage areas such be protected by bun: nearby watercourses. 9 to prevent leaks entering the drainage systems or Waste Transportation. Waste for transport should be secured and correctly labelled. Certain types of waste such as hazardous waste is not permitted to be exported to areas such as developing countries so as not to impact on their local environments. Hazardous waste should be transported with the required documentation confirming the type of waste, the waste producer and the waste collector along with any waste codes for identification. ‘Such waste documentation must be retained for the required time period, which in the UK is two years. Disposal.Waste must be taken by a licenced waste cartier to a licenced or permitted landfill, incineration or treatment plant. Organisations need to ensure that they use licenced people and facilities as they are responsible for the waste, and part of a responsible waste management plan is knowing where the waste is. going.Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Outline the steps in the waste hierarchy.Self-Marked Answer. The waste hierarchy consists of the following: Preventing waste is achieved through the efficient design and manufacture of equipment, ete. substituting a harmful substance for a less harmful one, and designing products so that they can and are used for longer. Preparing for re-use involves ensuring that the whole item or component parts are cleaned, repaired or refurbished. Recycling involves products/substances etc being converted into new substances, products, materials, etc. Other recovery involves using energy recovery or production techniques form methods such as incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, etc. Disposal involves sending waste to landfill or incineration without any energy recovery.Learning Outcome 1 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Responsible waste management * The use of hierarchies in waste management plans. * Principles of waste minimisation * Hazardous and non-hazardous landfill. © The portance of responsible waste management. * The concept of a circular economy. * The role of design in reducing waste. * Steps to responsible waste management: segregation, identification and labelling, storage, transportation and disposal.Learning Outcome 2. Learning Objectives Bs Describe the benefits of waste management.What will be Covered in Learning Outcome 2? In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Benefits of waste management * Economic argument for waste management. * Setting of targets for waste minimisation, recovery rates and waste diverted from landfilincineration, * Education and training of workers in the importance of waste minimisation + Weatherproofing and appropriate storage of materials. * Engagement of authorised waste contractors.2.0 - Benefits of Waste Management. Organisations can benefit financially from having an effective waste management strategy in place. Such economic benefits include: * Decreased landfill taxes and incineration costs. Decreased waste transportation costs. Reduction in raw material use and associated costs of extraction. Increased investment. Increased business/sales due to improved reputation. Reduced risk of prosecution and the associated costs due to fines, clean-up costs, etc.2.1 - Target Setting. Organisations will have set targets for different areas of their operations, for example, health and safety and environmental issues. Under the environmental topic, organisations can develop targets for dealing with their waste. Waste targets would be established in the organisations waste management policies and would include the overall company waste aims and the objectives on how to achieve these aims. The objectives should need to be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, T imebound), to be effective. Mi Dect © cis rtrd te) Waste aims could include: * Increasing recovery/recycling rates. * Decreasing the amount of waste going to landfilvincineration.2.2 - Education & Training of Workers. For workers to effectively follow an organisations waste management strategy, they need to be fully aware of the company requirements and what is expected of them. Educating and training employees on the importance of minimising waste and involving them in the processes, are essential ways to gain the workers commitment. Employees should be trained in: Company policies and procedures. The importance on minimising waste. How they can help reduce waste. The legal reasons for minimising waste. The benefits of minimising waste. Training on waste minimisation will need to be specific to the organisation, so will vary depending on the activities undertaken. Training would be a requirement of IS014001 as a means of ensuring a competent workforce, so any organisations certified or looking to be certified to this standard would need to ensure all their staff are competent to the correct levels for the work they undertake.2.3 - Storage of Materials. = 4 noted previously, waste needs to be stored correctly and as per local and international requirements. As a reminder, storage needs to be: * Suitable for the type of waste. * Separate from incompatible materials. + Bunded to prevent leaks from escaping. * Secured to prevent unauthorised access. * Able to protect the waste from the effects of the weather. * Protect the waste from collisions from vehicles such as forklifts.2.4 - Engagement of Authorised Waste Carriers. Itis often required (legally) for organisations to ensure that their waste is transferred by a licenced or registered waste carrier. During the procurement process when organisations are vetting potential waste transfer companies, licences and registration certificates should be requested as part of the tendering process, ‘Some organisations take their responsibilities even further by tracking/following their waste carrier to ensure that their waste is disposed of correctly and not illegally dumped. As stated earlier, the waste is the responsibility of the producer even ifit has been handed on to. contractors for disposal. Therefore, organisations need to do all they can to ensure that their waste is disposed of correctly.Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Identify the economic benefits of having an effective waste management strategy in place.Self-Marked Answer. Economic benefits from having an effective waste management strategy in place include: * Decreased landfill taxes and incineration costs. * Decreased waste transportation costs. Reduction in raw material use and associated costs of extraction. Increased investment. Increased business/sales due to improved reputation Reduced risk of prosecution and the associated costs due to fines, clean-up costs, etc.Learning Outcome 2 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Benefits of waste management + Economic argument for waste management. © Setting of targets for waste minimisation, recovery rates and waste diverted from landfilvincineration. + Education and training of workers in the importance of waste minimisation. + Weatherproofing and appropriate storage of materials. * Engagement of authorised waste contractors.Learning Outcome 3. Learning Objectives Bs Outline the requirements to monitor waste.What will be Coveredin Learning Outcome 3? In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Monitoring waste + The purpose and benefits of waste monitoring. * The environmental practitioner's role in monitoring solid waste: © Understanding why and when sampling is required (including compliance with legislation), © Limits of competence. ® Arranging for specialist/s to undertake sampling © Analysis of sampling reports. © Making and implementing recommendations from the analysis of sampling reports. * The purpose of waste audits.3.0 - Purpose & Benefits of Waste Monitoring. Purpose. The purpose of waste monitoring is to allow organisations to determine the composition and hazardous qualities of their waste. It is also about regularly measuring their performance against the company aims and objectives. Benefits of waste management. ‘Waste monitoring allows waste to be correctly classified so that it can be stored, labelled and transported correctly. Monitoring waste allows organisations to be able to measure their waste management performance against targets and objectives set in policies, to measure their success. Allows areas of weakness in waste management systems to be identified so that they can be the focus of future improvement plans. Monitoring waste may be a requirement of local or international law as well as standards such as 18014001. Therefore, undertaking monitoring ensures that the organisation is legally compliant or able to maintain certification to ISO standards.3.1 - Environmental Practitioners’ Role. The sampling of waste is often undertaken by the organisations’ environmental practitioner. Environmental practitioners should have a good understanding of relevant legislation to be able to determine if the organisation is compliant or not. An understanding of legislation may also provide the practitioner guidance on when sampling is required. An environmental practitioner will understand the reason why the monitoring of waste is. undertaken and the benefits of a good waste management system. They will be able to relay this information to the organisation to ensure monitoring is undertaken. The environmental practitioner should have a clear understanding of their own limitations so that they only undertake monitoring activities that they are capable and competent to do. Where the practitioner may lack the necessary skills, arrangements should be made for an external specialist to be brought in. The environmental practitioner will be useful in determining what is, required so that the correct specialist is engaged The findings from monitoring will be analysed and evaluated by the environmental practitioner so that they can determine any weaknesses or issues that need to be reported back to management, so that management can see how well they are performing. When reporting back, the practitioner should produce a report, highlight the issues that need management attention and suggesting appropriate and realistic actions/recommendations and timescales to implement them.3.2 - Waste Audits. A Waste Audit should: Identify all points at which waste is generated, * Identify the origin of each type of waste. Identify the quantity and type of waste as well as its environmental effects. * Determine appropriate methods for measuring waste. * Identify any costs from the disposal of waste. Identify any hazardous waste and identify how they need to be stored/segregated and the possibility of replacing with non-hazardous products/materials/substances. * Identify prospects to reduce, recycle or re-use the waste. * Set waste minimisation targets. In the first instance, it is important to look at the company or site as a whole and identify the main raw materials and utilities used along with any wastes produced (detailing type and quantity). Itis important to determine the cost of each input and output, the quantities of materials used, and the costs associated with different forms of wastage. This will identify the areas of business producing most waste, and which therefore require priority attention in a waste minimisation review. This information should be readily available; if not, then accurate estimates may be required. ‘When calculating the cost of waste, it is important to also consider other costs, not just the discarded materials. For example, the cost of wasted raw materials, rework, lost production time, waste treatment costs, wasted labour, loss of materials to the atmosphere and to the drain, as well as the excessive use of energy and water should also be considered in the waste survey.Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. ‘The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Identify the purpose of waste monitoring.Self-Marked Answer. ‘The purpose of waste monitoring is to allow organisations to determine the composition and hazardous qualities of their waste. It is also about regularly measuring their performance against the company aims and objectives.Learning Outcome 3 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Monitoring waste * The purpose and benefits of waste monitoring. + The environmental practitioner's role in monitoring solid waste: © Understanding why and when sampling is required (including compliance with legislation). © Limits of competence. © Arranging for specialist/s to undertake sampling. © Analysis of sampling reports. © Making and implementing recommendations from the analysis of sampling reports. = The purpose of waste audits.Learning Outcome 4. Learning Objectives Bs Outline appropriate control strategies and measures for solid wastes.What will be Covered in Learning Outcome 47 In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Control strategies for solid wastes * Engineering control measures to eliminate or, where not possible, reduce or render harmless solid wastes at source. * The benefits and limitations of the following solid waste treatment techniques: ® Incineration, pyrolysis, gasification and plasma arc, © Biomechanical waste treatment (BWT). ® Fermentation, anaerobic digestion and composting * Landfill © The principles of site selection ® Behaviour of wastes (including materials banned from landfills) ®© Site management controls. ° Zero waste to landfill4.0 - Engineering Controls for Solid Waste. As there are many different engineering control measures that can be used for solid waste, this, course will focus on a few of the main ones. These methods utilise heat or biological process to dispose of the waste. The processes that will be covered over the following pages are’ * Incineration: Pyrolysis. Gasification; Plasma arc. Biomechanical waste treatment. Fermentation. Anaerobic digestion. Composting,4.1 - Incineration. Large-scale thermal treatment plants are designed to burn waste as efficiently as possible, usually recovering energy. ‘Waste is burnt under controlled conditions and at high temperatures. Heat released from the combustion of this waste is recovered and used to generate electricity and, or to provide steam or hot water. The volume of waste needing disposal following large-scale thermal treatment is reduced by approximately 90% thus reducing the need for landfill Proposals which seek to utilise sites which offer the potential for combined heat and power (CHP) and export of energy to businesses, which would otherwise use fossil fuel sources are generally received more positively than other proposals and this is also a requirement of the EU Waste Incineration Directive. The resultant output of a thermal treatment plant is ash, which is generally far more stable than the solid waste input, mainly due to the oxidation of the organic component of the waste stream. All combustible material is burnt and the unburned residue (known as ‘bottom ash’) is deposited into a quench tank. Primary air is pumped through from under the grate to aid combustion, whilst secondary air is delivered over the fire to enable good combustion in the gas phase. The hot gases from the combustion chamber are directed to a boiler, where heat is recovered as superheated steam through a series of heat exchangers. Approximately 2,000-kilowatt hours of heat per ton of waste can be recovered, of which 90% is available for export once a certain fraction has been used for running the plant. In terms of electricity generation, for every 100,000 tons of waste, approximately 7 megawatts (MW) of electricity can be exported to the national grid, enough to meet the needs of about 11,000 homes. Most modern large-scale plants are either fully or semi-automated using state of the art computerised control systems. There is often a control room sited above the tipping hall to monitor the loading of the feed hopper and from where the waste feed grabs can be operated. Air emissions and plant performance parameters are continuously monitored with real-time outputs displayed on computer screens in the control roomWASTE INCINERATION PLANTS. (SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM) Figure 1. A waste incinerator plant. Source M&C TechGroup, Germany; (https:/[Link]- [Link]/erviindustries/Waste-Incineration-Plants/faccessed 9th October 2018). Benefits & Limitations. Benefits Have tight monitoring requirements. Reduces the volume of waste by up to 90%. ‘Able to operate in areas of limited space for landfil. Produces energy. ‘Ash produced can be recycled as a construction aggregate. Avoids the release of methane. Destroys pathogens and toxins found in clinical and hazardous waste. Limitations High operation and construction costs Creates some pollution stil. Health effects of dioxin and heavy metal emissions. Has a lifetime of 25-30 years. Local community opposition as visually undesirable. Provides a barrier to recycling as resources are used for lenergy production. ‘Once an incinerator investigated. Bullding and operating requires a long contract period to recover the inital investment costs in place better options are not Figure 2. Table showing the benefits and Limitations of incineration.INCINERATION ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Figure 3. Infographic on the benefits and limitations of incineration.4.2 - Pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition process which chemically bums waste, in the absence of oxygen. Itis a treatment applied to organic products, where they are exposed to high temperatures (200°C-300°C) and chemically broken down. Recycled Gas, 41. Pretreatment of Biomass 3. Char Collection 4. Quench System ash 2. Pyrolysis Reaction 5. Bio-oll Storage Figure 4. Pyrolysis diagram courtesy of biofuels education projects funded by the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Benefits & Limitations. Benefits Limitations It is an inexpensive, simple technology. Reguires high operational and investment costs. Reduces waste going to landfill and greenhouse Air purification installations necessary to further gas emissions. treat flue gases from pyrolysis. Reduces the risk of water pollution. The ash produced contains high levels of heavy metals - which is a hazardous waste that needs to be disposed of correctly. Inexpensive when compared to landfill It can be a rapid process to construct pyrolysis plants. Pathogens and toxic components are degraded by high temperatures.Use produced gases as a fuel source so able to limit the supply of external fuel Figure 5. The benefits and limitations of pyrolysis.4.3 - Gasification. Gasification is the burning of solid organic or carbonaceous material at high temperatures (greater than 700°C) with a small amount of controlled oxygen so the combustion process is not completed This process produces a synthetic gas called syngas, a source of renewable energy which can be used as a fuel UPDRAFT DOWNDRAFT Fuel fuel FLUIDIZEDBED ENT RAINED BED —. fuel Oxygenand Gas fy steam ~Gas adh Slag-— Figure 6. Gasifier types courtesy of Kopiersperre. Benefits ‘Syngas can be used as a fuel source for the process. The process uses materials which would have been disposed of, The high temperatures involved refines out any corrosive ash elements for cleaner gas production. ‘The slag by-product is non-hazardous and can be used in roadbed construction and in roofing materials. Ithas a higher energy recovery efficiency. Limited production of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides. Eliminates the need for incineration & Landfll of biomass waste, Uses less water than traditional coal-based plants. Operating costs are lower than coal-powered plants. Requires less pollution control equipment. Uses less space than landfill, Reduced methane emissions, Reduced use of fossil fuels Limitations Requires waste segregation to be undertaken prior to the process starting Itis a sensitive complex process. Ithas a higher capital and operational costs compared to mass bum incinerators, There isan increased technical experiance required compared to that required for mass burn incineration Can undermine recycling and composting unless the waste is actualy a residual waste (after recycling and composting has occurred). Figure 7. The benefits and limitations of gasification.4.4 - Plasma Arc. Plasma arc treatment involves heating waste at very high temperatures (1000-15,000°C) melting the waste and then vapourising it, using a plasma arc. plasma arcis an electrical device which blows gas (oxygen, nitrogen or argon) through an electric spark, creating a super-hot plasma torch. This process produces two by-products; syngas and a solid waste aggregate. Syngas is piped away and scrubbed (if required) whilst the solid aggregate is removed. Gas EEC Recyclables Plasma arc Dirty syngas Aggregate Figure 8. Image depicting a plasma arc. Source: Woodford, Chris. (2012/2018) Plasma arc recycling. Retrieved from https:/[Link]/plasma-arc-recycling. html. [Accessed (8th October 2018). Benefits & Limitations. Benefits Cleaner and greener than incineration. Produces no or very little air pollution and no dust/ash. The solid aggregate is useful for road building and construction. Limitations Itis a largely an untried process and most of the drawbacks are unknown currently and it is not known if itis more economically or environmentally better than other methods. Produces heavy metals and toxic dioxins which need to be disposed of Undermines recycling as why would people take the effort to recycle if everything can be burnt in this process.Can use most types of waste. Can use existing landfill materials so can reduce landfilled waste. itis carbon negative therefore produces more energy than it uses. Produces Syngas which can be burned to make energy. Figure 9. The benefits and limitations of the plasma arc process.4.5 - Biomechanical Waste Treatment (BWT). Biomechanical waste treatment involves the combination of biological and mechanical processes to treat waste. ‘The mechanical process is usually automated and can involve a sorting facilty that undertakes screening/reduction/shredding/separation of waste to remove contaminants and separate out recyclable products so that the waste going for the biological processes are organic-rich and ideal for biological treatment. The biological treatment consists usually of one of the following methods: * Anaerobic digestion which uses anaerobic microorganisms to break down the biodegradable component of the waste. + Composting where the organic component is broken down by naturally occurring aerobic microorganisms. * Bio-drying where waste is rapidly heated by aerobic microbes. Note: ABT in the diagram below stands for Advanced Biological Treatment. ene Cee i = 1 et on ! 1 1 1 I rot ’ rot i rot 2 no 1 1 ers Refuse fours | fe derived fuel evra > Sorting before ABT ABT before sorting 2.9. biodrying a Marker ialurorejacts Pre-treatment betore andi Benefits & limitations. Benefits Limitations Flexible as the modular design can be switched for different Complex process. processes, Reduces the contribution of greenhouse gasses and global Requires a permit and are subject to rigorous monitoring. warming.Produces renewable biogas, Bad quality of compost produced as is polluted. ‘Allows for materials to be recycledirecovered The quality of sol produced is of low quality. Produces only a small fraction of waste Can have nuisance effects such as bad odours and bacteria inthe neighbourhood Cheap and fast to build the facilities, The market for the outputs/by-products is small. Produces soil which can be used for land reclamation. Some waste wil stil need to be disposed of at a lanai. Reduces waste disposed to landil Proven technologies used internationally. Figure 11. Benefits and limitations of biomechanical waste treatment.4.6 - Fermentation. Fermentation involves the chemical conversion of organic waste, by enzymes produced by microorganisms, into smaller compounds such as gas, acids, alcohol and nutrient residues. Its basically the biological digestion of organic waste by microorganisms. Substrate Diganie waste Prectreated substrate Solid fermentation Siring, aeration Fermented product (Biocatalyst) Direct aplication runion andtuman earn | | Animated sro! Sel Figure 12. Fermentation process. Benefits & Limitations. Benefits. Limitations. Produces biogas which can Bo uses to gonerte Roques constant moran fe processes. poavelorey, Reduces the aroun of rpnic wane ging olandM. tna law process Reduce the domand on fn fs The by-podels ar ot nays pure and eu further Hie faces eras of grsntoune gone Production hea high cots and enero se Cleaner environmental process that other types of waste reduction methods. Utlises a waste that is widely available. Bioethanol by-product can be used as a clean fuel for transportFigure 13. The benefits and limitations of the fermentation of waste.4.7 - Anaerobic Digestion. Anaerobic Digestion is the biological treatment of biodegradable organic waste in the absence of ‘oxygen, utilising microbial activity to break down the waste in a controlled environment. Anaerobic digestion results in the generation of: * Biogas: a methane-rich gas used to generate heat and, or electricity * Fibre: (or digestate) Which is nutrient rich and can potentially be used as a soil conditioner and; * Liquor: a potential liquid fertiliser. Potential feedstock for anaerobic digestion facilities include sewage sludge, agricultural wastes, municipal solid wastes and certain industrial wastes. It is estimated that typically between 40% and 70% of municipal solid waste is made up of readily biodegradable organic waste, which could be diverted to such a use. The main process steps in the digestion of biodegradable solid wastes (MSW) are pre-treatment, anaerobic digestion and post-treatment. Pre-treatment involves the separation of biodegradable organic waste from other components of the waste stream such as plastics, metals and stones. The particle size of the coarser organic waste is then reduced to aid digestion. The anaerobic digestion process takes place within the digester, a warmed, sealed, airless container. Upon introduction of the feedstock, bacteria within the digester ferment the organic feedstock and convert it into biogas, a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane and small amounts of other gases. How 2S _ ol Anaerobic 4 ot Digestion chi +. works : 6~— Dawe Figure 14. An overview of the Anaerobic Digestion process. There are two main types of anaerobic digestion, which are characterised by the digestion stage of the process: * Mesophilic Digestion: The feedstock remains in the digester for 15 to 30 days at atemperature of approximately 30 to 35°C. * Thermophilic Digestion: The feedstock stays in the digester for a shorter period, around 12 to 14 days, at a higher temperature of 55°C. During the anaerobic digestion process, between 30 and 60% of the feedstock is converted into biogas. This gas must be burned, and can be used to generate heat and power, via an engine or turbine, a gas bumer or boiler, or a vehicle engine. When generating electricity, the use of a combined heat and power system enables heat to be removed in the first instance to maintain the temperature of the digester, then surplus energy can be used for other purposes or sold to the grid As more feedstock is introduced to the system, the digestate is pumped into a storage tank. Biogas continues to be produced in this tank and collection and combustion of this may be both an economic advantage and a safety requirement. This residual digestate can then be separated to produce a fibre and a liquor. Depending on the constituents of the feedstock, the digestate must usually be refined post- treatment for use in horticulture or agriculture. The material may be spread directly onto farmland as a slurry or separated into a solid and a liquid fraction. The solid fraction can be made into a fully stabilised compost by subjecting it to a maturation process, and the liquid fraction may be recycled for the dilution of fresh waste, sent to a wastewater treatment plant, or applied to farmland as liquid fertiliser. Benefits & limitations. Benefits Limitations Reduction in the amount of organic waste going to landfil. Needs to run effectively to reduce odour nuisance. The biogas produced is a source of renewable energy. Does not remove ammonia and nitrogen, Reduces pollution due to nitrogen stripping processes, Need to maintain a sultable environment in the digester. Less odour than a landfill ste To achieve optimum performance certain parameters must be tightly controlled e.g. temperature, pH, etc. The foriliser produced is easily absorbed by plants and has Requires a high intial cost to develop the digester. less odour and agents that could cause disease Fewer methane emissions as tis captured during the Requires technical/expert knowledge of the process to process. operate effectively. Uslises materials that are widely available Figure 15. The benefits and limitations of anaerobic digestion for waste.4.8 - Composting. Composting is a biological process in which microorganisms convert biodegradable organic matter into a stabilised residue known as compost. The process uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide and water vapour as by-products. The Composting Process Mi Organic waste + 0, ———-""S_, Co, + H,0 + Heat + Compost Microorganisms Sources of carbon _ and nitrogen _ Woter Oxygen Compost ec cas ated Oe Figure 16. Composting process. Composting plants are typically located in rural or urban fringe sites and receive between 1,000 and 40,000 tons of biodegradable municipal solid wastes (BMSW) and industrial wastes per year to convert to composted products. The biodegradable waste feedstock is shredded into finer particle sizes to increase the waste surface area and speed up the composting process. The shredded waste is then commonly formed into rows of 1.5 to 3 metres in height for composting or treated in an ‘in-vessel' system (this term is used to cover a wide range of composting systems, all of which feature the enclosed composting of waste, such as silos, tunnels and enclosed bays). The rows are tured on a regular basis or air forced through the piles using fans (known as ‘forced aeration’) to ensure they remain aerobic until the oxygen demand of the process can be met through natural diffusion of fresh air into the pile (known as the curing or maturation stage). The row composting process typically lasts between 8 to 16 weeks from reception of the waste to production of the final compost. In-vessel composting typically takes between 7 to 21 days, with a maturation time commonly dependent upon the final use of the compost. ‘Odour production at poorly run or poorly sited composting sites can lead to public complaints and concems and is a major cause of site closures. The greatest potential for odour production occurs when fresh and partially composted materials are allowed to sit for excessive periods withoutaeration, or if materials become too wet. This can lead to anaerobic decomposition, causing the most noxious odours. These gases are then released as soon as the aerobic material is disturbed Benefits & Limitations. Benefits Limitations Low initial capital investment needed to start off Need to pasteurise the composted material to remove ‘composting facility. infectious agents. Produces a solid fertlisr. Requires detailed monitoring Lower impact on the environment by using processed waste Can cause odour ifthe process is not efficient. onthe land Requires a large energy input to tum and aerate the compost rowsipiles. May retain pollutants such as heavy metals Figure 17. The benefits and limitations of composting.4.9 - Landfill. Landfil sites are still currently the primary disposal route for waste. The term ‘landfill’ relates to waste disposal below or above ground level. Landfill sites can range in size from just a few hectares (Ha) to over 100 Ha and can receive inert, non-hazardous (including municipal solid waste (MSW)) or hazardous wastes. Similarly, waste throughputs can vary widely between sites with some receiving as little as 10,000 tons per annum whilst major strategic sites may receive over 1,000,000 tons per annum. Acommon misconception is that landfills are simply holes in the ground into which waste is tipped. However, modem landfil practice requires a significant degree of engineering to contain the waste, control emissions and minimise potential environmental effects. Many landfills operate on a phased cell system whereby, as one cell is being filled, another is being prepared, and another is being completed or restored (usually to an agricultural, amenity or nature conservation after-use) ‘Waste is tipped by incoming transfer or collection vehicles at a designated ‘working face’ on the cell where active disposal is taking place. The waste is then spread out and compacted by a purpose-built compactor in a series of layers, or "its. At the end of the working day, the final itis often covered by ‘dally cover’ usually consisting of soil or another inert material to reduce odour, litter spread and access to the waste by birds and vermin Figure 18. A new Cell being lined THE FUTURE OF LANDFILL. The landfil route is currently being discouraged through Directives and Regulations to encourage more sustainable waste management practices such as minimisation, re-use, recycling and energy recovery. Nevertheless, in the foreseeable future, landfill will still be required to dispose of the residues of other waste management operations such as incinerator ashes and materials recovery facility (MRF) residues, ete.4.10 - Landfill Site Selection. Landfil sites need to be selected carefully to avoid additional environmental impacts Landfills sites should be situated * Close to where waste is generated to reduce the transport costs and the associated environmental implications. * With consideration to the geological suitability - ensuring no fault lines or fractured geological structures which would allow gas to move unpredictably. + Away from water bodies to avoid contamination * In areas where the water levels in the groundwater table are sufficiently below the base of the landfill. + Away from settlements to avoid issues of nuisance. * Away from unstable areas - those prone to flooding, subsidence, landslides, significant seismic risk and avalanches. * In areas that are of a suitable size to provide for the required needs for several years. * Not in areas of significant environmental sensitivity * Close to local roads etc to allow for the ease of transportation. Landfills need to be in areas where planning permission has been granted and must be correctly designated as either inert, hazardous or non-hazardous. Developers will need to undertake a full environmental impact assessment to determine the specific risks and issues which may arise from each potential landfill site Often there will need to be a public consultation which will determine where a site may be able to be built. Public objections may lead to a new site having to be located.4.11 - Behaviour of Wastes in Landfills. Landfill sites are still the most commonly used form of waste disposal and need to be managed appropriately. Modern technology and legislation have helped landiil sites progress from a ‘large hole’ in the ground to becoming fully modernised and highly engineered. However, landfill sites can bring major problems, such as: * Landfill gas. * Leachate. * Nuisance. Inert Wastes. Inert wastes are defined as those wastes, which do not undergo any significant physical, chemical or biological transformations when deposited in a landfill site. Examples of inert wastes include bricks, concrete, clean hardcore, sand and certain soils. ‘At most existing inert landiil sites, insignificant quantities of landfill gas are produced and any leachate generated, is generally weak with low concentrations of contaminants. Biodegradable Waste. Biodegradable waste is waste that can be broken down by microorganisms often producing methane and other greenhouse gases. The processes of degradation of biodegradable wastes in a landfill involve not only biological processes but also physical and chemical processes. The complete degradation of biodegradable wastes can take several decades to complete.4.12 - Landfill Gas. Landfill gas is a mix of different gases, mainly methane and carbon dioxide, with trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds (VOCs), water vapour and trace organics; which give the gas its foul smell Landfill gas is a natural by-product created when anaerobic bacteria within the landfill, decompose the organic waste. ‘As methane and carbon dioxide are greenhouse gases, their production in landfill sites can have an influence on climate change. Many older sites, built before climate change conventions, did not have systems in place to collect and prevent the release of such gases so now have been required to have gas dispersion measures installed.4.13 - Landfill Leachate. Leaching occurs when soluble components are dissolved (leached) out of a solid material by percolating water. Leachate may also carry insoluble liquids (such as oils) and small particles in the form of suspended solids. Depending upon the nature of the waste types deposited at a site, there may also be potential for the introduction of additional contaminants because of the biodegradation of wastes. Landfill leachate is a potentially polluting liquid which, unless managed and, or treated, and eventually returned to the environment in a carefully controlled manner, may cause harmful effects on the groundwater and surface water that surround a landfill site Hazardous and non-hazardous landfills may produce leachate that has elevated concentrations of contaminants, such as ammoniacal nitrogen, heavy metals and organic compounds. These could, if not contained and managed, affect both surface and groundwater resources. Even inert waste landfills can if not managed correctly, generate uncontrolled run-off, which could contain high loads of suspended solids that could affect surface water quality and therefore such sites stil require some monitoring of surface and groundwater quality.4.14 - Nuisance. Ifa landifll site is not managed effectively it can become a nuisance to local residents Such nuisances include: * Strong odours which can be made worse by strong winds carrying the odour further. * Increases in litter being blown from the site or falling from waste transportation vehicles. * Increased noise from increased traffic to the landifil site * The attraction of pests and vermin such as flies and rats, etc.4.15 - Banned Landfill Materials. In the European Union, the Landfill Directive states that the following wastes are not accepted at landfill sites: Liquid waste. Flammable waste. Explosive or oxidising waste. Hospital or other clinical waste Used tyres. Any other type of waste that does not meet the acceptance criteria laid down in Annex II Annex Il The acceptance criteria for waste may be based on other pieces of legislation andlor on the properties of the waste. “Criteria for acceptance at a specific class of landfill must be derived from considerations pertaining to: * protection of the surrounding environment (in particular groundwater and surface water), * protection of the environmental protection systems (e.g. liners and leachate treatment systems), * protection of the desired waste-stabilisation processes within the landfill, * protection against human-health hazards.”4.16 - Site Management Controls. In this section, some controls shall be discussed covering different issues arising from landfils. Leachate control. * Control water entering the landfill * Line landfills, * Collect leachate. * Treat leachate. Landfill gas control. * Monitor landfill gas. * Install gas collection systems. * Gas barriers to prevent migration of gas. Litter control. * Shelter of tipping areas. * Use protected tipping areas especially for high wind periods or close until the wind levels die down. * Daily inspection of the perimeter for waste and litter picking * Enclosed or covered vehicles. * Fencing screening bunds, buffer zones, canopy nets to enclose the working area and prevent windblown litter - these need to be regularly cleaned and maintained, Odour control. Effective compaction. Adequate cover. Rapid deposition of foul-smelling waste. * Using covered trenches. Effective landfill gas collection. Rapids burial of excavated waste Noise control. Vehicle and equipment conform to standards in relation to noise performance. ‘Sound reduction equipment can be fitted to tools and equipment. Acoustic screens for noise producing equipment such as generators. Speed limits and good quality road surfacing, Pest control. * Good housekeeping * Covering of materials. * Proper compaction of waste. * Burial of waste with soil Regular inspections. Employee pest control specialists. Bird control.* Cover waste, * Eliminating acceptance of waste that provides sources of food for birds. Deterrents - models of birds' predators. Distress calls and sounds of predators playing around the site. Nets around the work areas. Utilise birds of prey. * Flying kites above the landfill. Dust/mud control. Wheel cleaning on site. Good quality access road surfacing. Damp down access roads. Mechanical sweeping of access roads.4.17 - Zero Waste to Landfill. As organisations are releasing the financial benefits in reducing waste; helped along by increasing landfil taxes and governmental incentives, many now set waste reduction targets. One such target is zero waste to landfill This target aims to ensure that other options in the waste hierarchy are used, avoiding the landfill option. But is this really achievable? ‘Some waste is inevitably sent to a landfill after treatment even if the organisation has implemented the most efficient system. For example, ash, a by-product of a waste energy recovery process, often still ends up at a landfill, as are regulated hazardous substances which have no other legally permitted method of treatment. In order to implement a zero waste to landfill target, organisations need to understand where their waste stream ends up. There are cases of waste carrier fraud, where waste is sent to landfill without the producers’ knowledge and consent. Therefore, the correct waste management organisation needs to be employed, with regular audits conducted on their activities. Organisations need to ensure that they can see the full audit trail for their waste. However, despite the fact that an organisation's best efforts may still result in some waste going to landfill should not deter them from seeking to achieve this waste goal. Setting such a goal provides organisations with a good starting point for the continual improvement of their waste management systems and a move towards a circular economy. The Carbon Trust has noted that the definition of zero waste to landfill can significantly vary between different organisations, therefore to have a credible zero waste to landfill claim, organisations should seriously consider seeking independent verification.Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Outline the benefits and limitations of using incinerators for waste disposal.Self-Marked Answer. Benefits & Limitations. Benefits Have tight monitoring requirements. Reduces the volume of waste by up to 90%. Able to operate in areas of limited space for landfill. Produces energy. Ash produced can be recycled as a construction aggregate. Avoids the release of methane. Destroys pathogens and toxins found in clinical and hazardous waste. Limitations High operation and construction costs, Creates some pollution still. Health effects of dioxin and heavy metal emissions. Has a lifetime of 25-30 years. Local community opposition as visually undesirable. Provides a barrier to recycling as resources are used for energy production. (Once an incinerator is in place better options are Building and operating requires a long contract period to recover the initial investment costs.Learning Outcome 4 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Control strategies for solid wastes * Engineering control measures to eliminate or, where not possible, reduce or render harmless solid wastes at source. * The benefits and limitations of the following solid waste treatment techniques: ® Incineration, pyrolysis, gasification and plasma arc, ® Biomechanical waste treatment (BWT). ° Fermentation, anaerobic digestion and composting. + Landfil © The principles of site selection. © Behaviour of wastes (including materials banned from landfills); ® Site management controls. © Zero waste to landfill.Element 7 - Lesson Summary. CUTS) In this element we have covered: Responsible waste management * The use of hierarchies in waste management plans. * Principles of waste minimisation. * Hazardous and non-hazardous landfill. * The importance of responsible waste management. * The concept of a circular economy. * The role of design in reducing waste. * Steps to responsible waste management: segregation, identification and labelling, storage, transportation and disposal. Benefits of waste management * Economic argument for waste management. © Setting of targets for waste minimisation, recovery rates and waste diverted from landfilincineration. ‘© Education and training of workers in the importance of waste minimisation. ‘* Weatherproofing and appropriate storage of materials.+ Engagement of authorised waste contractors. Monitoring waste * The purpose and benefits of waste monitoring. * The environmental practitioner's role in monitoring solid waste: © Understanding why and when sampling is required (including compliance with legislation) ® Limits of competence. ° Arranging for specialist/s to undertake sampling, © Analysis of sampling reports. © Making and implementing recommendations from the analysis of sampling reports. * The purpose of waste audits. Control strategies for solid wastes. * Engineering control measures to eliminate or, where not possible, reduce or render harmless solid wastes at source. * The benefits and limitations of the following solid waste treatment techniques: ® Incineration, pyrolysis, gasification and plasma arc, © Biomechanical waste treatment (BWT). ° Fermentation, anaerobic digestion and composting * Landfill © The principles of site selection. ® Behaviour of wastes (including materials banned from landfills); ® Site management controls. ° Zero waste to landfillQuestion to Submit to Tutor. Please find below a question to submit to a tutor for feedback on your answer and understanding of the command word. Click on the submit button to bring up the email address to send your answer to. Using suitable examples, describe how the ‘waste hierarchy’ could be applied to minimising waste in an office environment (40).