1.

1 Measurements in Physics 
Standard/scientific form​ - a form of writing large numbers. Eg: 123000 = 1.23 x 10​5 
 
Fundamental  quantities:  ​a  unit  of  measurement  for  a  measurable  physical  quantity  from  which  every 
other  unit  or  quantity  can be derived. ​Derived ​quantities are derived from the multiplication or division 
of one fundamental quantity with another.  
Base quantity  Unit   Symbol 

Length  meter  m 

Mass  kilogram  kg 

Time  seconds  s 

Electric current  amperes  A 

Thermodynamic temperature  kelvin  K 

Amount of substance  moles  mol. 

 
Orders of magnitude 
These are numbers on a scale where each number is rounded to the nearest power of 10. 
For eg: 2000m = 2 x 10​3​ ⇒ 10​3​ (when the number is less than 5, just the power is taken) 
: 5000m = 5 x 10​3​ ⇒ 10 x 10 3​​ = 10​4​ (when greater than or equal to 5, estimate to 10) 
 
Orders of magnitude to memorize 
Diameter of proton/nucleus = 10​-15​ m 
Diameter of atom = 10​-10​m 
Diameter of the universe = 10​25​m 
Mass of an electron = 9.11 x 10​-31​kg ⇒ 10 x 10​-31​ = 10​-30 
Mass of the universe = 10​50 
Time it takes light to travel across a nucleus = s/v = 10​-15​/10​8​ (from 3 x 10​8​) = 10​-23​s 
Age of the universe = 10​17​ s 
 
Also  know  how  to  use  metric  multipliers  (eg:  kilo,  mega,  deca,  deci, centi, etc.), compare ratios, values, 
and approximations, and estimate significant figures as appropriate. 
 
Significant figures 
● A non-zero digit will always be significant (eg: 345 has 3.s.f) 
● Zeros that occur between non-zero digits are always significant (eg: 303 has 3.s.f) 
● Non-sandwiched zeros to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant (eg: 0.34 is 2.s.f) 
● Zeros that occur to the right of a decimal point are significant (eg: 1.00 is 3.s.f.) 
● When there is no decimal point, trailing zeros are not significant (eg: 400 is 1.s.f) 
 
1.2 Uncertainties and errors 
If  the  same  thing  is  measured 
repeatedly,  and  you  get  the  same 
value,  then  the  result  is  ​precise​.  If  the 
measured value is close to the expected 
value, then the result is a​ ccurate 
 
Types of error 
Random error​ - random fluctuations in the measured data. This is caused due to​: 
● Poor readability of the instrument 
● The effects of changes in the surroundings 
● The carelessness of the experimenter 
Precise  experiments  have  small  random  errors.  To  reduce  random  error,  take  more  repeats,  and 
average​. 
 
Systematic error​ - occur when there is something wrong with the method or the equipment. For eg: 
● Zero error​ - When the zero setting of a piece of apparatus shifts after constant usage, 
● Meter ruler edges are chipped/rounded 
● Improper calibration 
Accurate experiments have a small systematic error. To reduce, use instruments of higher quality 
 
Absolute uncertainty in measurement 
Two ways of calculation (larger value is taken as the uncertainty): 
Option 1: 
(maximum measurement - minimum measurement)/2 
 
Option 2:  
Take  the  arithmetic  mean  of  the  measurements,  and  the  mean  is  considered  to  be  the  literature  value. 
The greatest deviation of any of the measurements is taken as the uncertainty. 
 
Absolute and Fractional uncertainties 
Uncertainties  in  the  form  of  ​±Δ ​ x  are  known  as  ​absolute  uncertainties.  ​These values have the same unit as 
the  quantity  and  should  have  the  same  s.f.  Suppose  the  diameter  of  a  ball  is  10cm,  and  there  is  an 
absolute  uncertainty  of  1cm.  Dividing  the  absolute  uncertainty  by  the  value  itself  gives  us  a 
dimensionless  value known as the ​fractional uncertainty​. The fractional uncertainty would be written as 
1/10 = 0.1 (10% as a ​percentage of the uncertainty​).  
 
Uncertainty in equipment 
For  an  ​analog  scale,  the  ​uncertainty  is  ±  half  of  the  smallest  scale  division.  For  a  ​digital  ​scale,  the 
uncertainty​ is ± 1 in the least significant digit 
 
 
Propagation of uncertainties -------------------------------------------> 
 
Significant figures in calculations 
● Addition and subtraction 
○ When  values  are  added  or  subtracted,  the  number  of 
decimal  places  on  the  least  precise  data  determines  the 
precision of the calculated value.  
 
● Multiplication and division 
○ Whenever  you  multiply  or  divide  data,  the  answer should 
be quoted to the same number of significant figures as the least precise data 
 
Drawing graphs 
Error bars 
The table below compares the masses of plasticine balls of different diameters. 
 
Since  we  have  just  4  data  points,  there  is  not  enough 
distribution to use the standard deviation formula. Instead we: 
 
 
 
 
Even  though  the  uncertainty  is  exaggerated,  this  calculation is 
accepted for smaller calculations. 
 
The uncertainties can be represented using error bars on a graph. 
 
For easier analysis, this model has to be ​linearized​: 
⍴ = mass/volume 
Volume = (4𝜋r​3​)/3 
∴ ⍴ = 3m/4𝜋r​3 
When rearranged: r​3​ = 3m/4𝜋⍴ 
r = d/2, so r​3​ = d​3​/8 = 3m/4𝜋⍴ 
d​3​ = 6m/𝜋⍴ 
 
6/𝜋⍴  is  a  constant,  so  d​3  must  be  proportional  to  m.  Using  an  extension  of  the initial table, a linearized 
model can now be plotted. The length of the error bar in either direction represents the uncertainty. 
 
As  per  the  formula,  d​3  is  directly 
proportional to m. But the line does not pass 
through  the origin. This is due to ​systematic 
error 
 
Uncertainty in the gradient 
From the equation d​3​ = 6m/𝜋⍴, we know that the gradient of the line is 6/𝜋⍴ (y = mx+c). 
By calculation, the gradient of the line should be 1.797. 
1.797 = 6/𝜋⍴, So ⍴ = 6/1.797𝜋 = 1.063 g/cm​3 
To find the uncertainty we draw the steepest and the least steep lines through the error bars: 
 
This  gives  the  steepest  grad.  =  1.856  cm​3​/g  and  least  steep 
grad.  = 1.746 cm​3​/g. So uncertainty in the gradient using the 
smaller sample formula gives: 
 
(1.856 - 1.746)/2 = 0.06cm​3​/g 
 
 
If we enter the max and min values of the gradient, we obtain a max and min density: 
⍴​max​ = 6/1.746𝜋 = 1.09 and ⍴​min​ = 6/1.856𝜋 = 1.03 
Therefore the density can be written as 1.06 ​±​ 0.03 g/cm​3 
 
Relationships (for data recording) ​(Think about uncertainty propagation when linearizing) 
Linearisation by manipulating the axis  Linearisation using logs 

   

Linear  Non-linear 

   

 
 
1.3 Vectors and Scalars 
A v​ ector​ is a quantity with both direction and magnitude 
 
Vector Addition 
Vectors  can  be  represented  using  arrows.  The  length  of  the  arrow  is  proportional 
to  the  magnitude  of  the  vector,  and  the  arrowhead  indicates  the  direction  of  the 
vector. To add vectors, the arrows are placed from tip to tail, to give a r​ esultant​.  
 
Basic trigonometry (applies to most vector problems) 
 
These  equations  only  apply  to  right-angled  triangles.  The  hypotenuse  is 
the  longest  side  of  the  triangle.  The three sides of a triangle are connected 
by the ​Pythagoras theorem: 
 
Hypotenuse​2​ = Opposite​2​ + Adjacent​2 
 
For  ​vectors  in  1D​,  there  is  only  forward  and  backward, so the magnitudes 
of  the  vectors  are  added  to  give  a  resultant.  If  +ve,  the resultant direction 
is forward and vice versa. 
 
Subtracting vectors 
A  negative  vector  is  in  an  opposite  direction  to  a  positive  vector. 
Hence,  to  subtract  a  vector,  you  just  add  the  vector  with  the 
negative magnitude to the other vector. 
 
 
Scalar​ quantities have magnitude but no direction.