PLL Phase Locked Loop

The phase locked loop or PLL is a particularly useful circuit block that is widely used
in radio frequency or wireless applications.
In view of its usefulness, the phase locked loop or PLL is found in many wireless,
radio, and general electronic items from mobile phones to broadcast radios,
televisions to Wi-Fi routers, walkie talkie radios to professional communications
systems and vey much more.
Phase locked loop, PLL applications
The phase locked loop takes in a signal to which it locks and can then output this
signal from its own internal VCO. At first sight this may not appear particularly useful,
but with a little ingenuity, it is possible to develop a large number of phase locked
loop applications.
Some phase lock loop applications include:
• FM demodulation: One major phase locked loop application is that of a FM
demodulator. With PLL chips now relatively cheap, this PLL applications
enables high quality audio to be demodulated from an FM signal.
• AM demodulation: Phase locked loops can be used in the synchronous
demodulation of amplitude modulated signals. Using this approach, the PLL
locks onto the carrier so that a reference within the receiver can be generated.
As this corresponds exactly to the frequency of the carrier, it can be mixer
with the incoming signal to synchronous demodulate the AM.
• Indirect frequency synthesizers: Use within a frequency synthesizer is one
of the most important phase locked loop applications. Although direct digital
synthesis is also used, indirect frequency synthesis forms one of the major
phase locked loop applications.
• Signal recovery: The fact that the phase locked loop is able to lock to a
signal enables it to provide a clean signal, and remember the signal frequency
if there is a short interruption. This phase locked loop application is used in a
number of areas where signals may be interrupted for short periods of time,
for example when using pulsed transmissions.
• Timing distribution: Another phase locked loop application is in the
distribution precisely timed clock pulses in digital logic circuits and system, for
example within a microprocessor system.
Phase locked loop basic concepts - phase
The key to the operation of a phase locked loop, PLL, is the phase difference
between two signals, and the ability to detect it. The information about the error in
phase or the phase difference between the two signals is then used to control the
frequency of the loop.
To understand more about the concept of phase and phase difference, it is possible
to visualise two waveforms, normally seen as sine waves, as they might appear on
an oscilloscope. If the trigger is fired at the same time for both signals, they will
appear at different points on the screen.
The linear plot can also be represented in the form of a circle. The beginning of the
cycle can be represented as a particular point on the circle and as a time progresses
the point on the waveform moves around the circle. Thus, a complete cycle is
equivalent to 360° or 2π radians. The instantaneous position on the circle represents
the phase at that given moment relative to the beginning of the cycle.

Phase angle of points on a sine wave

The concept of phase difference takes this concept a little further. Although the two
signals we looked at before have the same frequency, the peaks and troughs do not
occur in the same place.
There is said to be a phase difference between the two signals. This phase
difference is measured as the angle between them. It can be seen that it is the angle
between the same point on the two waveforms. In this case a zero-crossing point
has been taken, but any point will suffice provided that it is the same on both.
This phase difference can also be represented on a circle because the two
waveforms will be at different points on the cycle as a result of their phase
difference. The phase difference measured as an angle: it is the angle between the
two lines from the centre of the circle to the point where the waveform is
represented.
 Phase difference between signals
When there two signals have different frequencies, it is found that the phase
difference between the two signals is always varying. The reason for this is that the
time for each cycle is different and accordingly they are moving around the circle at
different rates.
It can be inferred from this that the definition of two signals having exactly the same
frequency is that the phase difference between them is constant. There may be a
phase difference between the two signals. This only means that they do not reach
the same point on the waveform at the same time. If the phase difference is fixed it
means that one is lagging behind or leading the other signal by the same amount,
i.e. they are on the same frequency.
Phase locked loop basics
A phase locked loop, PLL, is basically of form of servo loop. Although a PLL
performs its actions on a radio frequency signal, all the basic criteria for loop stability
and other parameters are the same. In this way the same theory can be applied to a
phase locked loop as is applied to servo loops.
 Basic phase locked loop basic diagram
A basic phase locked loop, PLL, consists of three basic elements:
• Phase comparator / detector: As the name implies, this circuit block within
the PLL compares the phase of two signals and generates a voltage
according to the phase difference between the two signals. This circuit can
take a variety of forms.
• Voltage controlled oscillator, VCO: The voltage-controlled oscillator is the
circuit block that generates the radio frequency signal that is normally
considered as the output of the loop. Its frequency can be controlled over the
operational frequency band required for the loop.
• Loop filter: This filter is used to filter the output from the phase comparator
in the phase locked loop, PLL. It is used to remove any components of the
signals of which the phase is being compared from the VCO line, i.e. the
reference and VCO input. It also governs many of the characteristics of the
loop including the loop stability, speed of lock, etc.
Phase locked loop operation
The basic concept of the operation of the PLL is relatively simple, although the
mathematical analysis and many elements of its operation are quite complicated
The diagram for a basic phase locked loop shows the three main element of the PLL:
phase detector, voltage-controlled oscillator and the loop filter.
In the basic PLL, reference signal and the signal from the voltage-controlled
oscillator are connected to the two input ports of the phase detector. The output from
the phase detector is passed to the loop filter and then filtered signal is applied to the
voltage-controlled oscillator.
 Phase locked loop diagram showing voltages
The Voltage Controlled Oscillator, VCO, within the PLL produces a signal which
enters the phase detector. Here the phase of the signals from the VCO and the
incoming reference signal are compared and a resulting difference or error voltage is
produced. This corresponds to the phase difference between the two signals.
The error signal from the phase detector passes through a low pass filter which
governs many of the properties of the loop and removes any high frequency
elements on the signal. Once through the filter the error signal is applied to the
control terminal of the VCO as its tuning voltage. The sense of any change in this
voltage is such that it tries to reduce the phase difference and hence the frequency
between the two signals. Initially the loop will be out of lock, and the error voltage will
pull the frequency of the VCO towards that of the reference, until it cannot reduce the
error any further and the loop is locked.
When the PLL, phase locked loop, is in lock a steady state error voltage is produced.
By using an amplifier between the phase detector and the VCO, the actual error
between the signals can be reduced to very small levels. However some voltage
must always be present at the control terminal of the VCO as this is what puts onto
the correct frequency.
The fact that a steady error voltage is present means that the phase difference
between the reference signal and the VCO is not changing. As the phase between
these two signals is not changing means that the two signals are on exactly the
same frequency.
The phase locked loop, PLL is a very useful building block, particularly for radio
frequency applications. The PLL forms the basis of a number of RF systems
including the indirect frequency synthesizer, a form of FM demodulator and it
enables the recovery of a stable continuous carrier from a pulse waveform. In this
way, the phase locked loop, PLL is an essential RF building tool.
VCO (Voltage controlled oscillator)

Voltage controlled oscillator is a type of oscillator where the frequency of the output
oscillations can be varied by varying the amplitude of an input voltage signal. Voltage
controlled oscillators are commonly used in frequency (FM), pulse (PM) modulators
and phase locked loops (PLL).

Another application of the voltage-controlled oscillator is the variable frequency

signal generator itself.

The block diagram of a typical voltage controlled oscillator is shown below.

Voltage controlled oscillators can be broadly classified into a linear voltage controlled
oscillators and relaxation type voltage controlled oscillators. Linear voltage controlled
oscillators are generally used to produce a sine wave. In such oscillators, an LC tank
circuit is used for producing oscillations. An active element like a transistor is used
for amplifying the output of the LC tank circuit, compensating the energy lost in the
tank circuit and for establishing the necessary feedback conditions. Here a varactor
(varicap) diode is used in place of the capacitor in the tank circuit. A varactor diode is
a type of semiconductor diode whose capacitance across the junction can be varied
by varying the voltage across the junction. Thus by varying the voltage across the
varicap diode in the tank circuit, the output frequency of the VCO can be varied.
Relaxation-type voltage controlled oscillators are used to produce a sawtooth or
triangular waveform. This is achieved by the gradual charging and sudden discharge
of a capacitor connected appropriately to an active element (UJT, PUT etc) or a
monolithic IC (LM566 etc). Nowadays relaxation type VCOs are generally realized
using monolithic ICs.

Voltage controlled oscillator using LM566 IC

LM566 is a monolithic voltage controlled oscillator from National

Semiconductors. It can be used to generates square and triangle waveforms
simultaneously. The frequency of the output waveform can be adjusted using an
external control voltage. The output frequency can be also programmed using a set
of external resistor and capacitor.
Typical applications of LM566 IC are signal generators, FM modulators, FSK
modulators, tone generators etc. The LM566 IC can be operated from a single
supply or dual supply. While using a single supply, the supply voltage range is from
10V to 24V. The IC has a very linear modulation characteristic and has excellent
thermal stability. The circuit diagram of a voltage controlled oscillator using LM566 is
shown in the figure below.
Circuit Diagram

Components

• Resistor – 4.7k ohm – 1 nos

• Resistor – 2.2k ohm – 1 nos
• Resistor – 10k ohm – 1 nos
• IC – LM566 – 1 nos
• Capacitor – 47nF – 1 nos
• Capacitor – 1nF – 1 nos

Working

Resistor R1 and capacitor C1 form the timing components. Capacitor C2 is used to

prevent the parasitic oscillations during VCO switching. Resistor R3 is used to
provide the control voltage Vc. Triangle and square wave outputs are obtained from
pins 4 and 3 respectively. The output frequency of the VCO can be obtained using
the following equation:

Fout = 2.4(V+-V5) /(R1C1V+) . Where Fout is the output frequency, R1 and C1 are
the timing components and V+ is the supply voltage.
Analog multiplier using an Emitter coupled Transistor pair:

The output currents IC1 an d IC2 are related to the differential input voltage V1 by

where V is thermal voltage and the base currents have been neglected. Combining
above eqn., difference between=the two output− currents as

The dc transfer characteristics of the emitter – coupled pair is shown in figure. It

shows that the emitter coupled pair can be used as a simple multiplier using this
configuration. When the differential input voltage V1 << VT, we can appropriate as
given by
∆IC =IEE ( V1/2VT)
The current IEE is the bias current for the emitter – coupled pair. If the current IEE is
made proportional to a second input signal V2, then
IEE =K0 (V2 - VBE)/2VT
Substituting above eqn. , we get ∆IC = K0V1 (V2 - VBE)/2VT
This arrangement is shown in figure. It is a simple modulator circuit constructed
using a differential amplifier. It can be used as a multiplier, provided V1 is small and
much less than 50mV and V2 is greater than VBE (on). But, the multiplier circuit
shown in figure has several limitations. The first limitation is that V2 is offset by
VBE (on).

The second is that V2 must always be positive which results in only a two-quadrant
multiplier operation. The third limitation is that, the tanh (X) is approximately as X,
where X = V1 /2VT. The first two limitations are overcome in the Gilbert cell.
Analog Multiplier ICs

Analog multiplier is a circuit whose output voltage at any instant is proportional to the
product of instantaneous value of two individual input voltages.
Important applications of these multipliers are multiplication, division, squaring and
square – rooting of signals, modulation and demodulation.
These analog multipliers are available as integrated circuits consisting of op-amps
and other circuit elements. The Schematic of a typical analog multiplier, namely,
AD633 is shown in figure.

· The AD633 multiplier is a four – quadrant analog multiplier.

· It possesses high input impedance; this characteristic makes the loading
effect on the signal source negligible.
· It can operate with supply voltages ranging from ±18V.
· IC does not require external components.
· The typical range of the two input signals is ±10V.
Schematic representation of a multiplier:
The schematic representation of an analog multiplier is shown in figure. The output
V0 is the product of the two inputs Vx and Vy is divided by a reference voltage Vref.
Normally, the reference voltage Vref is internally set to 10V. Therefore, V0 =VxVy/10.
In other words, the basic input – output relationship can be defined by KVx Vy when
K = 1/10, a constant. Thus for peak input voltages of 10V, the peak magnitude of
output voltage is 1/10 *10 *10 =10V. Thus, it can be noted that, as long as Vx < 10V
and Vy < 10V, the multiplier output will not saturate.

Multiplier quadrants:
The transfer characteristics of a typical four-quadrant multiplier are shown in figure.
Both the inputs can be positive or negative to obtain the corresponding output as
shown in the transfer characteristics.

Applications of Multiplier ICs:

The multiplier ICs are used for the following purposes:
1. Voltage Squarer
2. Frequency doublers
3. Voltage divider
4. Square rooter
5. Phase angle detector
6. Rectifier

Voltage Squarer:
Figure shows the multiplier IC connected as a squaring circuit. The inputs can be
positive or negative, represented by any corresponding voltage level between 0 and
10V. The input voltage Vi to be squared is simply connected to both the input
terminals, and hence we have, Vx = Vy = Vi and the output is V0 = KVi2. The circuit
thus performs the squaring operation. This application can be extended for
frequency doubling applications.

Frequency doublers:
Figure shows the squaring circuit connected for frequency doubling operation. A
sine-wave signal Vi has a peak amplitude of Av and frequency of f Hz. Then, the
output voltage of the doublers circuit is given by

Assuming a peak amplitude Av of 5V and frequency f of 10KHz, V0 =1.25–1.25 cos2

20000) t. The first term represents the dc term of 1.25V peak amplitude. The input
and output waveforms are shown in figure. The output waveforms ripple with twice
the input frequency in the rectified output of the input signal. This forms the principle
of application of analog multiplier as rectifier of ac signals.
The dc component of output V0 can be removed by connecting a 1µF coupling
capacitor between the output terminal and a load resistor, across which the output
can be observed.

Voltage Divider:
In voltage divider circuit the division is achieved by connecting the multiplier in the
feedback loop of an op-amp.
The voltages Vden and Vnum represent the two input voltages, Vdm forms one input of
the multiplier, and output of op-amp VoA forms the second input.
The output VOA forms the second input. The output VOM of the multiplier is
connected back of op- amp in the feedback loop. Then the characteristic operation of
the multiplier gives
Vom = KVOA Vdm (1)
As shown in figure, no input signal current can flow into the inverting input terminal of
op-amp, which is at virtual ground. Therefore, at the junction a, i1 + i2 =0, the current
i1 = Vnum / R, where R is the input resistance and the current i2 = Vom /R. With virtual
ground existing at a,
i1+i2 = Vnum / R + Vom /R = 0
KVOA Vden = - Vnum
or
voA=- vnum/Kvden
where Vnum and Vden are the numerator and denominator voltages respectively.
Therefore, the voltage division operation is achieved. Vnum can be a positive or
negative voltage and Vden can have only positive values to ensure negative
feedback. When Vdm is changed, the gain 10/Vdm changes, and this feature is used
in automatic gain control (AGC) circuits.

Square Rooter:
The divider voltage can be used to find the square root of a signal by connecting
both inputs of the multiplier to the output of the op-amp. Substituting equal in
magnitude but opposite in polarity (with respect to ground) to Vi. But we know that
Vom is one- term (Scale factor) of V0 * V0 or -Vi = Vom = V2/1 0
Solving for V0 and eliminating √-1 yields. V0 = √10|Vi |
Eqn. states that V0 equals the square root of 10 times the absolute magnitude of V i.
The input voltage Vi must be negative, or else, the op-amp saturates.
The range of Vi is between -1 and -10V. Voltages less than -1V will cause
inaccuracies in the result.
The diode prevents negative saturation for positive polarity Vi signals. For positive
values of Vi the diode connections are reversed.

Phase Angle detector:

The multiplier configured for phase angle detection measurement is shown in figure.
When two sine-waves of the same frequency are applied to the inputs of the
multiplier, the output V0 has a dc component and an AC component.
The trigonometric identity shows that Sin A sin B =1/2 (cos (A-B) – cos (A+B)).
When the two frequencies are equal, but with different phase angles, e.g. A=2πft +θ
for signal Vx and B= 2πft for signal Vy, then using the identity
[sin (2 ft+ )][sin2 ft)]=1/2[cos -cos(4 ft + )]=1/2(dc- the double frequency term)
Therefore, when the two input signals Vx and Vy are applied to the multiplier, V0 (dc)
is given by

where Vxp and Vyp are the peak voltage amplitudes of the signals Vx and Vy. Thus,
the output V0(dc) depends on the factor cos θ. A dc voltmeter can be calibrated as a
phase angle meter when the product of Vxp and Vyp is made equal to 20. Then, a (0-
1) V range dc voltmeter can directly read cos θ, with the meter calibrated directly in
degrees from a cosine table. The input and output waveforms are shown in figure.
Then the above eqn becomes V0 (dc) = cos θ, if we make the product Vxp Vyp = 20 or
in other words, Vxp – Vyp = 4.47V.