a.

Ballistics refers to the scientific analysis of

firearms, bullets, and the travel of projectiles in
flight.
[Link] experts help to interpret evidence and
establish facts during shooting-related crimes.
c. Ballistic experts determine what type of firearm
was used during the crime, what caliber of bullet
was used, how many bullets were fired, where
the shooter was positioned during the
crime, and whether the weapon
been used in previous criminal cases.
a. A firearm is a weapon, such as a gun, capable of
firing a projectile using a confined explosive.

b. The Chinese invented gunpowder over a thousand years

ago to make fireworks and weapons.
i. Gunpowder is potassium nitrate, charcoal, and
sulfur.
[Link] ignited, gunpowder expands and causes a
violent explosion.
The first firearms, called matchlock weapons, used
wicks to ignite the gunpowder.

The Matchlock secured a lighted

wick in a moveable arm which,
when the trigger was depressed,
was brought down against the flash
pan to ignite the powder. This
allowed the musketeer to keep
both hands on the gun, improving
his aim drastically.
Video Clip
 Flintlock weapons used sparks
from flint to ignite the gunpowder.

Video Clip

The flintlock improved

upon the matchlock, an open
flame was no longer needed as it
was replaced with a simple spark.
These early weapons were called muzzle-loaders,
which meant the shooter had to manually pack the
gunpowder and bullet down into the barrel.
A muzzleloader is any firearm into
which the projectile and usually
the propellant charge is loaded
from the muzzle of the gun (from
the open end of the gun’s barrel).
This is distinct from the more
popular modern designs of
breech-loading firearms.
Muzzle-loaders were replaced by
breech-loading firearms with the
advent of the cartridge.
i. A cartridge, also called a round, is a case that holds a
bullet, a small amount of exploding primer powder, and
the gunpowder.
1. A primer is a volatile compound that ignites
when struck by the firing pin of a gun. It
detonates the propellant in the cartridge.
2. The gunpowder is the propellant. It forms
gases which push the bullet out of the
cartridge and the gun barrel.
3. The casing is left behind and does not
propel with the bullet. Video Clips 1 & 2
Round or Cartridge is the
correct and accurate name for
the "entire package". It is not
accurate to use the word
bullet, as the bullet is one of
multiple components.

Primer may be placed either in

the rim of the case (rimfire) or
in the center of the base of
the case (centerfire). 
1. The firing pin hits the base of the cartridge, igniting the
primer powder.
2. The primer powder sparks through the flash hole to the
main propellant supply
3. The pressure of the explosion pushes the bullet from the
casing into the barrel
4. The bullet follows lands and grooves to spiral out of the
barrel
 Two categories: Handguns and Long guns

1. Includes rifles and shotguns which

require two hands for accurate shooting
a. Rifles fire bullets.
b. Shotguns fire small round pellets
called shots, or single projectiles
called slugs.
Shotgun shells are different from rifle and pistol cartridges.
In addition to a case, primer, and powder, there is also a wad of plastic
or fiber separating the shot from the powder.
• The wad forms a seal to allow the gases from the burning
powder to push the shot down the barrel in a uniform manner.

Instead of a bullet, shells are filled with “shot”

– small, round pellets usually made of lead or
steel. A shotgun shell can contain anywhere
from a half-dozen ball-bearing-type pieces of
metal to 1,300 pellets. It can also contain a
slug, which is a solid piece of metal.

 Police
usually carry
a shotgun in
their
cruisers
1. Handguns that can be fired with one hand are called pistols.
a. A pistol that holds several cartridges that can be fired one after
another is called a revolver.

Semiautomatic Pistol vs. Revolver

2. Today handguns are grouped as a revolver or semiautomatic.
a. Revolvers hold 6 cartridges; semiautomatic weapons
load up to 10 cartridges in a magazine clip
b. Semiautomatic weapons fire one bullet per trigger pull;
automatic weapons continuously fire as long as the
trigger remains pulled.

• The revolver utilizes a rotating

cylinder to store rounds.
• In a semiautomatic pistol the
rounds are loaded into a
magazine or clip. After a round is
fired, most semiautomatic pistols
will use the spent gasses of the
fired round to move the whole or
part of the slide rearward to
Revolvers are usually easier extract and eject the empty case.
for first time shooters to learn Forward motion of the slide will
how to shoot safely. The
chamber a new round and make
recoil seems to be less and
lighter loads can be used. it ready to fire.
 Revolvers have been around since the 1830s
and semiautomatic pistols have been with us
since the 1890s.

The majority of civilian

firearm injuries are
sustained from handguns
(86%), followed by shotguns
(8%) and rifles (5%).
  The Glock debuted in the 1980s.
Rather than six rounds, the Glock has 17. Instead of a 12-pound
trigger pull, like the traditional revolver, it has a trigger pull of
around 5 pounds so it is more accurate. The gun is much lighter,
so that if you’re wearing it on your hip for 8 or 10 hours, it will
be more comfortable. It is also more durable and will function if
it’s not cleaned properly or regularly.

The majority of civilian firearm injuries are

sustained from handguns (86%), followed by
shotguns (8%) and rifles (5%).
a.A bullet is a projectile propelled from a firearm.
[Link] are made of metals, such as copper, lead,
brass, bronze, steel, aluminum, etc.

Three Basic
Compositions
of Bullets:
Lead ½ Jacketed Jacketed
(full metal jacket)
• Cheap A lead bullet coated with • Copper improves exit
• Dense copper half way up the exposed velocity
• Soft portion of the bullet • Used to hold the
• Easy to mold • Copper improves shape of the
exit velocity bullet in an effort
• Lead promotes to maximize
mushrooming penetration
Bullets are shaped or composed differently for a variety of
purposes.
• "round-nose" - The end of the bullet is blunted for maximum
penetration.
• "hollow-point" - There is a hole in the bullet that creates
more damage, inhibits penetration, and spreads or
mushrooms on impact.
• "jacketed" - The soft lead is surrounded by another metal,
usually copper, that allows the bullet to penetrate a target
more easily.
• "wadcutter" - The front of the bullet is flattened; Used
exclusively as a practice load; Rips a hole in target paper
which is visible by the shooter.
c. Bullets are named by caliber and length.
i. Caliber refers to the diameter of the bullet, usually expressed
in hundredths of an inch (0.22 cal) or in millimeters (9 mm).
ii. Caliber also matches the diameter of the inside of a firearm’s
barrel.

Common handgun cartridges (left to right):

3-inch 12-gauge magnum shotgun shell
(for comparison), size “AA” battery (for
comparison), .454 Casull, .45 Winchester
Magnum, .44 Remington Magnum, .357
Magnum, .38 Special, .45 ACP, .38 Super, 9
mm Luger, .32 ACP, .22 LR
a. A bullet or casing at a crime scene can be linked back to
the weapon that was used to fire it based on several
unique markings:

i. Rifling Patterns
[Link] refers to grooves cut in a
spiral down the barrel of a
firearm to help increase range
and accuracy. Video Clip
[Link] though two guns may
be the same model, the
rifling inside the barrels will
differ.
As a gun is fired, the barrel marks each bullet with a pattern
unique to that gun. Therefore, bullets can be matched to the
exact gun from which they were fired.
Bullets
become
scared by
holding the
rifling as they nose of the
travel down bullet
the barrel pointing
away from
of a gun you, the
direction
the
impressions
run away
from you
(either to
your left or
right)
determines
the
direction of
twist.
• It is extremely difficult to convict some one of a murder without possession of
the murder weapon.
• In the case of a shooting, matching a bullet with a gun is essential in most cases.

Matching Procedure:
• Fire bullets from a suspected weapon
• With the aid of a comparison microscope, compare
these “test fires” to the suspected bullets
• Striations must be identical for a positive match
ii. Breech Marks
1. A breechblock prevents a cartridge from shooting
backwards towards a user as it recoils
2. Unique marks are produced on the casing as it
moves backward and hits the breechblock.
iii. Firing Pin Impressions
1. Impressions are made on the bottom of the cartridge
by the firing pin as it strikes to fire.
2. Depending on the firearm and type of cartridge used,
these marks can appear on the rim or the center of
the used cartridge.
iv. Semiautomatic and automatic weapons also have
extractor marks and ejector marks which are tiny
scratches formed from the insertion and removal from the
firing chamber.
i. A firearm databases can be searched to match ballistic evidence
from a crime-scene to registered weapons.
ii. Created in 1999, National Integrated Ballistics Information
Network, or NIBIN, is composed of two combined databases:

1. National Integrated Bullet Identification

System (NIBIS)- has records of ballistic
markings of firearms used in previous
crimes
2. Drugfire- FBI multimedia database
imaging system that holds data on
cartridge casings
a. Because of the explosion of gunpowder
in a firearm, guns leave residue when
fired.
b. GSR is trace evidence made of smoke
and unused powder particles that can
land on the hand, arm, face, hair, and
clothing of the shooter and victim.
i. Even if washed, chemical tests can
detect residue.
c. The amount of GSR decreases as the
distance between the firearm and
shooter increase
i. Therefore GSR patterns can be
examined to help determine the
distance from victim to shooter.
a. Trajectory is the path of a
propelled bullet.
b. Ballistic evidence can help
experts determine trajectory,
and therefore figure out where a
shooter was located during a
crime.
c. Two reference points are needed to calculate the trajectory.
i. Reference points can be bullet holes, gunshot residue,
empty cartridges, and entry/exit points on a victim.
[Link]’s theorem can be used for triangulation with
reference points.
Building is 60 feet away along
the horizon line; Bullet hole is
4 feet above the ground.
Where is the shooter located?
B is where the shooter is located; find the
length of BC. The Abc triangle has the same
proportions as the ABC triangle
So or

AB = 732.3”

Using Pythagorean’s theorem

AB2 = AC2 + BC2
732.32 = 7202 + BC2
BC2 = 732.32 – 7202
We know that the bullet hole
BC2 = 536117 – 518400
in the seat is four feet above
BC = √17717 (square root)
BC = 133.1 inches the ground, so the shooter is
BC = 11.1 feet 15.1 feet above the ground
d. Lasers can also trace a straight-line path to determine the
position of the shooter. Investigators can figure the shooter
discharged the firearm somewhere along that line.
e. Keep in mind, a bullet’s path may be slightly curved due to
gravity pulling downward on the bullet as it propels forward,
especially when shot from long distances.
i. Wind speed and direction may also affect trajectory.

We can’t change the laws of science, but by placing a sight on top of a rifle, we
compensate for the differences between straight-line optics and curved
trajectory by combining the two. This angle (exaggerated in the illustration) is
what accounts for the idea of the rising bullet. Although the bullet does pass
through the line-of sight from below, it never rises above the line-of departure.
In a sense, a bullet is both rising and falling at the same time! It may be rising
in relation to the ground, but it is still falling from the line-of-departure, even
when the rifle is aimed and the bullet is fired in an upward angle.
a. Eyewitness accounts are not always accurate, so it is
important for forensic detectives to examine evidence to
either confirm or dispute witness accounts.
b. Bullet wounds can be helpful in re-creating a scene of a crime.

Expert in gunshot wounds: Dr Vincent di Maio holds up a picture of the

closeup of Trayvon Martin's gunshot wound and explains the markings
surrounding it and what it means
c. First step is to figure out if a bullet would is from entrance or
exit of a bullet:
i. Entrance wounds tend to be smaller because the skin
stretches as a bullet enters.
1. Clothing fibers may also embed in the entrance
wound.
2. Gunshot residue may also be found around an
entrance wound.
3. If the bullet is from a close contact muzzle, there
will also be burn marks caused by the gun’s hot
gases as they release.

The abrasion ring, and a very clear

muzzle imprint, are seen in this
contact range gunshot wound. 

An abrasion ring, forms when the

force of the gases entering below the
skin blow the skin surface back
against the muzzle of the gun.
 Since the barrel contacts the skin, the gases
released by the fired round go into the
subcutaneous tissue and cause the
star‐shaped laceration. Note also the
grey‐black discoloration from the soot, as
well as the faint abrasion ring.

Powder tattooing is seen

in this intermediate range
gunshot wound. The
actual entrance site is
somewhat irregular,
because the bullet can
tumble in flight.
ii. Exit wounds tend to be larger because the bullet carries
tissue and bone that it picked up as it moved through the
body.
1. Bullets usually do not travel smoothly through a victim,
and in many cases will ricochet off bones before exiting,
or may not exit at all.
a. Fast-moving high caliber bullets tend to pass
through a victim.
b. Small caliber and low-velocity bullets tend to stay
lodged in the body.
Here is a slit‐like
exit wound. Note
that there is no
powder or soot
visible
There may be no exit wound at all if the
bullet's energy is absorbed by the
tissues. Some bullets (such as a
hollowpoint) are designed to deform so
that all their energy will be converted to
tissue damage and not exit.
i. Never submit a loaded gun to the laboratory!
ii. Never pick up a weapon by placing a pencil or
other object in the end of the barrel.
iii. Record serial number, make, model, and caliber of the weapon.
iv. Place weapons in well packed, strong cardboard or wooden boxes
to prevent shifting of guns in transit.
v. If blood or any other material is
present on the gun, place a clean
paper around the gun and seal it
with tape to prevent movement of
the gun and loss of the sample
during shipment.
vi. Remember the gun will likely be
examined for latent fingerprints,
so avoid excess handling.
i. Wrap recovered bullets and casings
in paper and seal in separate labeled
pill boxes or envelopes.
ii. Bullets recovered from a body
should be air dried and wrapped in
paper. Washing may destroy trace
evidence.
iii. Always attempt to recover unused
ammunition for comparison
purposes.
i. Gunshot residue is extremely fragile
evidence and should be collected as
soon as possible (preferably within
three hours of the discharge of firearm).

Hand Protection Bags are used to

"bag" the hand of a decedent when
suicide is suspected or to preserve
valuable evidence on the hands of
suspects or assault/sexual battery
victims. The bagging of the hands
prevents the loss of GSR from hands
while the body is being transported to
the medical examiner's office.
ii. Submit clothing or other material
showing evidence of gun powder
residue or shot holes to the
laboratory. The clothing should be
carefully wrapped in clean paper
and folded as little as possible to
prevent dislodging powder
particles. Package each item
separately.
 The first step is to visually and
microscopically examine the evidence. The
presence of any gunshot residues found
around the bullet hole as well as the shape
and appearance of the hole will be
documented.
Video Clip
The next step involves chemically processing
the exhibit for gunshot residues.

A common chemical test conducted on GSR is called the Modified

Griess Test. The Modified Griess Test is performed first on the exhibit
because it will not interfere with later tests for lead residues. The
Modified Griess Test is a test to detect the presence of nitrite
residues, which are a by-product of the combustion of smokeless
gunpowder. This is the primary test used by firearms examiners to
determine a muzzle-to-garment distance.
The Modified Griess Test is performed by first treating
a piece of desensitized photographic paper with a
chemical mixture of sulfanilic acid in distilled water
and alpha-naphthol in methanol. The photographic
paper will no longer be light-sensitive but will be
reactive to the presence of nitrite residues.

The exhibit being processed is placed face down

against a piece of treated photo paper, with the bullet
hole centered on the paper.
The back of the exhibit being examined is then steam
ironed with a dilute acetic acid solution in the iron
instead of water.

The acetic acid vapors will penetrate the exhibit

and a reaction takes place between any nitrite
residues on the exhibit and the chemicals
contained in the photographic paper. The
resulting reaction will appear as orange specks
on the piece photographic paper.
Video Clip
1 inch
• Heavy concentration of smoke‐like vaporous lead
surrounds bullet hole. Clothing/skin will show
scorch marks from flame discharge of weapon.

12‐18 inches
• Halo of vaporous lead (smoke) deposited
around bullet hole

25‐36 inches
• Scattered specks of unburned and partially
burned powder grains can be found

More than 3 feet

• Will not deposit any residue on target’s surface.
• Only visual indicator is a dark ring around the
bullet hole called bullet wipe 