MAT125 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA I

II. INTRODUCTION TO GROUPS

2.1 DEFINITION OF A GROUP

Definition 2.1.1 A group is an ordered pair (G, ∗), where G is a nonempty set and ∗ is a binary operation
on G such that the following properties hold:
G1. For all a, b, c ∈ G, a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c (associative law).
G2. There exists e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G, a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a (existence of an identity).
G3. For all a ∈ G, there exists a−1 ∈ G such that a ∗ a−1 = e = a−1 ∗ a (existence of an inverse).

Theorem 2.1.2 Let (G, ∗) be a group.

i. There exists a unique element e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a for all a ∈ G.
ii. For all a ∈ G, there exists a unique a−1 ∈ G such that a ∗ a−1 = e = a−1 ∗ a.
Proof:
(i) Let all a ∈ G. By (G2), there exists e ∈ G such that e ∗ a = a and a ∗ e = a. Suppose that there exists e0 ∈ G
such that e0 ∗ a = a and a ∗ e0 = a. Then, in particular, e ∗ e0 = e0 and e = e ∗ e0 . Thus, e = e ∗ e0 = e0 . This shows
that the identity element e is unique.

(ii) Let a ∈ G. By (G3), there exists a−1 ∈ G such that a−1 ∗ a = e and a ∗ a−1 = e. Suppose that there exists
a−1
1
∈ G such that a−11
∗ a = e and a ∗ a−1
1
= e. Then

1 = e ∗ a1 = a1 .
a−1 = a−1 ∗ e = a−1 ∗ (a ∗ a−1 ) = (a−1 ∗ a) ∗ a−1 −1 −1

Hence, a−1 is unique. 

The unique element e ∈ G that satisfies (G2) is called the identity element of the group (G, ∗). Let a ∈ G.
Then the unique element a−1 ∈ G that satisfy (G3) is called the inverse of a.

Definition 2.1.3 Let (G, ∗) be a group. If for every a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = b ∗ a, then (G, ∗) is called an abelian or
commutative group. A group (G, ∗) is called nonabelian if it is not abelian.

2.2 SOME EXAMPLES OF GROUPS

An ordered pair (G, ∗) is a group if and only if the following properties hold:
(i) G is a nonempty set.
(ii) For all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b ∈ G.
(G1) For all a, b, c ∈ G, a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.

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(G2) There exists e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G, a ∗ e = a and e ∗ a = a.
(G3) For all a ∈ G, there exists a−1 ∈ G such that a ∗ a−1 = e and a−1 ∗ a = e.

Example 2.2.1
Consider Z, the set of integers, together with the operation +, the usual addition. Then (Z, +) is an
abelian group.

Proof:
(i) We know that 0 ∈ Z. Thus, Z is nonempty.
(ii) Let a, b ∈ Z. Then a + b ∈ Z.
(G1) Let a, b, c ∈ Z. Then a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
(G2) There exists 0 ∈ Z such that for all a ∈ Z, a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a.
(G3) Let a ∈ Z. Then there exists −a ∈ Z such that a + (−a) = 0 and −a + a = 0.
Let a, b ∈ Z. Then a + b = b + a.
Therefore, (Z, +) is an abelian group. 

Example 2.2.2
As in Example 2.2.1, (Q, +) and (R, +) are also abelian groups, where + is the usual addition.

Example 2.2.3
Consider Q \ {0}, the set of nonzero rational numbers, together with the binary operation ·, the usual
multiplication. Then (Q \ {0}, ·) is an abelian group.

Proof:
(i) We know that 1 ∈ Q \ {0}. Thus, Q \ {0} is nonempty.
(ii) Let a, b ∈ Q \ {0}. Then a · b ∈ Q \ {0}.
(G1) Let a, b, c ∈ Q \ {0}. Then a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.
(G2) There exists 1 ∈ Q \ {0} such that for all a ∈ Q \ {0}, a · 1 = a and 1 · a = a.
(G3) Let a ∈ Q \ {0}. Then a , 0. Thus, 1
a , 0. Hence, there exists 1
a ∈ Q \ {0} such that a · 1
a = 1 and 1
a · a = 1.
Let a, b ∈ Q \ {0}. Then a · b = b · a.
Therefore, (Q \ {0}, ·) is an abelian group. 

Example 2.2.4
As in Example 2.2.3, (R \ {0}, ·) is an abelian group, where · is the usual multiplication.

Example 2.2.5
Let n be a fixed integer. Consider Zn , the set of integers modulo n, together with the binary operation
+n . Then, (Zn , +n ) is an abelian group.

Proof:
(i) We know that [0] ∈ Zn . Thus, Zn is nonempty.
(ii) By previous result, +n in Zn is well-defined. Thus, for all [a], [b] ∈ Zn , [a] +n [b] ∈ Zn .

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(G1) Let [a], [b], [c] ∈ Zn . Then a, b, c ∈ Z. Thus, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) since (Z, +) is a group. Hence,

([a] +n [b]) +n [c] = [a + b] +n [c] = [(a + b) + c]

= [a + (b + c)] = [a] +n [b + c]
= [a] +n ([b] +n [c]).

(G2) There exists [0] ∈ Zn such that for all [a] ∈ Zn , [a] +n [0] = [a] and [0] +n [a] = [a].
(G3) Let [a] ∈ Zn . Then a ∈ Z. Thus, −a ∈ Z such that a + (−a) = 0 and −a + a = 0. Since −[a] = [−a], it
follows that −[a] ∈ Zn . Hence, for all [a] ∈ Zn , there exists −[a] = [−a] ∈ Zn such that

[a] +n (−[a]) = [a] +n [−a] = [a + (−a)] = [0]

and
−[a] +n [a] = [−a] +n [a] = [−a + a] = [0].

Finally, let [a], [b] ∈ Zn . Then a, b ∈ Z. Thus, a + b = b + a since (Z, +) is an abelian group. Hence,

[a] +n [b] = [a + b] = [b + a] = [b] +n [a].

Therefore, (Zn , +n ) is an abelian group. 

Example 2.2.6
Let E = {2n : n ∈ Z}. Then (E, +), where + is the usual addition, is an abelian group.

Proof:
(i) Since 0 ∈ E, it follows that 2(0) ∈ E. Thus, E is nonempty.
(ii) Let 2n1 , 2n2 ∈ E. Then, n1 , n2 ∈ Z. Thus, n1 + n2 ∈ Z. Hence, 2(n1 + n2 ) ∈ E. But 2n1 + 2n2 = 2(n1 + n2 ).
Therefore, 2n1 + 2n2 ∈ E.
(G1) Let 2n1 , 2n2 , 2n3 ∈ E. Then n1 , n2 , n3 ∈ Z. Thus, (n1 + n2 ) + n3 = n1 + (n2 + n3 ). Hence,

(2n1 + 2n2 ) + 2n3 = 2(n1 + n2 ) + 2n3

= 2[(n1 + n2 ) + n3 ]
= 2[n1 + (n2 + n3 )]
= 2n1 + 2(n2 + n3 )
= 2n1 + (2n2 + 2n3 ).

(G2) There exists 2(0) ∈ E such that for all 2n ∈ E, 2n + 2(0) = 2(n + 0) = 2n and 2(0) + 2n = 2(0 + n) = 2n.
(G3) Let 2n ∈ E. Then n ∈ Z. Thus, −n ∈ Z. Hence, 2(−n) ∈ E. Therefore, there exists −(2n) = 2(−n) ∈ E
such that
2n + (−(2n)) = 2n + 2(−n) = 2(n + (−n)) = 2(0)
and
−(2n) + 2n = 2(−n) + 2n = 2(−n + n) = 2(0).

Finally, let 2n1 , 2n2 ∈ E. Then n1 + n2 ∈ Z. Thus, n1 + n2 = n2 + n1 . Hence,

2n1 + 2n2 = 2(n1 + n2 ) = 2(n2 + n1 ) = 2n2 + 2n1 .

Therefore, (E, +) is an abelian group. 

Example 2.2.7
Let n > 1 be an integer. Define Un = {a ∈ Z : 0 < a < n, (a, n) = 1}. Show that (Un , ·n ) is an abelian group.
Note that U7 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and U8 = {1, 3, 5, 7}.

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Example 2.2.8
√ √ √ √ √
Let Q[ 2] = {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Q}. For all a + b 2, c + d 2 ∈ Q[ 2], define
√ √ √
(a + b 2) + (c + d 2) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2.
√
Then (Q[ 2], +) is an abelian group.

Proof:
√ √ √
(i) Since 0 ∈ Q, it follows that 0 + 0 2 ∈ Q[ 2]. Thus, Q[ 2] is nonempty.
√ √ √ √ √
(ii) Let a+b 2, c+d 2 ∈√Q[ 2]. Then, √ a, b, c, d ∈ Q. Thus,√a+c, b+d ∈ Q. Hence, √ 2 ∈ Q[
√ (a+c)+(b+d) √ 2].
By definition, (a + b 2) + (c + d 2) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2. Therefore, (a + b 2) + (c + d 2) ∈ Q[ 2].
√ √ √ √
(G1) Let a + b 2, c + d 2, e + f 2 ∈ Q[ 2]. Then a, b, c, d, e, f ∈ Q. Thus, (a + c) + e = a + (c + e) and
(b + d) + f = b + (d + f ). Hence,
√ √ √ √ √
((a + b 2) + (c + d 2)) + (e + f 2) = ((a + c) + (b + d) 2) + (e + f 2)
√
= ((a + c) + e) + ((b + d) + f ) 2
√
= (a + (c + e)) + (b + (d + f )) 2
√ √
= (a + b 2) + ((c + e) + (d + f ) 2)
√ √ √
= (a + b 2) + ((c + d 2) + (e + f 2)).
√ √ √ √
(G2) There exists 0 + 0 2 ∈ Q[ 2] such that for all a + b 2 ∈ Q[ 2],
√ √ √ √
(a + b 2) + (0 + 0 2) = (a + 0) + (b + 0) 2 = a + b 2

and √ √ √ √
(0 + 0 2) + (a + b 2) = (0 + a) + (0 + b) 2 = a + b 2.
√ √ √ √
(G3) Let a + b 2 ∈ √
Q[ 2]. Then a, b √ √ −a, −b ∈ Q. Hence, (−a) + (−b) 2 ∈ Q[ 2]. Therefore, there
∈ Q. Thus,
exists −(a + b 2) = (−a) + (−b) 2 ∈ Q[ 2] such that
√ √ √ √ √
(a + b 2) + (−(a + b 2)) = (a + b 2) + ((−a) + (−b) 2) = (0 + 0 2)

and √ √ √ √ √
−(a + b 2) + (a + b 2) = ((−a) + (−b) 2) + (a + b 2) = (0 + 0 2).
√ √ √
Let a + b 2, c + d 2 ∈ Q[ 2]. Then a, b, c, d ∈ Q. Thus, a + c = c + a and b + d = d + b. Hence,
√ √ √ √ √ √
(a + b 2) + (c + d 2) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 = (c + a) + (d + b) 2 = (c + d 2) + (a + b 2).
√
Therefore, (Q[ 2], +) is an abelian group. 

Example 2.2.9
Consider Sn , the set of all one-one mappings of S onto S, together with the binary operation ◦. Then
(Sn , ◦) is a nonabelian group.

If the set S contains n elements, then the group Sn has n! elements. This highly important example will
be called the symmetric group of degree n.

Example 2.2.10
Let S = {a, b, c} and let S3 = {ι, σ, τ, µ, δ, }, where

ι(a) = a, ι(b) = b, ι(c) = c; σ(a) = a, σ(b) = c, σ(c) = b;

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 τ(a) = c, τ(b) = b, τ(c) = a; µ(a) = b, µ(b) = a, µ(c) = c;
δ(a) = b, δ(b) = c, δ(c) = a; (a) = c, (b) = a, (c) = b.
Then (S3 , ◦) is a nonabelian group with 6 elements. Construct a multiplication table for (S3 , ◦).

Example 2.2.11
Let (" # )
a b
GL(2, R) = : a, b, c, d ∈ R, ad − bc , 0 .
c d
Define a binary operation ∗ on GL(2, R) by

au + bw av + bs
" # " # " #
a b u v
∗ =
c d w s cu + dw cv + ds

for all " # " #

a b u v
, ∈ GL(2, R).
c d w s
This binary operation is the usual matrix multiplication. Then (GL(2, R), ∗) is a nonabelian group. This
group is known as the general linear group of degree 2.

Example 2.2.12
Let (Z, ∗), where a ∗ b = a − b for all a, b ∈ Z. Then (Z, ∗) is not a group.

Proof:
Consider 0, 1, 2 ∈ Z. Then
(0 ∗ 1) ∗ 2 = (0 − 1) − 2 = −3
and
0 ∗ (1 ∗ 2) = 0 − (1 − 2) = 1.
Thus, there exist 0, 1, 2 ∈ Z such that (0 ∗ 1) ∗ 2 , 0 ∗ (1 ∗ 2). Therefore, (Z, ∗) is not a group. 

Example 2.2.13
Consider the ordered pair (Z+ , ∗), where a ∗ b = ab for all a, b ∈ Z+ . Then (Z+ , ∗) is not a group.

Proof:
There exists 1 ∈ Z+ such that a ∗ 1 = a1 = a and 1 ∗ a = 1a = a for all a ∈ Z+ . Now, consider 2 ∈ Z+ .
Suppose there exists 2−1 ∈ Z+ such that 2−1 ∗ 2 = 1 and 2 ∗ 2−1 = 1. Then, 2−1 · 2 = 1 and 2 · 2−1 = 1. Thus,
2−1 = 21 . This is a contradiction since 21 < Z+ . Hence, 2−1 does not exist. Therefore, (Z+ , ∗) is not a group. 

2.3 ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF GROUPS

Theorem 2.3.1 Let (G, ∗) be a group.

(i) (a−1 )−1 = a for all a ∈ G.
(ii) (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1 for all a, b ∈ G.

(iii) For all a, b, c ∈ G, if either a ∗ c = b ∗ c or c ∗ a = c ∗ b, then a = b. (Cancellation Law)

(iv) For all a, b ∈ G, the equations a ∗ x = b and y ∗ a = b have unique solutions in G for x and y.

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 Proof:
(i) Let a ∈ G. By (G2), there exists a−1 ∈ G such that a−1 ∗ a = e. Since a−1 ∈ G, by (G2), there exists (a−1 )−1 ∈ G
such that a−1 ∗ (a−1 )−1 = e. Hence,

(a−1 )−1 = (a−1 )−1 ∗ e = (a−1 )−1 ∗ (a−1 ∗ a) = ((a−1 )−1 ∗ a−1 ) ∗ a = e ∗ a = a.

(ii) Let a, b ∈ G. Then a ∗ b ∈ G. By (G2), there exists (a ∗ b)−1 ∈ G such that (a ∗ b)−1 ∗ (a ∗ b) = e. Now,

(a ∗ b) ∗ (b−1 ∗ a−1 ) = ((a ∗ b) ∗ b−1 ) ∗ a−1

= (a ∗ (b ∗ b−1 )) ∗ a−1
= (a ∗ e) ∗ a−1
= a ∗ a−1
= e.

Hence,

(a ∗ b)−1 = (a ∗ b)−1 ∗ e
= (a ∗ b)−1 ∗ [(a ∗ b) ∗ (b−1 ∗ a−1 )]
= [(a ∗ b)−1 ∗ (a ∗ b)] ∗ (b−1 ∗ a−1 )
= e ∗ (b−1 ∗ a−1 )
= b−1 ∗ a−1 .

(iii) Let a, b, c ∈ G. Suppose that a ∗ c = b ∗ c. Then

a=a∗e
= a ∗ (c ∗ c−1 )
= (a ∗ c) ∗ c−1
= (b ∗ c) ∗ c−1
= b ∗ (c ∗ c−1 )
=b∗e
= b.

Similarly, if c ∗ a = c ∗ b, we can show that a = b.

(iv) Let a, b ∈ G. Suppose that a ∗ x = b. Note that a−1 ∗ b ∈ G. Substituting a−1 ∗ b for x in the equation
a ∗ x = b, we get
a ∗ (a−1 ∗ b) = (a ∗ a−1 ) ∗ b = e ∗ b = b.
This implies that a−1 ∗ b is a solution of the equation a ∗ x = b.
Now, suppose that c is any solution of a ∗ x = b. Then a ∗ c = b. Hence,

c=e∗c
= (a−1 ∗ a) ∗ c
= a−1 ∗ (a ∗ c)
= a−1 ∗ b.

This shows that the solution is unique. Similar arguments hold for the equation y ∗ a = b. 

Corollary 2.3.2 Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. If a ∗ a = a, then, a = e.

Proof:
Let a ∈ G. Suppose that a ∗ a = a. By (G2), there exists e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a. Thus, a ∗ a = a ∗ e. By the
cancellation law, we have a = e. 

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Example 2.3.3
Show that if every element of a group (G, ∗) is its own inverse, then (G, ∗) is abelian.

Proof:
Let a, b ∈ G. Then a ∗ b ∈ G. Thus, a−1 = a, b−1 = b, and (a ∗ b)−1 = a ∗ b. Hence,

a ∗ b = (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1 = b ∗ a.

Therefore, (G, ∗) is abelian. 

Let (G, ∗) be a group, and a, b, c ∈ G. By the associative law, a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c. Hence, we can define

a ∗ b ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.

Let a, b, c ∈ G. Then

a ∗ b ∗ c ∗ d = (a ∗ b ∗ c) ∗ d
= (a ∗ (b ∗ c)) ∗ d
= a ∗ ((b ∗ c) ∗ d)
= a ∗ (b ∗ (c ∗ d))
= (a ∗ b) ∗ (c ∗ d)
= ((a ∗ b) ∗ c) ∗ d.

Let (G, ∗) be a group, and n ∈ Z, we define the integral power an as follows:

a0 = e
an = a ∗ an−1 if n > 0
an = (a−1 )−n if n < 0.

In additive notation, we would have: Let (G, ∗) be a group, and n ∈ Z. We define na as follows:

0a = e
na = a + (n − 1)a if n > 0
na = −n(−a) if n < 0.

Example 2.3.4
If (G, ∗) is a group such that (a ∗ b)2 = a2 ∗ b2 for all a, b ∈ G, then (G, ∗) is abelian.

Proof:
Let a, b ∈ G such that (a∗b)2 = a2 ∗b2 . then (a∗b)∗(a∗b) = (a∗a)∗(b∗b). By (G1), we have a∗(b∗a)∗b = a∗(a∗b)∗b.
By the cancellation law, b ∗ a = a ∗ b. Hence, (G, ∗) is abelian. 

Definition 2.3.5 A group (G, ∗) is called a finite group if G has only a finite number of elements. The
order of a group (G, ∗), written |G|, is the number of elements of G.

Example 2.3.6
The groups (Zn , +n ) and (S3 , ◦) are finite groups.

Definition 2.3.7 A group with an infinite number of elements is called an infinite group.

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Example 2.3.8
The groups (Q, +), (R, +), (Q \ {0}, ·), and (R \ {0}, ·) are infinite groups.

2.4 ORDER OF AN ELEMENT

Let G be a finite group and a ∈ G. Then a2 = a ∗ a and by induction, we can show that am ∈ G for all
m ≥ 1. Thus, {a, a2 , · · · , am , · · · } ⊆ G. Hence, there exists positive integer p, q with p > q such that ap = aq . This
implies that ap−q = e, where p = q > 0. Write n = p − q > 0. Therefore, an = e for some positive integer n.
Also, if G is an infinite group and a ∈ G, then it may still be possible that an = e for some positive integer
n.

Definition 2.4.1 Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. If there exists a positive integer n such that an = e, then
the smallest positive integer m such that am = e is called the order of a. If no such positive integer n exists,
then we say that a is of infinite order.

Notation: We denote the order of an element a of a group (G, ∗) by o(a).

Remark 2.4.2 If (G, ∗) is a group, then o(a) = 1.

Example 2.4.3
Consider the group (S3 , ◦). Then o(σ) = o(τ) = o(µ) = 2 and o(δ) = o() = 3.

Proof:
σ1 = σ, σ2 = σ ◦ σ = ι, σ3 = σ ◦ σ2 = σ ◦ ι = σ, σ4 = σ ◦ σ3 = σ ◦ σ = ι;
τ1 = τ, τ2 = τ ◦ τ = ι, τ3 = τ ◦ τ2 = τ ◦ ι = τ, τ4 = τ ◦ τ3 = τ ◦ τ = ι;
µ1 = µ, µ2 = µ ◦ µ = ι, µ3 = µ ◦ µ2 = µ ◦ ι = µ, µ4 = µ ◦ µ3 = µ ◦ µ = ι;
δ2 = , δ3 = δ ◦ δ2 = δ ◦  = ι, δ4 = δ ◦ δ3 = δ, δ5 = δ ◦ δ4 = , δ6 = δ ◦ δ5 = ι;
and
2 = δ, 3 =  ◦ 2 =  ◦ δ = ι, 4 =  ◦ 3 = , 5 =  ◦ 4 = δ, 6 =  ◦ 5 = ι.
Hence, o(σ) = o(τ) = o(µ) = 2 and o(δ) = o() = 3. 

Example 2.4.4
Consider the group (Z6 , +6 ). Let [2], [3], [5] ∈ Z6 . Then o([2]) = 3, o([3]) = 2, and o([5]) = 6.

Proof:
We have
1[2] = [2], 2[2] = [4], 3[2] = [6] = [0], 4[2] = [2], 5[2] = [4], 6[2] = [0].
Hence, o([2]) = 3.

1[3] = [3], 2[3] = [6] = [0], 3[3] = [3], 4[3] = [0], 5[3] = [3], 6[3] = [0].

Hence, o([3]) = 2.
1[5] = [5], 2[5] = [4], 3[5] = [3], 4[5] = [2], 5[5] = [1], 6[5] = [0].
Hence, o([5]) = 6. 

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 " # " #
0 −1 1 1
Example 2.4.5 Consider the group (GL(2, R), ∗) and the elements and . Find the order
−1 0 0 1
of these elements.

Solution:

We have " #2 " # " # " #

0 −1 0 −1 0 −1 1 0
= ∗ = .
−1 0 −1 0 −1 0 0 1
" #!
0 −1
Thus, o = 2.
−1 0
Next,
" #2 " # " # " #
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
= ∗ =
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
and " #3 " # " #2 " # " # " #
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
= ∗ = ∗ = .
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
By induction, we can show that
" #n " #
1 1 1 n
= .
0 1 0 1
" #
1 1
Hence, the order of is infinite. 
0 1

Example 2.4.6
Consider the group (R \ {0}, ·). We have (−1)2 = 1, which implies that o(−1) = 2. Let x ∈ R \ {0} such that
x , 1 and x , −1. Then for all positive integers n, xn , 1, which implies that o(x) is infinite. Hence, (R \ {0}, ·)
has elements of finite order and has elements of infinite order.

Example 2.4.7
Consider the group (R, +). If x ∈ R such that x , 0, then for all positive integers n, nx , 0, which implies
that o(x) is infinite. Hence, all nonidentity elements of the group (R, +) is of infinite order.

Theorem 2.4.8 Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G such that o(a) = n. If am = e for some integer m, then n|m.

Proof:
Let a ∈ G such that o(a) = n. Then an = e. Suppose am = e for some integer m. By the division algorithm,
there exists integers q and r such that m = nq + r, where 0 ≤ r < n. Thus, r = m − nq and

ar = am−nq = am ∗ (an )−q = e ∗ e−q = e.

If 0 < r < n such that ar = e, then this contradicts the minimality of n. Hence, r = 0, which implies that
m = nq. Therefore, n|m. 

Definition 2.4.9 A group (G, ∗) is called a torsion group if every element of G is of finite order. If every
nonidentity element of G is of infinite order, then G is called a torsion-free group.

Example 2.4.10
The groups (Z6 , +6 ), (U7 , ·7 ), and (S3 , ◦) are torsion groups.

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Example 2.4.11
The groups (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +), and (R+ , ·) are torsion-free groups.

Example 2.4.12
The groups (Q \ {0}, ·) and (R \ {0}, ·) are neither torsion nor torsion-free groups.

Exercises:
1. Determine if the following ordered pairs form a group.
(a) (Z, ∗), where a ∗ b = ab for all a, b ∈ Z.
(b) (Z+ ∪ {0}, ∗), where a ∗ b = a + b for all a, b ∈ Z+ ∪ {0}.
(c) (Q \ {−1}, ∗), where a ∗ b = a + b + ab for all a, b ∈ Q \ {−1}.
(d) (Q, ∗), where a ∗ b = ab2 for all a, b ∈ Q.
(e) (R, ∗), where a ∗ b = |a||b| for all a, b ∈ R.

2. If G is an abelian group, prove that (a ∗ b) = an ∗ bn for all a, b ∈ G and for all positive integers n.

3. In S3 , show that there are four elements x satisfying x2 = e and three elements satisfying y3 = e.

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