CONSTRUCTION OF AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINE
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the stationary and moving parts, the operating principles
and their functions, and the basic testing procedures used in constructing an internal combustion
engine. Describe the techniques used in reconditioning and adjusting valves and timing gear
installation.

This chapter provides information on the many stationary and moving parts of an internal
combustion engine. As a mechanic, you should be concerned with how these parts are made,
what materials they are made of, and their relationship to one another for smooth and efficient
operation of an internal combustion engine.

The information provided is to help you diagnose malfunctions of an engine and ways to correct
them. Since the gasoline and diesel engines used in construction equipment of today are basically
the same internally, the majority of information provided applies to both.

ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize operating principles and functions of stationary and
moving parts within an internal combustion engine. Describe techniques used in valve
reconditioning and timing gear installation.

Basic engine construction varies little, regardless of size and design of the engine. The intended
use of an engine must be considered before the design and size can be [Link]
temperature at which an engine operates determines what metals must be used in its
construction.

To simplify the service parts and to simplify process and servicing procedures in the field, the
present-day trend in engine construction and design is toward ENGINE FAMILIES. Typically,
there are several 3-1 types of engines because of the many jobs to be done; however, the service
and service parts problem can be simplified by designing engines so they are closely related in
cylinder size, valve arrangement, and so forth. For example, the GM series 71 engines can be
obtained in two-, three-, four-, and six-cylinder in-line models. GM V-type engines come in 6-,
8-, 12-, and 16-cylinder models. These engines are designed in such a way that many of the
internal parts can be used on any of the models.

STATIONARY PARTS OF AN ENGINE

The stationary parts of an engine include the cylinder block and cylinders, the cylinder head or
heads, and the exhaust and intake manifolds. These parts furnish the framework of the engine.
All movable parts are attached to or fitted into this framework.
Engine Cylinder Block
The cylinder block is the basic frame of a liquid- cooled engine whether it be in-line,
horizontally opposed, or V-type. The cylinder block (fig. 3-1) is a solid casting made of cast iron
or aluminum that contains the crankcase, the cylinders, the coolant passages, the lubricating
passages, and, in the case of flathead engines, the valves seats the ports, and the guides.

The cylinder block is a one-piece casting usually made of an iron alloy that contains nickel and
molybdenum. This is the best overall material for cylinder blocks. It provides excellent wearing
qualities, low material and production cost, and it only changes dimensions minimally when
heated. Another material that is used for cylinder blocks, although not extensively, is aluminum.
Aluminum is used whenever weight is a consideration. It is not practical to use for the following
reasons:

Figure 3-1. - Cylinder block and components

 Aluminum is more expensive than cast iron.

 Aluminum is not as strong as cast iron.
 Because of its softness, it cannot be used on any surface of the block that is subject to
wear. This necessitates the pressing, or casting, of steel sleeves into the cylinder bores.
Threaded holes must be deeper. This introduces extra design considerations and increases
production costs.
  Aluminum has a much higher expansion rate than iron when heated. This creates
problems with maintaining tolerances.

Figure 3-2. - Requirements of a cylinder.

The CYLINDERS are bored right into the

block. A good cylinder must be round, not
varying in diameter by more than
approximately 0.0005 inch (0.012 mm) (fig.
3-2). The diameter of the cylinder must be
uniform throughout its entire length. During
normal engine operation, cylinder walls
wear out-of-round, or they may become
cracked and scored if not lubricated or
cooled properly. The cylinders on an AIR-
COOLED engine (fig. 3-3) are separate
from the crankcase. They are made of
forged steel. This material is most suitable
for cylinders because of its excellent
wearing qualities and its ability to withstand high temperatures that air-cooled cylinders
obtain. The cylinders have rows of deep fins cast into them to dissipate engine heat. The
cylinders are commonly mounted by securing the cylinder head to the crankcase with long studs
and sandwiching the cylinders between the two. Another way of mounting the cylinders is to bolt
them to the crankcase, and then secure the heads to the cylinders.

A-O-RING GASKET M-EXHAUST VALVE GUIDE

B-EXHAUST VALVE N-CAMSHAFT BEARING CAP

C-INTAKE VALVE P-ROCKER SHAFT

D-CYLINDER Q-ROCKER

E-CYLINDER BARREL NUT R-ROCKER SUPPORT BRACKET

F-LOCK NUT S-WASHER

G-DOME FIN DEFLECTOR (LH) T-SLOTTED NUT

H-BOLT U-ROCKER BOX COVER PLATE

J-LOCK WASHER V-TAB WASHER

K-PRIMER NOZZLE ASSEMBLY W-VALVE ROCKER COVER

L-INTAKE VALVE GUIDE X-BOLT

Y-LOCK WASHER CC-OUTER VALVE SPRING

Z-WASHER DD-INTERMEDIATE VALVE SPRING

AA-VALVE LOCK EE-INNER VALVE SPRING

BB-VALVE SPRING RETAINER FF-VALVE RING SEAT

GG-DOME FIN DEFLECTOR (RH)

Figure 3-3. - Air-cooled cylinder.

In liquid-cooled engines CYLINDER SLEEVES or LINERS (fig. 3-4) are used to provide a
wearing surface, other than the cylinder block, for the pistons to ride against. This is important
for the following reasons:

 Alloys of steel can be used that wears longer than the surfaces of the cylinder block. This
increases engine life while keeping production costs down.
 Because the cylinders wear more than any other area of the block, the life of the block
can be greatly extended by using sleeves. When overhaul time comes, the block can be
renewed by just replacing the sleeves.
 Using a sleeve allows an engine to be made of other materials, such as aluminum, by
providing the wearing qualities necessary for cylinders that aluminum cannot.

There are two types of cylinder sleeves: the DRY-TYPE and the WET-TYPE. A dry-type sleeve
does not contact the coolant. The dry-type sleeve is pressed into a full cylinder that completely
covers the water jacket. Because the sleeve has the block to support it, it can be very thin. The
wet-type sleeve comes in direct contact with the coolant. It is also press-fitted into the cylinder.
The difference is that the water jacket is open in the block and is completed by the sleeve.
Because it gets no central support from the block, it is made thicker than a dry sleeve.
Figure 3-4. - Cylinder sleeves.
Figure 3-5. - Cylinder sleeve casualties.

Also because the sleeve completes the water jacket, it

must fit so it seals in the coolant. This is accomplished by
using a metallic sealing ring at the top and a rubber
sealing ring at the bottom. There are three basic ways of
securing the sleeves in the cylinder block as follows:

 Press in a sleeve that is tight enough to be held by

friction.
 Provide a flange at the top of the block that locks
the sleeve into place when the cylinder head is
bolted into place. This is more desirable than a
friction fit, because it locks the sleeve tightly.
 Cast the sleeve into the cylinder wall. This is a
popular means of securing a sleeve in an
aluminum block.

Whatever method is used to secure the sleeves, it is very

important for the sleeve to fit tightly. This is so the sleeve
can transfer heat effectively to the water jackets.

Most cylinder sleeve casualties are directly related to a lack of maintenance or improper
operating procedures. Figure 3-5 shows two common types of cylinder sleeve casualties: cracks
and scoring. Both types of casualties require replacement of the sleeve.

The cylinder block also provides the foundation for the cooling and lubricating systems. The
cylinders of a liquid-cooled engine are surrounded by interconnecting passages cast in the block.
Collectively, these passages form the WATER JACKET that allows the circulation of coolant
through the cylinder block and the cylinder head to carry off excessive heat created by
combustion. The water jacket is accessible through holes machined in the head and block to
allow removal of the material used for casting of the cylinder block. These holes are called core
holes and are sealed by CORE HOLE PLUGS (freeze plugs). These plugs are of two types: cup
and disk. Figure 3-6 shows a typical installation of these plugs.

The CRANKCASE (fig. 3-7) is that part of the cylinder block below the cylinders. It supports
and encloses the crankshaft and provides a reservoir for lubricating oil. The lower part of the
crankcase is the OIL PAN, which is bolted at the bottom. The oil pan is made of cast aluminum
or pressed steel and holds the lubricating oil for the engine. Since the oil pan is the lowest part of
the engine, it must be strong enough to withstand blows from flying stones and obstructions
sticking up from the road surface.

The crankcase also has mounting brackets to support the entire engine on the vehicle frame.
These brackets are either an integral part of the crankcase or are bolted to it in such a way that
they support the engine at three or four points. These points are cushioned by rubber mounts that
insulate the frame and body of the vehicle from engine vibration. This prevents damage to engine
supports and the transmission.

Figure 3-6. - Core hole plugs installed in cylinder block.

Figure 3-7. - Engine crankcase.

The crankcase (fig. 3-8) is the basic foundation of all air-cooled engines. It is made as a one- or
two-piece casting that supports the crankshaft, provides the mounting surface for the cylinders
and the oil pump, and has the lubrication passages cast into it. It is made of aluminum since it
needs the ability to dissipate large amounts' of heat

Figure 3-8. - Aircooled crankcase.

Figure 3-9. - Cylinder heads.

On air-cooled engines, the oil pan usually is made of cast aluminum, and it is covered with
cooling fins. The oil pan on an air-cooled engine plays a key role in the removal of waste heat
from the engine through its lubricating oil.

Cylinder Head
The cylinder head (fig. 3-9) provides combustion for the engine cylinders. It is built to conform
to the arrangement of the valves: L-head, I-head, or others.

Cylinder heads on liquid-cooled engines have been made almost exclusively from cast iron until
recent years. Because weight has become an important consideration, a large percentage cylinder
heads now are being made from aluminum. The cylinder heads on air-cooled engines are made
exclusively from aluminum. This is due to the fact that aluminum conducts heat approximately
three times as fast as cast iron. This is a critical consideration with air cooling.

In liquid-cooled engines the cylinder (fig. 3-10) head is bolted to the top of the cylinder block to
close the upper end of the cylinders and, in air-cooled engines, the cylinder heads are bolted to
the top of the cylinders.

Figure 3-10. - Cylinder head for L-head engine.

Figure 3-11. - Combustion chambers.

This serves to provide a combustion chamber (fig. 3-11) for the ignition of the mixture and to
hold the expansion forces of the burning gases so they may act on the piston. In a gasoline
engine, there are threaded holes to position the spark plugs in the combustion chamber. On a
diesel engine, there is a similar arrangement to position the fuel injectors. In a liquid-cooled
engine, it also contains passages, matching those of the cylinder block, that allow cooling liquid
to circulate in the head.

The I-head (overhead valve) type of cylinder

head (fig. 3-12) contains not only water
jackets for cooling spark plugs openings, valve
pockets, and part of the combustion chamber,
but it also contains and supports the valves and
valve operating mechanisms. In this type of
cylinder head, the water jackets must be large
enough to cool not only the top of the
combustion chamber but also the valve seats,
valves, and valve operating mechanisms.

The cylinder heads are sealed (fig. 3-13) to the

cylinder block to prevent gases from escaping.
This is accomplished on liquid-cooled engines
by the use of a head gasket. The head gasket is
usually made of two sheets of soft steel that
sandwich a layer of asbestos. Steel rings are
used to line the cylinder openings. They are
designed to hold the tremendous pressure
created on the power stroke. Holes are cut in
the gasket to match the coolant and lubrication
feed holes between the cylinder head and the cylinder block. In an air-cooled engine, cylinder
heads are sealed to the tops of the cylinders by soft metal rings. The lubrication system feeds oil
to the heads through the pushrods.

Figure 3-12. - Cylinder head for overhead valve engine.

Figure 3-13. - Cylinder head sealing.

Exhaust Manifold
The exhaust manifold (fig. 3-14) connects all of the engine cylinders to the rest of the exhaust
system. On L-head engines, the exhaust manifold bolts to the side of the engine block; and on
overhead-valve engines, it bolts to the side of the cylinder head. It is usually made of cast iron,
either singly or in sections. If the exhaust manifold is made properly, it can create a scavenging
action that causes all of the cylinders to help each other get rid of the gases. Back pressure (the
force that the pistons must exert to push out the exhaust gases) can be reduced by making the
manifold with smooth walls and without sharp bends. Exhaust manifolds on vehicles today are
constantly changing in design to allow the use of various types of emission controls. Each of
these factors is taken into consideration when the exhaust manifold is designed, and the best
possible manifold is manufactured to fit into the confines of the engine compartment.
Intake Manifold The intake manifold on a gasoline engine carries the air-fuel mixture from the
carburetor and distributes it to the cylinders. On a diesel engine, the manifold carries only air into
the cylinders. The gasoline engine intake manifold (fig. 3-15) is designed with the following
functions in mind:

Deliver the air-fuel mixture to the cylinders in equal quantities and proportions. This is important
for smooth engine performance. The lengths of the passages should be near to equal as possible
to distribute the air-fuel mixture equally.
Help to keep the vaporized air-fuel mixture from condensing before it reaches the combustion
chamber. The ideal air-fuel mixture should be vaporized completely, as it enters the combustion
chamber. This is very important.

Figure 3-14. - Exhaust manifold.

Figure 3-15. - Typical intake manifold.

The manifold passages are designed with smooth walls and a minimum of bends that collect
fuel to reduce the condensing of the mixture. Smooth flowing intake manifold passages also
increase volumetric efficiency.
It aids in the vaporization of the air-fuel mixture. To do this, provide the intake manifold a
controlled system of heating. This system of heating must heat the mixture enough to aid in
vaporization - without heating it to the point of reducing volumetric efficiency.

The intake manifold on an L-head engine is bolted to the block, whereas the overhead-valve
engine has the intake manifold bolted to the side of the cylinder head.

Intake manifolds can be designed to provide optimum performance for a given speed range by
varying the length of the passages (fig. 3-16). The inertia of the moving intake mixture causes it
to bounce back and forth in the intake manifold passage from the end of one intake stroke to the
beginning of the next intake stroke. If the passage is the proper length so the next intake stroke is
just beginning as the mixture is rebounding, the inertia of the mixture causes it to ram itself into
the cylinder. This increases the volumetric efficiency of the engine in the designated speed range.
It should be noted that the ram manifold serves no purpose outside its designated speed range.

Figure 3-16. - Ram induction manifold.

As stated earlier, providing controlled heat for the incoming mixture is very important for good
performance. The heating of the mixture may be accomplished by doing one or both of the
following:

 Directing a portion of the exhaust through a passage in the intake manifold (fig. 3-17).
The heat from the exhaust transfers and heats the mixture. The amount of exhaust that is
diverted into the intake manifold heat passage is controlled by the manifold heat control
valve.
  Directing the engine coolant, which is heated by the engine through the intake manifold
on its way to the radiator (fig. 3-18).

Fig 3-18. - Water-heated intake manifold. Fig 3-17. - Exhaust-heated intake manifold.

Gaskets
Gaskets (fig. 3-19), otherwise known as static seals, are used to form pressure-tight joints
between stationary members. They are usually made of a deformable material in the shape of a
sheet or ring, which conforms to the irregularities in mating surfaces when compressed. Steel,
aluminum, copper, asbestos, cork, synthetic rubber, paper, and felt are just a few of the
materials that are used singly or in combination to produce leakproof joints. The proper material
used in gasket construction depends on the temperature, type of fluid to be contained,
smoothness of mating surfaces, fastener tension, pressure of the substance to be confined,
material used in construction of mating parts, and part clearance relationship. Some of the
most common engine gaskets are as follows:

CYLINDER HEAD GASKET which is placed between the cylinder head and the cylinder block
to maintain a gastight and coolant-tight seal. It is made in the form of two thin plates of soft
metal with asbestos tilling between them.

INTAKE AND EXHAUST GASKETS are made from asbestos and formed to a desired shape.
Some of them are metal-covered and similarin construction to a cylinder head gasket.

OIL PAN GASKET is generally made from pressed cork. It may be made in one piece but is
often made as two pieces.

Gaskets also can be formed by using a silicone sealant. This type is formed by applying sealant
from a squeeze tube to the mating surfaces and allowing it to dry, forming a sealed flexible joint.
This type of seal is becoming more popular on modern vehicles.

Oil Seals
Oil seals used in vehicle assembly are designed to prevent leakage between rotating and non-
rotating members. Two basic types of oil seals used on vehicles today are synthetic rubber seals
and wick seals. Each is discussed below.

SYNTHETIC RUBBER SEALS. The synthetic rubber seal (fig. 3-20) is the most common type
of oil seal. It is composed of a metal case used to retain its shape and maintain rigidity. A
rubber element is bonded to the case, providing a sealing lip or lips against the rotating shaft.
Different types of oil seal designs are shown in figure 3-20. A coil spring, sometimes called a
garter spring, is used to hold the rubber element around the shaft with a controlled force. This
allows the seal to conform to minor shaft runout. Some synthetic rubber seals fit into bores
mounted around the shaft,t his type is generally a split design and does not require a metal case
or garter spring.

Figure 3-19. - Typical gaskets.

Figure 3-20 shows the effects of pressure on lip seals. The internal pressure developed during
operations forces the sealing lips tighter against the rotating shaft. This type of seal only
operates effectively against fluid pressure from one direction. Leather also is used as a lip seal.
In this configuration, the inside diameter of the seal is smaller than the shaft as the shaft is
installed, the seal bows outward to form a lip seal.

Figure 3-20. - Synthetic rubber oil seals.

WICK SEALS. The wick seal (fig. 3-21) is made of graphite-impregnated asbestos. Wicking is
sometimes used to control oil leakage. This seal conforms to the recess in which it is installed.
When using this type of seal, use a knurl finish on the rotating shaft. The oil is contained between
the knurls and seal, which rub together. As the shaft rotates, the oil is driven back by the
propeller effect of the seal and knurl finish. An oil slinger sometimes is used with wick seals.
The oil slinger is a raised washerlike area on the shaft. As oil meets the slinger, it is propelled
outward by centrifugal force. A catch trough then is used to collect the oil and return it to the
sump.

MOVING PARTS OF AN ENGINE

The moving parts of an engine serve an important function - turning heat energy into mechanical
energy. They further convert reciprocal motion into rotary motion. The principal moving parts
are the piston assembly, the connecting rods, the crankshaft assembly (including flywheel and
vibration dampener), the camshaft, the valves, and the gear train.

Burning of the air-fuel mixture within the cylinder exerts a pressure on the piston, thus pushing
the cylinder down. The action of the connecting rod and crankshaft converts this downward
motion to a rotary motion.

Figure 3-21. - Wick seals.

Piston Assembly
Pistons (fig. 3-22) are usually made of an aluminum alloy. They are a sliding fit in the cylinders.
This serves several purposes as follows:

 Transmits the force of combustion to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.
 Acts as a guide for the upper end of the connecting rod.
 Serves as a carrier for the piston rings that are used to seal the compression in the
cylinder.

The piston must withstand incredible punishment under temperature extremes.

Figure 3-22. - Piston.

Figure 3-23. - The parts of a piston.

The following are examples of conditions that a piston must withstand at normal highway
speed:

 As the piston moves from the top of the cylinder to the bottom (or vice versa), it
accelerates from a stop to a speed approximately 50 mph at midpoint, and then
decelerates to a stop again. It does this approximately 80 times per second.
 The piston is subjected to pressures on its head in excess of 1,000 psi.
 The piston head is subjected to temperatures well above 600F.
 The structural components of the pistons are the

HEAD, SKIRT, RING GROOVES, and LANDS (fig. 3-23); however, all pistons do not look
like the typical one shown here. Some have differently shaped heads. Diesel engine pistons
usually have more ring grooves and rings than the pistons of a gasoline engine. Some of these
rings may be installed below as well as above the WRIST or PISTON PIN (fig. 3-24).

Figure 3-24. - Diesel piston assembly.

Fitting pistons into the cylinder properly is very important. Because metal expands when heated,
space must be provided for lubricants between the pistons and the cylinder walls. Pistons must
have features built into them to control expansion. Without these features, pistons would fit
loosely in the cylinders when cold, and then bind in the cylinders, as they are warmed up. This is
the problem with aluminum because it expands so much.

The pistons (fig. 3-25) may be designed with the following features to control expansion:

 It is obvious that the crown of the piston gets hotter than the rest of the piston. To prevent
it from expanding to a larger size than the rest of the piston, it is machined to a diameter
that is approximately 0.03 to 0.04 of an inch smaller than the skirt area.
 One way to control expansion in the skirt area is to cut a slot up the side of the skirt. As
a split- skirt piston warms up, the split merely closes, thereby keeping the skirt from
expanding outward and binding the piston in the cylinder.
 Another variation of the split-skirt piston is the T-slot piston. The T-slot piston is similar
to the split-skirt piston with the addition of a horizontal slot that retards heat transfer
from the piston head to the piston skirt.
 Some aluminum pistons have steel braces cast into them to control expansion.
The skirt, or bottom part, of the piston runs much cooler than the top; therefore, it does not
require as much clearance as the head.

The piston is kept in alignment by the skirt, which is usually CAM-GROUND (elliptical in cross
section), as shown in figures 3-26 and 3-27. By making the piston egg-shaped, it is able to fit the
cylinder better throughout its operational temperature range. Cam- ground pistons are
machined so their diameter is smaller and more parallel to the piston pin axis than it is
perpendicular to it. When the piston is cold, it is big enough across the larger diameter to keep
from rocking. As it warms up, it expands across its smaller diameter at a much higher rate than at
its larger diameter. This tends to make the piston round at operating temperature. The walls of
the skirt are cut away as much as possible to reduce weight and to prevent excessive expansion
during engine operation. Virtually all pistons in automotive applications are cam ground.

Figure 3-25. - Controlling piston expansion.

Figure 3-26. - Cam-ground piston action.

There are two types of piston skirts in most engines - FULL TRUNK and PARTIAL SKIRTED
(SLIPPER) (fig. 3-28). The full trunk type of skirt has a full cylindrical shape with hearing
surfaces parallel to those of the cylinder. This gives it more strength and better control of the oil
film. The partial skirt or slipper skirt has considerable relief on the sides of the skirt.
Removal of the skirt in these areas serves the following purposes:

 Lightens the piston, which, in turn, increases the speed range of the engine.
 Reduces the contact area with the cylinder wall, which reduces friction.
 Allows the piston to be brought down closer to the crankshaft without interference with
its counterweights.

Figure 3-27. - Cam-ground piston.

The piston pin (fig. 3-29) serves to connect the piston to the connecting rod. It passes through the
pin bosses in the piston and the upper end of the connecting rod. The piston pin must be hard to
provide the desired wearing qualities. At the same time, the piston pin must not be too brittle. A
case-hardened steel pin is the best to satisfy
the overall requirements of a piston pin. Case
hardening is a process that hardens the
surface of the steel to any desired depth. The
pin is also hollow to reduce the overall weight
of the reciprocating mass. They are lubricated
by splash from the crankcase or by pressure
through passages bored in the connecting
rod.

There are three methods used for fastening a

piston to the connecting rod. The following
are the three different types of piston pins (fig.
3-30):

Figure 3-29. - Piston pin.

Figure 3-30. - Types of piston pins.

An ANCHORED, or fixed, piston pin is locked into the piston pin bosses by a screw. The rod
pivots freely on the connecting rod, which is fitted with a bronze bushing.
A SEMIFLOATING pin is locked to the connecting rod by a screw or by friction. The pin
pivots freely in the piston pin bosses.
The FULL-FLOATING piston pin pivots freely in the connecting rod and piston pin bosses.
The outer ends of the piston pins are fitted with lock rings to keep the pin from sliding out and
contacting the cylinder walls.
Piston rings serve three important functions (fig. 3-31). They provide a seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall to keep the force of the exploding gases from leaking into the
crankcase from the combustion chamber. Blow-by is detrimental to engine performance because
the force of the exploding gases merely bypasses the piston, rather than push down on it. It also
contains the lubricating oil. They keep the lubricating oil from passing the piston and getting
into the combustion chamber from the crankcase. Also, they provide a solid bridge to conduct
heat from the piston to the cylinder wall. About one third of the heat absorbed by the piston
passes to the cylinder wall through the piston rings.

Piston rings are secured to the piston by fitting into grooves. They are split to allow for
installation and expansion, and they exert pressure on the cylinder walls when installed. They fit
into grooves that are cut into the piston and are allowed to float freely in these grooves. A piston
ring that is formed properly, work in a cylinder that is within limits for roundness and size, exerts
an even pressure and a solid contact with the cylinder wall around the entire circumference.
There are two basic classifications of piston rings.

The COMPRESSION RING (fig. 3-32) that seals the force of the exploding mixture into the
combustion chamber and the OIL CONTROL RING (fig. 3-32) that keeps engine lubricating oil
from getting into the combustion chamber. These rings are arranged on the piston in three basic
configurations (fig. 3-33). They are as follows:

The three-ring piston has two compression rings from the top, followed by one oil control ring—
the most common configuration.

Figure 3-31.—Purpose of piston rings.

Figure 3-32. - Types of piston rings.

The four-ring piston has three compression rings from the top, followed by one oil control ring.
Commonly used on diesel engines because they are more prone to blow-by. This is due to the
much higher pressures generated during the power stroke.

The four-ring piston has two compression rings from the top, followed by two oil control rings.
The bottom oil control ring may be located above or below the piston pin. This is not very
common in current engine design.

Figure 3-33. - Configurations of piston rings.

Figure 3-34. - Ring gap.

There is an additional groove cut into the

piston just above the top ring groove. The
purpose of this groove is to divert some of
the intense heat that is absorbed by the
piston head away from the top ring. This
groove is called a HEAT DAM.

RING GAP (fig. 3-34) is the split in the

piston ring. This is necessary for installing
the ring on the piston and allowing for
expansion from heating. The gap must be
such that there is enough space so the ends do not come together, as the ring heats up. This
would cause the rings to break. There are a few variations of ring gap joints (fig. 3-35). Two-
cycle engines usually have pins in their ring grooves to keep the gap from turning. This is
important because the ring would break if the ends were allowed to snap into the inlet or exhaust
ports. Staggering the ring gap is also important
as it prevents blow-by. A significant amount of
total blow-by at the top ring will be from the ring
gap. For this reason, the top and second
compression rings are assembled to the piston
with their gaps 60-degrees offset with the first
ring gaps.

Rings must also be fitted for the proper side

clearance (fig. 3-36). This clearance varies in
different types and makes of engines; however, in
a diesel engine, the rings must be given greater
clearance than in a gasoline engine. If too much
side clearance is given the rings, excessive wear
on the lands will result. If there is too little side
clearance, expansion may cause the lands to
break.

Figure 3-35. - Ring gap variations.

When piston rings are new, a period of running is necessary to wear the piston rings a small
amount, so they conform perfectly to the cylinder walls. The cylinder walls are surfaced with a
tool called a hone, which leaves fine scratches in the cylinder walls (fig. 3-37). The piston rings
are made with grooves in their faces, which rub against the roughened cylinder walls, serving to
accelerate ring wear during the initial stages. As the surfaces wear smooth, the rings wear in.

Extreme pressure may be applied to high spots on the piston rings during the wear-in period.
This can cause the piston rings to overheat at these points and cause damage to the cylinder walls
in the form of rough streaks. This condition is called scuffing. New piston rings are coated with
a porous material, such as graphite, phosphate, or molybdenum. These materials absorb oil and
serve to minimize scuffing. As the rings wear in, the coatings wear off.

Some piston rings are chrome-plated. Chrome- plated rings provide better overall wearing
qualities. They also are finished to a greater degree of accuracy, which lets the piston rings wear
in faster.

Fig 3-36. - Fitting piston ring and installing

piston.

Figure 3-37. - Piston ring wear-in.

Connecting Rods
Connecting rods connect the pistons to the crankshaft. They must be strong enough to transmit
the thrust of the pistons to the crankshaft and to withstand the internal forces of the directional
changes of the pistons. The connecting rods (fig. 3-38) are in the form of an I-beam. This design
gives the highest overall strength and lowest weight. They are made of forged steel but may also
be made of aluminum in smaller engines.

The upper end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston by the piston pin. The piston pin
is locked in the pin bosses, or it floats in both piston and connecting rod. The upper hole of the
connecting rod has a solid bearing (bushing) of bronze or similar material. As the lower end of
the connecting rod revolves with the crankshaft, the upper end is forced to turn back and forth on
the piston pin. Although the movement is slight, the bushing is necessary because the
temperatures and pressures are high. If the piston pin is semifloating, a bushing is not needed.

Figure 3-38. - Connecting rod construction.

The lower hole in the connecting rod is split, so it can be clamped around the crankshaft. The
bottom part, or cap, is made of the same type of material as the rod and is attached by two or
more bolts. The surface that bears on the crankshaft is generally a bearing material in the form
of a split shell, although, in a few cases, it may be spun or die-cast in the inside of the rod and
cap during manufacture. The two parts of the separate bearing are positioned in the rod and cap
by dowel pins and projections or by a short brass screw. The shell may be of Babbitt metal that is
die-cast on a backing of bronze or steel. Split bearings may be of the precision or semiprecision
type.

The PRECISION type of bearing is accurately finished to fit the crankpin and does not require
further fitting during installation. It is positioned by projections on the shell that match relief in
the rod and cap. The projections prevent the bearings from moving sideways and from rotary
motion in the rod and cap.

The SEMIPRECISION type of bearing is fastened to or die-cast with the rod and cap. Before
installation, it is machined and fitted to the proper inside diameter with the cap and rod bolted
together.

The connecting rod bearings are fed a constant supply of oil through a hole in the crankshaft
journal. A hole in the upper bearing half feeds a passage in the connecting rod to provide oil to
the piston pin.

Connecting rod numbers are used to assure a proper location of each connecting rod in the
engine. They all assure that the rod cap is installed on the rod body correctly. When connecting
rod caps are being manufactured, they are bolted to the
connecting rods. Then the lower end holes are machined
in the rods. Since the holes may not be perfectly centered,
rod caps must NOT be mixed up or turned around. If the
cap is installed without the rod numbers in alignment, the
bore will NOT be perfectly round. Connecting rod caps,
crankshaft, and bearing damage will result.

In addition to the proper fit of the connecting rod

bearings and the proper position of the connecting rod,
the alignment of the rod itself must be considered. That is
to say, the hole for the piston pin and the crankpin must
be precisely parallel. Equipment of suitable accuracy is
available for checking connecting rods (fig. 3-39).
EVERY connecting rod should be checked for proper
alignment just before it is installed in the engine.
Misalignment of connecting rods causes many hard to
locate noises in the engine.

Figure 3-39. - Checking connecting rod alignment.

Crankshaft
As the pistons collectively might be regarded as the heart of the engine, so the CRANKSHAFT
(fig. 3-40) may be considered its backbone. The crankshaft is the part of the engine that
transforms the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary motion. It transmits power through
the flywheel, the clutch, the transmission, and the differential to drive your vehicle.

Crankshafts are made from forged or cast steel. Forged steel is the stronger of the two and is
used in commercial and military engines. The cast unit is primarily used in light- and regular-
duty gasoline engines. After the rough forging or casting is produced, it becomes a finished
product by going through the following steps:
 1. Each hole is located and drilled. Each surface is rough machined
2. The crankshaft, with the exception of the bearing journals, is plated with alight coating of
copper.
3. The bearing journals are case-hardened.
4. The bearing journals are ground to size.
5. Threads are cut into necessary bolt holes.

Crank throw arrangements for four-, six-, and eight- cylinder engines are shown in figure 3-41.
The arrangements of throws determine the firing order of the engine. The position of the throws
for each cylinder arrangement is paramount to the overall smoothness of operation. For the
various engine configurations, typical throws are arranged as follows:

In-line four-cylinder engines have throws one and four offset 180 degrees from throws two and
three.
V-type engines have two cylinders operating off each throw. The two end throws are on one
plane offset 180 degrees apart. The two center throws are on another common plane, which is
also 180 degrees apart. The two planes are offset 90 degrees from each other.
In-line six-cylinder engines have throws a-ranged on three planes. There are two throws on
each plane that are in line with each other. The three planes are arranged 120 degrees apart.
V-type twelve-cylinder engines have throw arrangements like the in-line six-cylinder engine.
The difference is that each throw accepts two-engine cylinders.
V-type six-cylinder engines have three throws at 120- degree intervals. Each throw accepts
two- engine cylinders.

The crankshaft is supported in the crankcase and rotates in the main bearings (fig. 3-42). The
connecting rods are supported on the crankshaft by the rod bearings. Crankshaft bearings are
made as precision inserts that consist of a hard shell of steel or bronze with a thin lining of
antifrictional metal or bearing alloy. Bearings must be able to support the crankshaft rotation
and deliver power stroke thrust under the most adverse conditions.

The crankshaft rotates in the MAIN BEARINGS located at both ends of the crankshaft and at
certain intermediate points. The upper halves of the bearing fit right into the crankcase and the
lower halves fit into the caps that hold the crankshaft in place (fig. 3-43). These bearings often
are channeled for oil distribution and may be lubricated with crankcase oil by pressure through
drilled passages or by splash. Some main bearings have an integral thrust face that eliminates
crankshaft end play. To prevent the loss of oil, place the seals at both ends of the crankshaft
where it extends through the crankcase. When main bearings are replaced, tighten the bearing
cap to the proper tension with a torque wrench and lock them in place with a cotter pin or safety
wire after they are in place.

VIBRATION DUE TO IMBALANCE is an inherent problem with a crankshaft that is made

with offset throws.
Figure 3-41. - Crankshaft throw arrangements

The weight of the throws tends to make the crankshaft rotate elliptically. This is aggravated
further by the weight of the piston and the connecting rod. To eliminate the problem, position the
weights along the crankshaft. One weight is placed 180 degrees away from each throw. They are
called counterweights and are usually part of the crankshaft but may be a separate bolt on items
on small engines.
Figure 3-43. - Typical insert bearing installation.

The crankshaft has a tendency to bend slightly when subjected to tremendous thrust from the
piston. This deflection of the rotating member causes vibration. This VIBRATION DUE TO
DEFLECTION is minimized by heavy crankshaft construction and sufficient support along its
length by bearings.
TORSIONAL VIBRATION
This occurs when the crankshaft twists because of the power stroke thrusts. It is caused by the
cylinders furthest away from the crankshaft output. As these cylinders apply thrust to the
crankshaft, it twists and the thrust decreases. The twisting and unwinding of the crankshaft
produces a vibration. The use of a vibration damper at the end of the crankshaft opposite the
output acts to absorb torsional vibration.

Vibration Damper

Figure 3-44. - Vibration damper.

The power impulses of an engine tend to set up torsional vibration in the crankshaft. If this
torsional vibration were not controlled, the crankshaft might actually break at certain speeds; a
vibration damper mounted on the front of the crankshaft controls this vibration. There are a few
variations of the vibration damper (fig. 3-44), but they all accomplish their task basically in the
same manner. They all use a two-piece design the differences in design are in how the two pieces
are linked together.
One type of damper links the pieces together by an adjustable friction clutch. Whenever a
suddenchange in crankshaft speed occurs, it causes the friction clutch to slip. This is because the
outer section of the damper tends to continue at the same speed. The slippage of the clutch acts
to absorb the torsional vibration. Another type of damper links the two pieces together with
rubber. As the crankshaft speeds up, the rubber compresses, storing energy. This minimizes the
effect of crankshaft speed increase. As the crankshaft unwinds, the damper releases energy
stored in the compressed rubber to cushion the speed change in the other direction.

Flywheel
The flywheel (fig. 3-45) stores energy from the power strokes and smoothly delivers it to the
drive train of the vehicle between the engine and the transmission. It releases this energy
between power impulses, assuring fewer fluctuations in speed and smoother engine operation.
The flywheel is mounted at the rear of the crankshaft near the rear main bearing. This is usually
the longest and heaviest main bearing in the engine, as it must support the weight of the
flywheel.

The flywheel on large, low-speed engines is usually made of cast iron. This is desirable because
the heavy weight of the cast iron helps the engine maintain a steady speed. Small, high-speed
engines usually use a forged steel or forged aluminum flywheel for the following reasons:

 The cast iron is too heavy, giving it too much inertia for speed variations necessary on
small engines.
 Cast iron, because of its weight, pulls itself apart at high speeds due to centrifugal force.

Figure 3-45. - Flywheel.

When equipped with a manual transmission, the flywheel serves to mount the clutch. With a
vehicle that is equipped with an automatic transmission, the flywheel supports the front of the
torque converter. In some configurations, the flywheel is combined with the torque converter.
The outer edge of the flywheel carries the ring gear, either integral with the flywheel or shrunk
on. The ring gear is used to engage the drive gear on the starter motor for cranking the engine.

VALVE AND VALVE MECHANISMS

There are two valves for each cylinder in most engines - one intake and one exhaust. Since these
valves operate at different times, it is necessary that a separate operating mechanism be provided
for each valve. Valves are held closed by heavy springs and by compression in the combustion
chamber. The purpose of the valve actuating mechanism is to overcome spring pressure and
open the valve at the proper time. The valve actuating mechanism includes the engine camshaft,
the camshaft followers (tappets), the pushrods, and the rocker arms.

Figure 3-46. - Camshaft and bushings.

Camshaft

The camshaft provides for the opening and

closing of the engine valves. The camshaft (fig.
3-46) is enclosed in the engine block. It has
eccentric lobes (cams) ground on it for each valve
in the engine. As the camshaft rotates, the cam
lobe moves up under the valve tappet, exerting an
upward thrust through the tappet against the
valve stem or the pushrod. This thrust overcomes
the valve spring pressure as well as the gas pressure in the cylinder, causing the valve to open.
When the lobe moves from under the tappet, the valve spring pressure reseats the valve.

On L-, F-, or I-head engines, the camshaft is located to one side and above the crankshaft, while
in V-type engines, it is located directly above the crankshaft On the overhead camshaft engine,
the camshaft is located above the cylinder head

The camshaft of a four-stroke-cycle engine turns at one half of engine speed. It is driven off the
crankshaft through timing gears or a timing chain. (The system of camshaft drive is dismissed
later in this chapter.) In a two-stroke-cycle engine, the camshaft must turn at the same speed as
the crankshaft, so each valve opens and closes once in each revolution of the engine.

In most cases, the camshaft does more than operate the valve mechanism. It may have external
cams or gears that operate the fuel pumps, the fuel injectors, the ignition distributor, or the
lubrication pump.

Camshafts are supported in the engine block by journals in bearings. Camshaft bearing journals
are the largest machined surfaces on the shaft. The bearings are made of bronze and are
bushings, rather than split bearings. The bushings are lubricated by oil circulating through drilled
passages from the crankcase. The stresses on the camshaft are small; therefore, the bushings are
not adjustable and require little attention. The camshaft bushings are replaced only when the
engine requires a complete overhaul.
Followers
Camshaft followers are part of the valve actuating mechanism that contacts the camshaft. You
will hear them called valve tappets or valve lifters. The bottom surface is hardened and
machined to be compatible with the surface of the camshaft lobe. There are two basic types of
followers - mechanical and hydraulic.

MECHANICAL (or solid) tappets (fig. 3-47) are simply barrel-shaped pieces of metal. When
used in flathead engines, they have an adjusting screw mechanism to set the clearance between
the tappets and the valve stems. Mechanical tappets may also come with a wider bottom surface.
These are called mushroom tappets. Another variation is the roller tappet. It has a roller
contacting the camshaft and is used mostly in heavy-duty applications.

Figure 3-47. - Mechanical tappets

HYDRAULIC tappets are very popular in overhead valve engines. They use oil under pressure
to maintain zero clearance in the valve mechanism automatically. The lifter body, which
contacts the camshaft lobe, is hollow. Inside the lifter body, there is a plunger that operates the
valve mechanism. Injecting oil into the cavity under the plunger regulates its height, thereby
adjusting valve mechanism clearance. The hydraulic lifter operates as follows (fig. 3-48): oil,
supplied by the engine lubrication system, reaches the lifter body and enters it through passage
(1). The oil then passes through passage (2) to fill the plunger. The oil then passes through
passage (3) where it pushes the check valve off its seat to enter the cavity under the plunger. As
oil fills the cavity, it pushes the plunger up to where it contacts the valve mechanism. When the
camshaft pushes the lifter body up, the oil is trapped in the cavity and cannot escape because the
check ball seals the opening. This trapped oil then becomes a solid link between the lifter body
and the plunger. The constant pressurized supply of oil will maintain zero clearance in the valve
mechanism.

Figure 3-48. - Hydraulic tappets.

The face of the tappet and the lobe of the camshaft are designed so the tappet rotates during
operation (fig. 3-49). The cam lobe is machined with a slight taper that mates with a crowned
tappet face.

Figure 3-49. - Tappet-to-can lobe relationship.

The camshaft lobe does not meet the tappet in the center of its face. The design causes the tappet
face to rotate on the cam lobe, rather than slide. This greatly increases component life.

Valve and Valve Seats

Each cylinder in a four-stroke-cycle engine must have one intake and one exhaust valve. The
valves that are commonly used are of the poppet design. The word poppet is derived from the
popping action of the valve. Poppet-type valves are made in the following three basic shapes:
semitulip, tulip, and mushroom (fig. 3-50). The valve shape used in a given engine depends on
requirements and shape of the combustion chamber.

Figure 3-50. - Valve shapes.

Construction and design considerations are very different for intake and exhaust valves. The
difference is based on their temperature operating ranges. Intake valves are kept cool by the
incoming intake mixture. Exhaust valves are subject to intense heat from the burnt gases that
pass by it. The temperature of an exhaust valve can be in excess of 1300F. Intake valves are
made of nickel chromium alloy. Whereas, exhaust valves are made from silichrome alloy. In
certain heavy-duty and most air-cooled engines, the exhaust valves are sodium filled. During
engine operation, the sodium inside the hollow valve melts. When the valve opens, the sodium
splashes down into the valve head and collects heat. Then, when the valve closes, the sodium
splashes up into the valve stem. Heat transfers out of the sodium, into the stem, valve guide, and
engine coolant. In this way, the valve is cooled. Sodium-filled valves are light and allow high
engine rpm for prolonged periods.

In vehicles that use unleaded fuel, a stellite valve is preferred. A stellite valve has a special
hard metal coating on its face. Lead additives in gasoline, other than increasing octane, act as a
lubricant. The lead coats the valve face and seat to reduce wear. With unleaded fuel, the wear of
the valve seat and valve face is accelerated. To prevent this and prolong valve service life, use a
stellite valve.
Valve seats are important, as they must match the face of the valve head to form a perfect seal.
The seats are made so they are concentric with the valve guides; that is, the surface of the seat is
an equal distance from the center of the guide all around Although some earlier engines were
designed with flat contact surface for the valve and valve seat, most are now designed with valve
seat angles of 30 to 45 degrees, as shown in figure 3-51. This angle helps prevent excessive
accumulation of carbon on the contact surface of the seat - a condition that keeps the valve
from closing properly. To further reduce carbon build up, there is an interference angle (usually
1 degree) between the valve and seat. In some cases, a small portion of the valve seat has an
additional 15-degree angle ground into it to narrow the contact area of the valve face and seat.
When you reduce the contact area, the pressure between the mating parts is increased, thereby
forming a better seal.

Figure 3-51. - Valve-to-valve seat relationship.

The valve seats may be an integral part of

the cylinder head or an insert pressed into
the cylinder head. Valve seat inserts are
commonly used in aluminum cylinder
heads. Steel inserts are needed to withstand
the extreme heat. When a valve seat insert
is badly worn from grinding or pitting, it
must be replaced.

Valve Guides

The valve guides are the parts that support

the valves in the cylinder head. They are
machined to fit a few thousandths of an
inch clearance with a valve stem.

This close clearance is important for the

following reasons:

 It keeps lubricating oil from getting

sucked into the combustion chamber past
the intake valve stem during the intake
stroke.
 It keeps exhaust gases from getting into
the crankcase area past the exhaust valve
stem during the exhaust stroke.
 It keeps the valve face in perfect
alignment with the valve seat.

Valve guides may be cast integrally with the

head, or they may be removable. Removable
guides are press-fit into the cylinder head.
Valve Springs, Retainers, Seals, and Valve Rotators
The valve assembly is completed by the spring, the retainer, the seal, and the valve rotator
(fig. 3-53). The spring, which keeps the valve in a normally closed position, is basically the same
for all engines; however, the number and types of coils can vary. Most valves have only one
spring, but, in some cases, there may be two - an inner spring and an outer spring. The second
spring increases the pressure holding the valve closed. Low-spring tension can cause valve float
(spring too weak to close the valve at high rpm).

A valve retainer and keepers lock the valve spring on the valve. The retainer is a specially
shaped washer that fits over the top of the valve spring. The keepers, or locks, fit into the valve
stem grooves, holding the retainer and spring in place.

The seal keeps the valve operating mechanism oil from running down the valve stem and into the
combustion chamber. Valve seals come in two basic types - umbrella and O ring. Both are
common on modern engines. The umbrella valve seal is shaped like a cup and can be made of
neoprene plastic or rubber. An umbrella valve seal slides down over the valve stem before the
spring and retainer. It covers the small clearance between the valve stem and guide. The O ring
is a small, round seal that fits into an extra groove cut into the valve stem. It fits on the valve
stem after the spring and retainer. Unlike the umbrella type, it seals the gap between the
retainer and the valve stem, not the guide and stem. It stops oil from flowing through the retainer
down the stem and into the guide.

A valve rotator (fig. 3-54) turns the valve to

prevent a carbon buildup and hot spots on the
valve face. There are two types of rotators the
release type and the positive type. The release type
of rotator releases the spring tension from the valve
while open; this allows the valve to rotate from
engine vibration. The positive rotator is a two-piece
valve retainer with a flexible washer between the
two pieces. A series of balls between the retainer
pieces roll on machined ramps, as pressure is
applied and released from the opening and closing
of the valve. The movement of the balls up and
down the ramps translates into rotations of the
valve.

Figure 3-53. - Valve spring, retainer, and seal.

Figure - [Link] rotators.

Reconditioning Valves Valve reconditioning includes grinding valves and valve seats, adjusting
valve tappet clearances, installing new valve seat inserts, and timing the [Link], these
operations constitute the VALVE SERVICE necessary for smooth engine performance and
maximum power output.

To recondition valves and valve seats, first remove the cylinder head from the engine. Once the
cylinder head is off, remove the carbon from the head, the cylinder block, and the pistons. In
cleaning the top of the piston, you must exercise care to prevent gouging and scratching, as
rough spots collect carbon readily and lead to preignition and detonation during operation.
Remove the valves using a valve spring compressor. Next, clean the valves with a wire brush or
buffing wheel (fig. 3-55). When the buffing wheel is being used, make sure you wear proper eye
protection to prevent wire and other foreign matter from flying into your eyes.

Be careful not to interchange the valves. Bach valve must be replaced in the same valve port
from which it was removed. The valve stem
moving up and down in the valve guide
develops a wear pattern. And, if the valves are
interchanged, a new wear pattern is
developed. This causes excessive wear on the
valve stem and guide.

To eliminate confusion, you should devise a

system to identify a valve with the cylinder
from which it was taken. The most common
way to identify valves is to place them on a
piece of board with holes drilled and
numbered to correspond with the cylinder
each valve came from. Figure [Link] a valve with a wire buffing wheel.
The next step is to resurface the valve face. This is done by using a valve grinding or refacing
machine. VALVE GRINDING is done by machining a fresh, smooth surface on the face and
stem tips. Valve faces suffer from burning, pitting, and wear caused by opening and closing
millions of times during the service life of the engine. Valve stem tips wear because of friction
from the rocker arms.

Although there are some variations in design, most valve grinding machines (fig. 3-56) are
basically the same. They use a grinding stone and a precision chuck to remove a thin layer of
metal from the valve and stem tip. The following steps are used in preparing to reface a valve:

DRESS THE STONE by using a diamond cutter to true stone surface (fig. 3-57). Do this before
grinding the valves. A diamond-tipped cutting attachment is provided with the machine for
truing the stone. Follow the equipment manufacturer's instructions for that specific piece
equipment.

CAUTION
Be careful when using a diamond tool to
dress a stone. Wear eye protection and feed
the diamond into the stone SLOWLY. If
fed too fast, tool or stone breakage may
result.

SET THE CHUCK ANGLE by rotating the

valve grinding machine chuck assembly.
An interference angle (normally 1 degree
difference in valve face angle and valve
seat angle) is set on the machine. If the
valve seat is 45 degrees, the chuck is set to
44 degrees. This allows for reduced break-
in and sealing time.

Figure 3-57. - Stone dresser.

CHUCK THE VALVE in the valve grinding machine by inserting the valve stem into the chuck
Make sure the stem is inserted so the chuck grasps the machine surface nearest the valve head.

WARNING The chuck must NOT clamp onto an unmachined surface or runout will occur.

Before grinding, inspect each valve face for burning and each stem for wear. Replace valves that
are badly worn or burned. Grind a new valve along with the old, used valves.

WARNING
Wear a face shield when grinding valves. The stone could shatter, throwing debris into your face.
To grind the valve face, turn on the
machine and cooling fluid SLOWLY feed
the valve into the stone. While feeding,
slowly move the valve back and forth in
front of the stone. Use the full face of the
stone but do NOT let the valve face move
out of contact with the stone while cutting.
Grind the valve only long enough to clean
up its face. When the full valve face looks
shiny with no darken pits, shut the
machine off and inspect the face.

Figure 3-56. - Valve-refacing machine.

Grinding, by removing metal from the face, makes the valve stem extend through the head more.
This affects spring tension and rocker-arm geometry. Grind the face of the valve as little as
possible. A sharp valve margin (fig. 3-58) indicates excessive valve face removal and requires
valve replacement. If the margin is too thin, the valve can burn when returned to service. It may
not be thick enough to dissipate heat fast enough. The head of the valve can actually begin to
melt, burn, and blow out the exhaust port. Refer to the manufacturer's manual for specifications
about minimum valve margin of thickness.

If the head of the valve wobbles as it turns on the valve grinding machine, the valve is either bent
or chucked improperly. Turn off the machine and check for causes. If the valve is bent, replace it
with a new one.

If a burned valve is not noticed during initial inspection, it will show up when excess grinding is
required to clean up the valve face. A normal amount of grinding does not remove a deep pit or
groove. Replace the valve if it is burned.

Another area on the valve that must be attended to is the valve stem. This is due to wear from the
valve operating mechanisms. When the tip end of the valve stems is rough, smooth them by
grinding lightly with a special attachment furnished with the valve grinding machine. Grind as
little off the stem as possible. Many stems are hardened and too much grinding results in rapid
wear when the valve is returned to service. Generally, cut the same amount of metal off the face
and stem. This helps to keep the valve train geometry correct.

Valve Guide Service

Servicing of valve guides is an important, but often neglected, part of a good valve job. The
guide must be clean and in good condition before a good valve seat can be made. Valve guide
wear is a common problem; it allows the valve to move sideways in its guide during operation.
This can cause oil consumption (oil leaks past the valve seal and through the guide), burned
valves (poor seat to valve face seal), or valve breakage.
There are several satisfactory methods of checking for valve guide wear. One procedure for
checking valve guide wear is to slide the valve into its guide. Full it open approximately 1/2
inch, then try and wiggle the valve sideways. If the valve moves sideways in any direction, the
guide or stem is worn. Another checking procedure involves the use of a small hole gauge to
measure the inside of the guide and a micrometer to measure the valve stem; the difference in
the readings is the clearance. Check the manufacturer's manual for the maximum allowable
clearance. When the maximum clearance is exceeded the valve guide needs further servicing
before you proceed with the rest of the job.

Servicing procedures depend on whether the guide is of the integral or replaceable type. If it is
the integral type, it must be reamed to a larger size and a valve with an oversize stem installed.
But if it is replaceable, it should be removed and a new guide installed

KNURLING of the valve guides has become more popular as a method of compensating for
wear of the valve guides. Knurling is accomplished by attaching a special tool to an electric drill
and inserting the tool in the worn guide. This method is not recommended if the guide has been
worn excessively or knurled previously.

Valve guides should be removed and replaced with special drivers (fig. 3-59). When working on
a valve in the cylinder head of an engine, you may use an arbor press to remove and replace the
valve guides.

After the valve guides are serviced and the valve seats are ground, check the concentricity of the
two with a valve seat dial indicator (fig. 3-60). Any irregularity in the seat will register on this
dial.

Valve Seat Service

Valve seat service requires either replacement of the seat or reconditioning of the seat by
grinding or cutting. Valve seat replacement is required when a valve seat is cracked, burned, or
recessed (sunk) in the cylinder head. Normally valve seats can be machined and returned to
service.

To remove a replaceable pressed-in seat, split the old seat with a sharp chisel. Then pry out the
old seat. New seat inserts should be chilled in dry ice for about 15 minutes to shrink them, so
they can be driven into place easily. The seat
expands when returned to room temperature,
which locks the seat in place.

In most cases, the valve seats are not

replaceable, so they must be ground (fig. 3-
61). Before operating the valve seat grinding
equipment in your shop, be sure to study the
manufacturer's manual for specific instructions.

Figure 3-58. - Proper valve margin of thickness after refacing.

Figure 3-59. - Puller used in removing valve seat inserts.

Figure 3-60. - Determining concentricity of the valve seat with a valve seat dial indicator.

Figure 3-61. - Grinding valve seats using a concentric type of grinder.

Figure 3-62. - Self-centering pilot.

The following procedures are typical for grinding valve seats:

1. Select and install the correct size pilot (metal shaft that fits into the guide and supports
cutting stone or carbide cutter) (fig. 3-62). The pilot should fit snugly in the valve guide
and not wiggle.
2. Select the correct stone for the valve seat. It must be slightly larger in diameter than the
seat and must have the correct face angle. Slip the stone- and-sleeve assembly over the
pilot.
3. Insert the power head into the sleeve assembly. Support the weight of the power head.
Grind only long enough to clean up pits in the seat. Check the progress often to ensure
that you do not remove more material than necessary to get a good seat.

After grinding valve seats, it is recommended that you lap the contact surfaces of the valve and
valve seat. Lapping valves are done to check the location of the valve-to-seat contact point and
to smooth the mating surfaces.

To lap the valve, dab grinding compound (abrasive paste) on the valve face. Install the valve into
the cylinder head and rotate with a lapping stick (a wooden stick with a rubber plunger for
holding the valve head). Rub your hands back and forth on the lapping stick to spin the valve on
its seat. This rubs the grinding compound between the valve face and the seat. Remove the valve
and check the contact point. A dull gray stripe around the seat and face of the valve indicates the
valve- to-seat contact point. This helps you narrow or move the valve seat. A few manufacturers
do NOT recommend valve lapping. Refer to the manufacturer's service manual for details.

WARNING
Make sure you clean all the valve grinding compound
off the valve and cylinder head. The compound can
cause rapid part wear.

Another way to check valve-to-seat contact is by

spreading a thin coat of prussian blue on the valve
face or putting lead pencil marks on the valve seat. If,
when turning the valve on its seat, an even deposit of
coloring is seen on the valve seat or the pencil lines
are removed, the seating is perfect.

Figure 3-63. - Normal valve seat.

The valve should NOT be rotated more than one-eighth turn as a high spot could give a false
indication if turned one full revolution.
Figure 3-63 shows a normal valve seat. This will vary according to the manufacturer's
specification. The seat should touch near the center of the valve face with the correct contact
width. Typically, an intake valve should have a valve-to-seat contact width of about 1/16 of an
inch. An exhaust valve should have a valve-to- seat contact width of approximately 3/32 of an
inch. Check the manufacturer's service manual for exact values.

When the valve seat does NOT touch the valve face properly (wrong width or location on the
valve) (fig. 3-64), regrind the seat using different angles, usually 15-degree and 60-degree
stones. This is known as narrowing or positioning a
valve (fig. 3-65).

Fig 3-64.- Incorrect valve-to-seat contact. Fig 65 - Correct valve-to-seat contact after narrowing.

To move the seat in and narrow it, grind the valve seat with a 15-degree stone. This removes
metal from around the top of the seat. The seat face moves closer to the valve stem.

To move the seat out and narrow it, grind the valve seat with a 60-degree stone. This cuts away
metal from the inner edge of the seat. The seat contact point moves toward the margin or outer
edge of the valve.

Rocker Arm Service

After disassembling the rocker arms, you should inspect them for wear, clogged oil holes, and
damage.

When wear is indicated inside the rocker bore, you can measure it with a telescoping gauge and
a micrometer or a bore gauge. Rocker arms with bushings can be rebushed if the old bushing is
worn. On some rocker arms, worn valve ends can be ground down on the valve grinding
machine. Excessively worn rocker arms should be replaced.

Also, inspect the rocker arm shaft for wear. A worn rocker arm shaft has indentions where the
rocker arms swivel on the shaft. Wear on the shaft is usually greater on the bottom. Using a
micrometer, check the shaft to determine whether wear is within the manufacturer's
specifications.
When reinstalling rocker arms and shafts in the cylinder head, make sure that the oil holes (in the
shaft if so equipped) are on the underside, so they can feed oil to the rocker arms. Ensure that all
spring and rocker arms are restored to their original positions as you attach the shafts to the head.

Valve Spring Service

After prolonged use, valve springs tend to weaken, lose tension, or even break. During engine
service, always test valve springs to make sure they are usable. Valve springs should be tested
for uniformity and strength. The three characteristics to check are valve spring squareness,
valve spring free height, and valve spring tension.

Valve spring squareness is easily checked with a combination square. Place each spring next to
the square on a flat surface. Rotate the spring while checking for a gap between the side of the
spring and the square. Replace any spring that is not square.

Valve spring free height can also be measured with a combination square or a valve spring
tester. Simply measure the length of each spring in normal uncompressed condition. If it is too
long or too short, replace the spring.

Valve spring tension, or pressure, is measured by using a spring tester. Compress the spring to
specification height and read the scale on the tester. Spring pressure must be within
specifications. If the reading is too low, the spring has weakened and must be replaced.

TIMING GEARS (GEAR TRAINS)

Because the crankshaft must rotate twice as fast as the camshaft, the drive member on the
crankshaft must be exactly one half as large as the driven member on the camshaft. So for the
camshaft and crankshaft to work together, they must be in time with each other. This initial
position between the two shafts is designated by marks that are called timing marks. To obtain
the correct initial relationship of the components, align the corresponding marks at the time of
assembly.

Figure 3-66. - Timing gear trains.

Timing gears keep the crankshaft and the camshaft turning in proper relation to one another,
so the valves open and close at the proper time. This is accomplished by gear- drive, chain-
drive, or belt-drive gear trains (fig. 3-66).

Figure 3-67. - Methods of valve timing with a chain drive.

In a gear drive setup (fig. 3-66), the timing gear on the crankshaft meshes directly with the gear
on the camshaft. Timing gears are commonly used on heavy- duty applications due to their
dependability; however, they are noisier than a chain or belt drive. Since they are keyed to their
respective shafts, they can be replaced if they become worn. With directly driven gears, one gear
usually has a mark on two adjacent teeth and the other mark on only one tooth. To time the valve
properly, mesh the gears so the two marked teeth of one gear straddle the single marked tooth
of the other.

A timing chain and sprockets can also be used to turn the camshaft (fig. 3-66). This is the most
common type of gear train. There are two types of timing chains. One is a silent link type that is
used in standard and light-duty applications. The other is the roller-link chain, which is used
in heavy-duty applications. Like timing gears, the chain sprockets have timing marks. The
correct timing may be obtained by hating a certain number of chain-link teeth between the marks
or by lining up the marks with a straightedge, as shown in figure 3-67.

In a belt drive gear train, the sprockets on the crankshaft and the camshaft are linked by a
continuous neoprene belt (fig. 3-66). The belt has square-shaped internal teeth that mesh with
the teeth on the sprockets. The timing belt is reinforced with nylon or fiber glass to give it
strength and prevent it from stretching. This drive configuration is limited to overhead camshaft
engines.

Most engines with a chain drive and all belt-driven engines use a tensioner. The tensioner pushes
against the belt or chain to keep it tight. This serves to keep it from slipping on the sprockets.
This provides more precise valve timing and compensates for component wear and stretch.
Engines with a belt drive usually use a spring-loaded idler wheel. Engines with a chain drive
use a fiber-rubbing block that is either spring loaded or hydraulic.

ENGINE BEARINGS
Bearings are installed in an engine where there is relative motion between parts. Engine bearings
are called sleeve bearings because they are in the shape of a sleeve that fits around the rotating
journal or shaft (fig. 3-68).
Figure 3-68. - Typical sleeve-type bearing half.

Connecting rod or camshaft (main) bearings are of the split or half type (fig. 3-69). On main
bearings, the upper half is installed in the counterbore in the cylinder block. The lower-bearing
half is held in place by the bearing cap (fig. 3-70). On connecting rod bearings, the upper-bearing
half is installed in the rod and the lower half is placed in the rod cap. The piston pin bearing in
the connecting rod is of the full round or bushing type.

Bearing Lubrication
The lubrication of bearings is very important to engine service life because it forces oil to high
friction points within the engine. Without lubrication between parts, bearings overheat and score
from friction.

The journal or shaft must be smaller in diameter than the bearing (fig. 3-71), so there is clearance
(called oil clearance) between the two parts; oil circulates through the clearance. The oil enters
through the oil hole (fig. 3-66) and fills the oil groove in the bearing. From there, the rotating
journal carries the oil around to all moving parts of the bearing. The oil works its way to the
outer edges of the bearing. From there, it is thrown off and drops back into the oil pan. The oil
thrown off helps to lubricate other engine parts, such as the cylinder walls, the pistons, and the
piston rings.
Figure 3-69. - Crankshaft main bearings. Figure 3-70. - Connecting rod bearings.

As the oil moves across the faces of the bearings, it not only lubricates them but also helps keep
them cool. The oil is relatively cool, as it leaves the oil pan. It picks up heat in its passage
through the bearing. This heat is carried down to the oil pan and released to the air passing
around the oil pan.

Figure 3-71. - Oil clearance between bearing and

shaft.

The oil also flushes and cleans the bearings.

It tends to flush out particles of grit and dirt
that may have worked into the bearing. The
particles are carried back to the oil pan by the
circulating oil. The particles then drop to the
bottom of the oil pan or are removed from
the oil by the oil screen or filter.

The greater the oil clearance, the faster the

oil flows through the bearing; however,
excessive oil clearance causes some bearings
to fail from oil starvation. Here's the reason:
If oil clearances are excessive, most of the
oil passes through the nearest bearings.
There is not enough oil for the most distant bearings; these bearings eventually fail from lack
of oil. An engine with excessive bearing oil clearance usually has low oil pressure; the oil pump
cannot build up normal pressure because of the excessive oil clearance in the bearings.

On the other hand, when the bearings have insufficient oil clearances, there is metal-to-metal
contact between the bearings and the journal. Extremely rapid wear and quick failure is the end
result. Also, there is not enough throw off for adequate lubrication of cylinder walls, pistons, and
rings.

Bearing Characteristics
Engine bearings must operate under tremendous loads, severe temperature variations, abrasive
action, and corrosive surroundings. Essential bearing characteristics include the following.

1. BEARING LOAD STRENGTH is the ability of a bearing to withstand pounding and

crushing during engine operations. The piston and rod can produce several TONS of
downward force. The bearing must not fatigue, flatten, or split under these loads. If the
bearing load resistance is too low, the beating can smash, fail, and spin in its bore. This
ruins the bore or the journal.
2. BEARING CONFORMABILITY is the ability of a bearing to move, shift, conform to
variations in shaft alignment, and adjust to imperfections in the surface of the journal.
Usually, a soft metal is placed over hard steel. This lets the bearing conform to the
defects in the journal.
3. BEARING EMBEDABILITY refers to the ability of a bearing to permit foreign particles
to become embedded in it (fig. 3-72). Dirt and metal are sometimes carried into the
bearings. The bearing should allow the particles to sink beneath the surface into the
bearing material. This prevents the particles from scratching, wearing, and damaging the
surface of the crankshaft or camshaft journals.
4. BEARING CORROSION RESISTANCE is the ability of a bearing to resist corrosion
from acid, water, and other impurities in the engine oil. Combustion blow-by gases cause
engine oil contamination that can also corrode engine bearings. Aluminum-lead and other
alloys are commonly being used because of their excellent corrosion resistance.

Bearing Materials

As discussed earlier, there are three basic types of engine bearings - connecting rod bearings,
crankshaft main bearings, and camshaft bearings. The backing material (body of the bearing
that contacts stationary parts) for engine bearings is normally steel. Softer alloys are bonded over
the backing to form the bearing surface. Any one of three basic types of metal alloys can be
plated over the top of the steel backing - Babbitt (lead-tin alloy), copper, or aluminum (fig. 3-
73).

These three metals may be used in different combinations to design bearings for light-, medium-,
or heavy- duty applications. The engine designer selects the combination of ingredients that will
best suit the engine.
Figure 3-72. - Effect of a metallic particle embedded in bearing
material (Babbitt lining). Figure 3-73. - Bearing materials

REVISION QUESTIONS

Q1. What material is commonly used to provide a wearing surface in a liquid-cooled engine for
the pistons to ride against?

Q2. What are the two types of cylinder sleeves?

Q3. What are the two types of core hole plugs used in an internal combustion engine?

Q4. What is the basic foundation of all air-cooled engines?

Q5. A properly made exhaust manifold results in what type of action to help an engine get rid of
exhaust gases?

Q6. In an exhaust-heated intake manifold, gases diverted to the manifold are controlled by what
valve?

Q7. What two basic types of oil seals are currently being used on engines?

Q8. What ate the structural components of a piston?

Q9. What are the three types of piston pin configurations?

Q11. What part is the backbone of an internal combustion engine?

Q12. The valve actuating mechanism is made up of what engine parts?

Q13. What are the three basic shapes of a poppet-type valve?

Q14. What type of valve is preferred in a vehicle using unleaded fuel?

Q16. What three characteristics of a valve spring should you check?

ENGINE ADJUSTMENT AND TESTING
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the techniques used in adjusting engine valves. Recognize
basic engine testing procedures and required tools.

Proper and uniform valve adjustments are required for a smooth running engine. Unless the
clearance between the valve stems and rocker arms or valve lifters is adjusted according to the
manufacturer's specifications, a valve does not open and close at the proper time, and engine
performance is affected.

VALVE ADJUSTMENT
Valve adjustment, also called tappet clearance adjustment or rocker adjustment, is critical to the
performance and service life of an engine. If the valve train is too loose (too much clearance), it
can cause valve train noise (tapping or clattering noise from the rocker striking the valve stems).
This can increase part wear and cause part breakage. Valves that are adjusted too tight
(inadequate clearance) may be held open or may not close completely. This can allow
combustion heat to blow over and burn the valve.

When reassembling an engine after reconditioning the valves, make sure the adjusting
screws are backed off before rotating the engine. A valve that is too tight could strike the
piston and damage either the piston or the valve, or both. Adjust the valve according to
manufacturer's specifications, following the recommended procedure.

On any engine, after valve adjustments have been made, be sure that the adjustment locks are
tight and that the valve mechanism covers and gaskets are in place and fastened securely to
prevent oil leaks.

Overhead Valves
Most overhead valves are adjusted "HOT"; that is, valve clearance recommendations are given
for an engine at operating temperature. Before valve adjustments can be made properly, the
engine must be run and brought up to normal operating temperature.

To adjust a valve, remove the valve cover and measure the clearance between the valve stem and
the rocker arm. Loosen the locknut and turn the adjusting screw in the rocker arm, as shown in
figure 3-74. On engines with stud-mounted rocker arms, make the adjustment by turning the stud
nut.

Valves in Block
This type of valve arrangement is not commonly seen in the field; however, the adjustment
procedure is described in case you should happen to run across this type.
Valves within the block are adjusted "COLD"; that is, recommended valve clearances are
provided for a cold engine. These valves have mechanisms quite similar to overhead valves.
They are adjusted by removing the side cover plate beneath the intake manifold on the side of the
engine block (fig. 3-75). Since you must stop the engine to adjust the valves, the piston in the
cylinder must be on TDC of the compression stroke. You can determine this by watching the
valves of the piston that is paired with the one that is being set. As the cylinder that is being
positioned is coming up on the compression stroke, the paired cylinder is coming up on the
exhaust stroke; therefore, the exhaust valve is open. Just as the exhaust valve closed and the
intake valve begins to open, the cylinder to be set is on TDC of the compression stroke, and you
can set the two valves. Once the No. 1 cylinder is positioned, follow through according to the
firing order of the engine, as this makes the job easier and faster. You may also use this
procedure when adjusting valves on overhead engines.

Figure 3-74. - Adjusting overhead valves. Figure 3-75. - Adjusting valve in block.

Hydraulically Operated Valves

On engines with hydraulic valve lifters, it is not necessary to adjust the valve periodically. The
engine lubrication system supplies a flow of oil to the lifters at all times. These hydraulic lifters
operate at zero clearance and compensate for changes in engine temperature, adapt
automatically for minor wear at various points, and provide ideal valve timing.

To adjust hydraulic lifters with the engine off, turn the crankshaft until the lifter is on the
camshaft base circle (not the lobe). The valve must be fully closed. Loosen the adjusting nut
until you can wiggle the pushrod up and down. Then slowly tighten the rocker until all play is
out of the valve train (cannot wiggle pushrod). Repeat the adjusting procedure on the other
rockers.

To adjust hydraulic lifters with the engine running, install a special oil shroud or some other
device for catching oil spray off the rocker. Start and run the engine until it reaches operating
temperature. Tighten all rockers until they are quiet. One at a time, loosen a rocker until it
clatters. Then tighten the rocker slowly until it quiets down. This is zero valve lash.

OHC Engine Valves

There are several different methods of adjusting the valves on an overhead cam (OHC) engine.
Many are adjusted like mechanical lifters in a pushrod engine. The rocker arm adjuster is turned
until the correct size feeler gauge fits between the rocker or cam lobe and the valve stem.

Valve adjusting shims may also be used on OHC engines for the cam-to-valve clearance. To
determine whether shims are required, measure the valve clearance with a feeler gauge. Then if
need be, remove or change the shim thickness as necessary. Other OHC engines have an Allen
adjusting screw in the cam followers. Turning the screw changes the valve clearance. Always
refer to the manufacturer's manual for detailed instructions.

COMPRESSION TEST

A compression test is one of the most common methods for determining the mechanical condition
of an engine. It should be done when symptoms (engine miss, rough idle, puffing noise in
induction or exhaust) point to major engine problems. Measure compression pressures of all
cylinders with a compression gauge (fig. 3-76). Then compare them with each other and with the
manufacturer's specifications for a new engine. This provides an accurate indication of engine
condition.

When gauge pressure is lower than normal, pressure is leaking out of the combustion chamber.
Low engine compression can be caused by the following conditions:

 BURNED VALVE (valve face damaged by combustion heat).

 BURNED VALVED SEAT (cylinder head seat damaged by combustion).
 PHYSICAL ENGINE DAMAGE (hole in piston, broken valve, etc.).
 BLOWN HEAD GASKET (head gasket ruptured).
 WORN RINGS OR CYLINDERS (part wear that prevents a ring-to-cylinder seal).
 VALVE TRAIN TROUBLES (valve adjusted with insufficient clearance. This keeps the
valve from fully closing. Also, broken valve spring, seal, or retainer).
 JUMPED TIMING CHAIN OR BELT (loose or worn chain or belt has jumped over
teeth, upsetting valve timing).
To perform a compression test on a gasoline engine, use the following procedures:

1. Remove all spark plugs so the engine can rotate easily. Block open the carburetor or fuel
injection pump throttle plate. This prevents restricted air flow into the engine.
2. Disable the ignition system to prevent sparks from arcing out of the disconnected spark
plug wires. Usually, the feed wire going to the ignition coil can be removed to disable the
system.
3. If the engine is equipped with electronic fuel injection, it should also be disabled to
prevent fuel from spraying into the engine. Check the manufacturer's manual for specific
directions.
4. Screw the compression gauge into one of the spark plug holes. Some gauges have a
tapered rubber-end plug and must be held by hand securely in the spark plug opening
until the highest reading is obtained.
5. Crank the engine and let the engine rotate for about four to six compression strokes
(compression gauge needle moves four to six times). Write down the gauge readings for
each cylinder and compare them to the manufacturer's specifications.

The compression test for a diesel engine is similar to that of a gasoline engine; however, do not
use the compression gauge intended for a gasoline engine. It can be damaged by the high-
compression-stroke pressure. A diesel gauge must be used that reads up to approximately 600
psi.

To perform a diesel compression test, use the following procedures:

1. Remove all injectors or glow plugs. Refer to the manufacturer's manual for instructions.
2. Install the compression gauge in the recommended opening. A heat shield must be used
to seal the gauge when it is installed in place of the injector.
3. Disconnect the fuel shut-off solenoid to disable the fuel injection pump.
4. Crank the engine and note the highest reading on the gauge.

A wet compression test should be used when cylinder pressure reads below the manufacturer's
specifications. It helps you to determine what engine parts are causing the problem. Pour
approximately 1 tablespoon of 30-weight motor oil into the cylinder through the spark plug or
injector opening then retest the compression pressure.

If the compression reading GOES UP with oil in the cylinder, the piston rings and cylinders may
be worn and leaking pressure. The oil will temporarily coat and seal bad compression rings to
increase pressure; however, if the compression reading STAYS ABOUT THE SAME, then
engine valves or head gaskets may be leaking. The engine oil seals the rings, but does NOT seal
a burned valve or a blown head gasket. In this way, a wet compression test helps diagnose low-
compression problems.

Do NOT put too much oil into the cylinder during a wet compression test or a false reading may
result. With excessive oil in the cylinder, compression readings go up even if the compression
rings and cylinders are in good condition.
NOTE
Some manufacturers warn against performing a wet compression test on diesel engines. If too
much oil is squirted into the cylinder, hydraulic lock and part damage may result, because oil
does NOT compress in the small cylinder volume.

Compression readings for a gasoline engine should 3-46 run around 125 to 175 psi. The
compression should not vary over 15 to 20 psi from the highest to the lowest cylinder. Readings
must be within 10 to 15 percent of each other. Diesel engine compression readings average
approximately 275 to 400 psi, depending on the design and compression ratio. Compression
levels must not vary more than about 10 to 15 percent (30 to 50 psi). Look for cylinder variation
during an engine compression check. If some cylinders have normal pressure readings and one or
two have low readings, engine performance is reduced. If two adjacent cylinders read low, it
might point to a blown head gasket between the two cylinders. If the compression pressure of a
cylinder is low for the first few piston strokes and then increases to near normal, a sticking valve
is indicated. Indications of valve troubles by compression test may be confirmed by taking
vacuum gauge readings.

VACUUM GAUGE TEST

When an engine has an abnormal compression reading,
it is likely that the cylinder head must be removed to
repair the trouble. Nevertheless, the mechanics should
test the vacuum of the engine with a gauge. The
vacuum gauge provides a means of testing intake
manifold vacuum, cranking vacuum, fuel pump
vacuum, and booster pump vacuum. The vacuum
gauge does NOT replace other test equipment, but
rather supplements it and diagnoses engine trouble
more conclusively.

Vacuum gauge readings are taken with the engine

running and must be accurate to be of any value;
therefore, the connection between the gauge and the
intake manifold must be leakproof. Also, before the
connection is made, see that the openings to the gauge
and the intake manifold are free of dirt or other
restrictions.

When a test is made at an elevation of 1,000 feet or

less, an engine in good condition, idling at a speed of
about 550 rpm, should give a steady reading from 17
to 22 inches on the vacuum gauge. The average
reading will drop approximately 1 inch of vacuum per
1,000 feet at altitudes of 1,000 feet or higher above sea
level.
When the throttle is opened and closed suddenly, the vacuum reading should first drop about 2
inches with the throttle open, and then come back to a high of about 24 inches before settling
back to a steady reading as the engine idles, as shown in figure 3-77. This is normal for an
engine in good operating condition.

If the gauge reading drops to about 15 inches and remains there, it would indicate compression
leaks between the cylinder walls and the piston rings or power loss caused by incorrect ignition
timing. A vacuum gauge pointer indicating a steady 10 inches, for example, usually means
that valve timing of the engine is incorrect. Below-normal readings that change slowly
between two limits, such as 14 and 16 inches, could indicate a number of problems. Among
them are improper carburetor idling adjustment, maladjusted or burned breaker points, and
spark plugs with the electrodes set too closely.

A sticking valve could cause the gauge pointer to bounce from a normal steady reading to a
lower reading and then bounce back to normal. A broken or weak valve spring can cause the
pointer to swing widely, as the engine is accelerated. A loose intake manifold or leaking gasket
between the carburetor and manifold shows a steady low reading on the vacuum gauge.

A vacuum gauge test only helps to locate the trouble. It is not conclusive, but as you gain
experience in interpreting the readings, you can usually diagnose engine behavior.

CYLINDER LEAKAGE TEST

Another aid in locating compression leaks is the cylinder leakage tester. The principle involved is
that of simulating the compression that develops in the cylinder during operation. Compressed
air is introduced into the cylinder through the spark plug or injector hole, and by listening and
observing at certain key points, you can make some basic deductions.

The commercial testers, such as the one shown

in figure 3-78, have a gauge indicating a
percentage of air loss. The gauge is connected to
a spring-loaded diaphragm. The source of air is
connected to the instrument and counterbalances
the action of the spring against the diaphragm.
By adjusting the spring tension, you can
calibrate the gauge properly against a variety of
air pressure sources within a given tolerance.

In making a cylinder leakage test, remove all

spark plugs, so each piston can be positioned
without the resistance of compression of the
remaining cylinders. Next, place the piston at
TDC or "rock" position between the
compression and power strokes. Then you can
introduce the compressed air into the cylinder.
Note that the engine tends to spin. Now, by
listening at the carburetor, the exhaust pipe, and the oil filler pipe (crankcase), and by observing
the coolant in the radiator, when applicable, you can pinpoint the area of air loss. Aloud hissing
of air at the carburetor indicates a leaking intake valve, or valves. Excessive hissing of air at
the oil filler tube (crankcase) indicates an excessive air leak past the piston rings. Bubbles
observed in the coolant at the radiator indicates a leaking head gasket

As in vacuum testing, indications are not conclusive. For instance, a leaking head gasket may
prove to be a cracked head, or bad rings may be a scored cylinder wall. The important thing is
that the source of the trouble has been pinpointed to a specific area, and a fairly broad, accurate
estimate of repairs or adjustments required can be made without dismantling the engine.

REVISION QUESTIONS

Q17. Overhead valves are adjusted with the engine in what condition?

Q18. When you perform a wet compression test and the reading goes up, what is the most likely
problem?

Q19. You make a vacuum gauge test at sea level with the engine idling at 550 rpm, and you get a
reading of 10 inches. What is the most probable cause?

Q20. When performing a cylinder leakage test, you notice a loud hissing of air from the
carburetor. This is an indication of what type of problem?
GASOLINE FUEL SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the different types of gasoline fuel systems, how the
components function to provide fuel to the engine in proper quantities, and servicing of the
gasoline fuel system.

The purpose of the fuel system of the internal combustion engine is to provide a combustible
mixture of fuel and air to the engine cylinders. The ratio of fuel to air must always be in correct
proportions regardless of the speed and load of the engine.

GASOLINE FUEL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the properties of gasoline and the components of a fuel
system. The function of both the carburetor fuel system and the fuel injection system is to supply
a combustible mixture of air and fuel to the engine. Major elements of the gasoline fuel supply
system include the following: fuel tank and cap, fuel system emission controls, fuel lines, fuel
pump, fuel filter, carburetor or fuel injection system, air cleaner, and exhaust system. Before
discussing the components of a gasoline fuel system, you should understand the composition and
properties of gasoline.

GASOLINE
Gasoline is a highly volatile flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture used as a fuel for internal-
combustion engines. Acomparatively economical fuel, gasoline is the primary fuel for
automobiles worldwide. Chemicals, called additives, such as lead, detergents, and anti-
oxidants, are mixedinto gasoline to improve its operating characteristics.

Antiknock additives are used to slow down the ignition and burning of gasoline. This action
helps to prevent engine ping or knock (knocking sound produced by abnormal and excessively
rapid combustion). Leaded gasoline has lead antiknock additives. The lead allows a higher
engine compression ratio to be used without the fuel igniting prematurely. Leaded gasoline is
designed to be used in older vehicles that have little or no emission controls.

The fuel used today is unleaded gasoline. Unleaded gasoline, also called no-lead or lead-free,
does NOT contain lead antiknock additives. Congress has passed laws requiring that all vehicles
meet strict emission levels. As a result, manufacturers began using catalytic converters and
unleaded fuel.

The properties a good gasoline should have are as follows:

1. Proper volatility (how quickly the gasoline vaporizes)

2. Resistance to spark knock, or detonation
3. Oxidation inhibitors to prevent formationof gum in the fuel system
4. Antirust agents to prevent rusting of metal parts in the fuel system
5. Anti-icers to retard icing and fuel-line freezing
 6. Detergents to help keep the fuel system clean
7. Dye for identification

PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE
For a gasoline fuel system to function properly, it is necessary that the fuel have the right
qualities to burn evenly no matter what the demands of the engine are. To help you recognize the
qualities required of gasoline used for fuel, let's examine some of the properties of gasoline and
their effects on the operation of the engine.

Volatility The ease with which gasoline vaporizes is called VOLATILITY. A high volatility
gasoline vaporizes very quickly. A low volatility gasoline vaporizes slowly. A good gasoline
should have the right volatility for the climate in which the gasoline is used.

If the gasoline is too volatile, it will vaporize in the fuel system. The result will be a condition
called VAPOR LOCK. Vapor lock is the formation of vapor in the fuel lines in a quantity
sufficient to prevent the flow of gasoline through the system. Vapor lock causes the vehicle to
stall from lack of fuel. In the summer and in hot climates, fuels with low volatility lessen the
tendency toward vapor lock.

Antiknock Quality In modern high compression gasoline engines, the air-fuel mixture tends to
ignite spontaneously or to explode instead of burning rather slowly and uniformly. The result is a
knock, a ping, or a detonation. For this reason, gasoline refiners have various ways to make
gasoline that does not detonate easily.

Octane Rating A gasoline that detonates easily is called low octane gasoline. A gasoline that
resists detonation is called high octane gasoline.

The octane rating of a gasoline is a measurement of the ability of the fuel to resist knock or
ping. A high octane rating indicates the fuel will NOT knock or ping easily. It should be used in
a high compression or turbo-charged engine. A low octane gasoline is suitable for a low
compression engine.

Octane numbers give the antiknock value of gasoline. A higher octane number (91) will resist
ping better than a gasoline with a low octane number (83). Each manufacturer recommends an
octane number for their engine.

AIR-FUEL RATIO

For proper combustion and engine performance, the right amounts of air and fuel must be mixed
together. If too much fuel or too little fuel is used, engine power, fuel economy, and efficiency are
reduced.

For a gasoline engine, the perfect air to fuel ratio is 15:1 (15 parts air to 1 part fuel by weight).
Under constant engine conditions, this ratio can help assure that all fuel is burned during
combustion. The fuel system must change the air-fuel ratio with the changes in engine-operating
conditions.

Lean Air-Fuel Mixture

A lean air-fuel mixture contains a large amount of air. For example, 20:1 would be a very lean
mixture. A slightly lean mixture is desirable for high gas mileage and low exhaust emissions.
Extra air in the cylinder ensures that all the fuel will be burned; however, too lean of a mixture
can cause poor engine performance (lack of power, missing, and even engine damage).

Rich Air-Fuel Mixture

A rich air-fuel mixture contains a little more fuel mixed with the air. For gasoline, 8:1(8 parts
air to 1 part fuel) is a very rich mixture. A slightly rich mixture tends to increase power;
however, it also increases fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. An overly rich mixture will
reduce engine power, foul spark plugs, and cause incomplete burning (black smoke at engine
exhaust).

GASOLINE COMBUSTION
For gasoline or any other fuel to burn properly, it must be mixed with the right amount of air.
The mixture must then be compressed and ignited. The resulting combustion produces heat,
expansion of the gases, and pressure.

Normal Combustion
Normal gasoline combustion occurs when the spark plug ignites the fuel and burning progresses
smoothly through the fuel mixture. Maximum cylinder pressure should be produced after a few
degrees of crank rotation after the piston passes TDC on the power stroke.

Normal combustion only takes about 3/1,000 of a second. This is much slower than an
explosion. Dynamite explodes in about 1/50,000 of a second. Under some undesirable
conditions, however, gasoline can be made to bum quickly, making part of the combustion like
an explosion.

Abnormal Combustion

Abnormal combustion occurs when the flame does NOT spread evenly and smoothly through the
combustion chamber. The lean air-fuel mixture, high-operating temperatures, low octane, and
unleaded fuels used today make abnormal combustion a major problem that creates unfavorable
conditions, such as the following: 4-2

DETONATION results when part of the unburned fuel mixture explodes violently. This is the
most severe engine damaging type of abnormal combustion. Engine knock is a symptom of
detonation because pressure rises so quickly that parts of the engine vibrate. Detonation sounds
like a hammer hitting the side of the engine. It can crack cylinder heads, blow head gaskets,
burn pistons, and shatter spark plugs.

PRE-IGNITION results when an overheated surface in the combustion chamber ignites the fuel
mixture. Termed surface ignition, a hot spot (overheated bit or carbon, sharp edge, hot exhaust
valve) causes the mixture to burn prematurely. A ping or mild knock is a light tapping noise that
can be heard during pre-ignition. Pre-ignition is similar to detonation, but the action is reversed.
Detonation begins after the start of normal combustion, and pre- ignition occurs before the start
of normal combustion. Pre-ignition is common to modern vehicles. Some manufacturers say that
some pre-ignition is normal when accelerating under a load.

DIESELING, also called after-running or run- on, is a problem when the engine keeps running
after the key is turned off. A knocking, coughing, or fluttering noise may be heard, as the fuel
ignites and the crankshaft spins. When dieseling the engine ignites the fuel from heat and
pressure, somewhat like a diesel engine. With the key off, the engine runs without voltage to the
spark plugs. The most common causes of dieseling are high idle speed, carbon deposits in the
combustion chambers, low octane fuel, overheated engine, or spark plugs with too high of a heat
range.

SPARK KNOCK is another combustion problem caused by the spark plug firing too soon in
relation to the position of the piston. The spark timing is advanced too far, causing combustion to
slam into the upward moving piston. This causes maximum cylinder pressures to form before
TDC, not after TDC as it should. Spark knock and pre-ignition both produce about the same
symptoms - pinging under load. To find its cause, first check ignition timing. If ignition timing is
correct, check other possible causes.

GASOLINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A gasoline fuel system (fig. 4-1) draws fuel from the tank and forces it into the fuel-metering
device (carburetor, gasoline injectors), using either a mechanical (engine-driven) or electric fuel
pump. The basic parts of a fuel supply system include the following:

FUEL TANK (stores gasoline)

FUEL PUMP (draws fuel from the tank and forces it to the fuel-metering device)
FUEL FILTERS (removes contaminants in the fuel)
FUEL LINES (carries fuel between the tank, the pump, and other parts)
Figure 4-1 - Typical fuel system for a gasoline engine.

Fuel Tank

An automotive fuel tank must safely hold an adequate supply of fuel for prolonged engine
operation. The location of the fuel tank (fig. 4-2) should be in an area that is protected from
flying debris, shielded from collision damage, and one that is not subject to bottoming. A fuel
tank can be located just about anywhere in the vehicle that meets these requirements.

Figure 4-3 shows the general construction of a fuel tank used on automotive equipment. Fuel
tanks are usually made of thin sheet metal or plastic. The main body of a metal tank is made by
soldering or welding two formed pieces of sheet metal together. Other parts (filer neck, fuel tank
cap, and baffles) are added to the form to complete the fuel tank assembly. A lead-tin alloy is
normally plated to the sheet metal to prevent the tank from rusting.

The fuel tank filler neck is an extension on the tank for filling the tank with fuel. The filler cap
fits on the end of the filler neck. The neck extends from the tank through the body of the vehicle.
A flexible hose is normally used as part of the filler neck to allow for tank vibration without
breakage.

In vehicles requiring unleaded fuel, a fuel neck restrictor is used inside the filler neck. This
prevents the accidental use of leaded gasoline in an engine designed for unleaded. The restrictor
is too small to accept the larger leaded fuel type pump nozzle.
WARNING; If the restrictor is removed and leaded fuel is used in a vehicle designed for
unleaded fuel, the catalytic converter will be damaged. This action is a violation of federal law;
therefore, NEVER remove the filler neck restrictor.

Modern fuel tank caps are sealed to prevent escape of fuel and fuel vapors (emissions) from the
tank. The cap has pressure and vacuum valves that only open under abnormal conditions of high
pressure or vacuum.

Figure 4-3 - Fuel tank with top cut away.

Fuel tank baffles are placed inside the tank

to prevent the fuel from sloshing or
splashing around in the tank. The baffles are
metal plates that restrict fuel movement
when the vehicle accelerates, decelerates, or
turns comers.

Fuel tanks give little or no trouble, and

generally require no servicing other than an
occasional draining and cleaning.

Figure 4-2 - Common fuel tank locations.

WARNING If a fuel tank is punctured or develops leaks, it should NOT be welded or repaired
with or near an open flame until all traces of fuel and fuel vapors have been completely removed
from the tank. Before attempting to make any repairs to a fuel tank, consult with the shop
supervisor for specific instructions on all safety precautions to be observed.

Fuel Gauges
The fuel gauge is a signaling system that indicates the amount of fuel in the tank. Most fuel
gauges are composed of two units - the gauge that is mounted on the instrument panel and the
sending unit located on the tank There are two types of gauges - magnetic and thermostatic. Each
of these gauges has a sending unit and an instrument panel unit.

1. Magnetic Gauge (fig. 4-4). The sending unit in this fuel gauge contains a sliding contact. As
the fuel level in the tank changes, the position of the contact changes on a rheostat winding,
varying circuit resistance and resulting current flow. The unit on the instrument panel contains
two magnetic coils (limiting coil and operating coil) and a permanent magnet that is attached to
the gauge needle. When the fuel tank is empty, the limiting coil is stronger than the operating
coil, thus the magnet is drawn toward it and the needle reads EMPTY on the gauge. As the tank
is filled, the operating coil becomes stronger, attracting the magnet and moving the needle
toward the FULL position.

2. Thermostatic Gauge (fig. 4-5). It has a sending unit similar to the magnetic system. The
sending unit has a float and sliding contact that moves on a resistor. As the fuel level in the tank
changes, the position of the contact changes on a rheostat winding, varying circuit resistance and
resulting current flow. When the fuel is low in the tank, most of the resistance is in the circuit
and very little current can flow. As the tank is filled, the float moves up and the sliding contact
cuts most of the resistance out of the circuit. This action increases current flow and as the current
flows through the heater coil in the gauge on the instrument panel, the current heats the
thermostat. The thermostatic blade bends because of the heat. This moves the needle to the
FULL mark. As the fuel level in the tank drops, resistance increases, resulting in lower current
flow through the heater coil, thus producing less heat to bend the thermostatic blade.

Figure 4-4 - Magnetic fuel gauge.

Figure 4-5. - Thermostatic fuel gauge: self-regulating.
 Figure 4-6. - Typical fuel filter locations.

Fuel Filters

Fuel filters stop contaminants (rust, water, corrosion, and dirt) from entering the carburetor,
throttle body, injectors, injections pumps, and any other parts that may be damaged by foreign
matter. Fuel filters can be located in the following locations (fig. 4-6):

 In the fuel line before the carburetor or fuel injectors.

 Inside the fuel pump.
 In the fuel line right after the electric fuel pump.
 Under the fuel line fitting in the carburetor.
 A fuel strainer is also located in the fuel tank on the end of the pickup tube.

When in doubt about the location of the fuel filter, refer to the service manual.

Fuel filters operate by passing the fuel through a porous filtering medium (fig. 4-7). The
openings in the porous material are very small, and, therefore, any particles in the fuel that are
large enough to cause problems are blocked. In addition to the filtering medium, the filter, in
some cases, also serves as a sediment bowl. The fuel, as it passes through the filter, spends
enough time in the sediment bowl to allow large particles and water to settle out of it.

Several types of fuel filters are used today. They are the replaceable in-line, the replaceable in-
line in the carburetor, and the glass bowl (fig. 4-8). The most common configuration is the
replaceable in-line filter. these are in-line filter elements that fit in the carburetor inlet or inside
the fuel tank.
Fuel filter elements can be made from treated
paper, ceramics, sintered bronze, or metal
screen (fig. 4-9). However, there is one filter
element that differs from the others. It consists
of a stacked pile of laminated disks that are
spaced 0.0003 inches apart. As the fuel passes
between the disks, foreign matter is blocked
out. These filters are replaced when the flow of
fuel is restricted.

Fuel filter service involves periodic

replacement or cleaning of system filters. It
may also include locating clogged fuel filters
that are upsetting fuel system operations. Paper
elements must be replaced when clogged or
after prolonged use. Sintered bronze fuel filters
can usually be cleaned and reinstalled. A
clogged fuel filter can restrict the flow of fuel
to the carburetor or injectors. Figure 4-7. - Fuel filter operation.
Engine Performance problems will show up at higher speeds.

Some fuel filters have a check valve that opens when the filter becomes clogged. This will allow
fuel contaminants to flow into the system. When contaminants are found in the filters and
system, the tank, the pump, and the lines should be flushed with clean fuel.

Always refer to the service manual for information concerning service intervals, cleaning, and
replacement of all system filters.

Fuel Pump
The fuel pump delivers fuel from the tank to the engine under pressure. There are two basic types
of fuel pumps - mechanical fuel pump and electrical fuel pump.

Mechanical fuel pumps are commonly used with carburetor type fuel systems. They are the
oldest type of fuel pump, but they are still found on many vehicles. The mechanical fuel pump is
mounted on the side of the engine block, using a gasket between the pump and the block to
prevent oil leakage.

Since the mechanical pump uses a back-and-forth motion, it is a reciprocating pump. They are
usually powered by an eccentric (egg- shaped lobe) on the engine camshaft.

The parts of a basic mechanical fuel pump are the rocker arm, the return spring, the diaphragm,
the diaphragm spring, and the check valves.
Figure 4-8. - Fuel filter configurations.

Figure 4-9. - Fuel filter elements.

The ROCKER ARM, also called an actuating lever, is a metal arm hinged in the middle. A small
pin passes through the arm and fuel pump body. The outer end of the arm rides on the camshaft
eccentric and the inner end operates the diaphragm.

The RETURN SPRING keeps the rocker arm pressed against the eccentric. Without a return
spring, the rocker arm would make a loud clattering sound, as the eccentric lobe hits the rocker
arm.
The DIAPHRAGM is a synthetic rubber disc clamped between two halves of the pump body.
The core of the diaphragm is usually cloth that adds strength and durability. A metal pull rod is
mounted on the diaphragm to connect the diaphragm with the rocker arm.
The DIAPHRAGM SPRING, when compressed, pushes on the diaphragm to produce fuel
pressure and flow. This springs fits against the back of the diaphragm and against the pump
body.
The CHECK VALVES are used in a mechanical fuel pump to make the fuel flow through the
pump. The check valves are reversed. This causes the fuel to enter one valve and exit through the
other.

The basic operation of a mechanical fuel pump operation is as follows:

INTAKE STROKE. The eccentric lobe pushes on the rocker arm. This action pulls the
diaphragm down and compresses the diaphragm spring. Since the area in the pumping chamber
increases, a vacuum pulls fuel through the inlet check valve.
OUTPUT STROKE. The eccentric lobe rotates away from the pump rocker arm. This action
releases the diaphragm. The diaphragm spring then pushes on the diaphragm and pressurizes the
fuel in the pumping chamber. The amount of spring tension controls the fuel pressure. The fuel is
then forced to flow out of the outlet check valve.

Figure 4-10. - Mechanical positive fuel pump installation.

Mechanical fuel pumps are classified as positive and nonpositive diaphragm types. The
POSITIVE type (fig. 4-10) continues to pump fuel even when the carburetor bowl is filled;
therefore, a method of bypassing the fuel back to the tank is required. The NONPOSITIVE type
(fig. 4-11) is the one usually found in a gasoline engine. It delivers fuel to the carburetor only
when it is needed for the requirements of the engine.

An electric fuel pump, like the mechanical pump, produces fuel pressure and flow for the fuel-
metering section of a fuel system.

Electric fuel pumps are commonly used in gasoline fuel systems. They can be located inside the
fuel tank as part of the fuel pickupsending unit. Also, it can be located in the fuel line between
the tank and the engine.
The advantages an electric fuel pump has over the mechanical fuel pump are as follows:

1. An electric fuel pump can produce almost instant fuel pressure. A mechanical pump
slowly builds pressure as the engine is cranked for starting.
2. Most electric fuel pumps are a rotary type. This produces a smoother flow of fuel (less
pressure pulsations) than a reciprocating, mechanical pump.
3. Since most electric pumps are located away from the engine, they help prevent vapor
lock. An electric fuel pump pressurizes all of the fuel line near the engine heat. This helps
avoid vapor lock because pressure makes it more difficult for bubbles to form in the fuel.

Electric rotary fuel pumps include the impeller, the roller vane, and the sliding vane types. They
use a circular or spinning motion to produce pressure.

An impeller electric fuel pump is a centrifugal pump, normally located inside the fuel tank. This
pump used a small motor to spin the impeller (fan blade). The impeller blades cause fuel to fly
outward due to centrifugal force. This
produces enough pressure to move the fuel
through the fuel lines.

A roller vane electric fuel pump (fig. 4-12) is

a positive displacement pump (each pump
rotation moves a specific amount of fuel).
This pump is located in the main fuel line.
Small rollers and an offset mounted rotor disc
produce fuel pressure in the pump. When the
rotor disc and rollers spin, they pull fuel to
one side. The fuel is then trapped and pushed
to a smaller area on the opposite side of the
pump housing. This action squeezes the fuel
between the rollers and the fuel flows out
under pressure. The sliding vane electric fuel
pump is similar to the roller vane pump,
except vanes (blades) are used instead of rollers. Figure 4-12. - Vane-type electric pump

Most rotary fuel pumps also have check valves and relief valves. The check valves keep the fuel
from draining out of the fuel line when the pump is not in operation. A relief valve limits the
maximum output pressure.

Another type of electric fuel pump is the reciprocating electric fuel pump. This pump has the
same basic action as a mechanical fuel pump; however, it uses a solenoid instead of a rocker arm
to produce a plunger action. The reciprocating pump uses either bellows (fig. 4-13) or a plunger.
The solenoid turns on and off to force the bellows or plunger up and down. This action pushes
fuel through the check valves and the fuel system.

Both mechanical and electric fuel pumps can fail after prolonged operation. Indications of fuel
pump problems are as follows:
LOW FUEL PUMP PRESSURE can be caused by a weak diaphragm spring, ruptured
diaphragm, leaking check valves, or physical wear of moving parts. Low fuel pressure can make
the engine starve for fuel at higher engine speeds.
HIGH FUEL PUMP PRESSURE, more frequent with electric fuel pumps, indicates an
inoperative pressure relief valve. If the valve fails to open, both pressure and volume can be
above normal. High fuel pump pressure can produce a rich fuel mixture or even flood the engine.
MECHANICAL FUEL PUMP NOISE (clacking sound from inside the pump) is commonly
caused by weak or broken rocker arm return spring or by wear of the rocker arm pin or arm
itself. This noise can be easily confused with valve or tappet clatter. To verify mechanical pump
noise, use a stethoscope.

Figure 4-11. - Mechanical nonpositive fuel pump.

FUEL PUMP LEAKS are caused by physical damage to the pump body or deterioration of the
diaphragm and gaskets. Most mechanical fuel pumps have a small vent hole in the pump body.
When the diaphragm is ruptured, fuel will leak out of this hole.

Fuel pump testing commonly involves measuring pump pressure and volume. Since exact
procedures vary depending on the type of fuel system, refer to the manufacturer's manual for
exact testing methods. Sometimes, fuel pump vacuum is measured as another means of
determining pump and line condition. Always remember that there are several other problems
that can produce symptoms similar to those caused by a fuel pump.

Figure 4-13. - Bellows-type electric fuel pump.

Before testing a fuel pump, check for the following:

Restricted fuel filters

Smashed or kinked fuel line or hoses
Air leak into the vacuum side of pump or line
Carburetor or injection system problems
Ignition system problems
Low engine compression

To measure fuel pump pressure, connect a pressure gauge to the output line of the fuel pump.
Start and idle the engine at the rpm specified by the manufacturer with a mechanical fuel pump.
With an electric fuel pump, you may only need to activate the pump motor. Compare your
pressure reading to the manufacturer's specifications. Fuel pressure for a carburetor type system
is approximately 4 to 6 psi. A gasoline injection system will usually have a high-pressure output,
varying from 15 to 40 psi. If fuel pump pressure is NOT within specifications. check the pump
volume, the lines, and the filters before replacing the pump.

Fuel pump volume is the amount of fuel the pump can deliver in a specific amount of time. It is
measured by allowing the fuel to pour into a graduated (marked) container for a certain amount
of time (normally 30 seconds). Route an output line from the fuel pump to a measuring
container. For safety, a valve or clip should be installed to control fuel flow into the container.
With the engine idling at a set speed, allow the fuel to pour into the container for the prescribed
amount of time. Close off the clip or the valve and compare volume output to the specifications.
Output should be a minimum of 1 pint in 30 seconds for carburetor systems. Fuel injection
systems have a slightly higher output from the supply pump. Always refer to the service manual
specifications for the particular fuel pump and vehicle. If the fuel pump fails both pressure and
volume test, then check the fuel pump vacuum.

A vacuum test will eliminate possible problems in the fuel lines, the hoses, the filters, and the
pickup screen in the tank. For example, a clogged fuel pickup screen could make the fuel pump
fail the volume test. To measure vacuum, connect a vacuum gauge to the inlet side of the pump,
leaving the fuel hose from the volume test in the graduated container. Open the control valve on
the hose and start the engine and allow it to run on the fuel in the carburetor, or connect voltage,
to an electric pump. Compare your reading with the manufacturer's specifications. Normally, fuel
pump vacuum should be about 7 to 10 in/hg. A good reading indicates a good fuel pump. If the
pump failed the pressure or volume test but passed the vacuum test, the fuel supply lines and
filter may be at fault.

Fuel Lines and Hoses

Fuel lines and hoses carry fuel from the tank to the engine. The main fuel line allows the fuel
pump to draw fuel out of the tank. The fuel is pulled through this line to the pump and then to the
carburetor, or metering section of the injection system.

Fuel lines are normally made of double wall steel tubing. For fire safety, a fuel line must be able
to withstand the constant and severe vibration produced by the engine and road surface. Lines are
placed away from exhaust pipes, mufflers, and manifolds, so that excessive heat will not cause
vapor lock. They are attached to the frame, the engine, and other units, so the effects of vibration
will be minimized.

Fuel hoses, made of synthetic rubber, are used where severe movement occurs between parts. A
flexible hose can absorb movement without breaking. Hose clamps are required to secure fuel
hoses to the fuel lines or to metal fittings.

Faulty fuel lines and hoses are a common source of fuel leaks. Fuel hoses can become hard and
brittle after being exposed to the engine heat and the elements. Engine oil can soften and swell
them. Always inspect hoses closely and replace any in poor condition. Metal fuel lines rarely
cause problems; however, they should be replaced if they become smashed, kinked, rusted, or
leaking. Remember these rules when working with fuel lines and hoses:
Place a rag around the fuel line fitting during removal. This action will keep fuel from spraying
on you or on a hot engine. Use a flare nut or tubing wrench on fuel line fittings.
Use only approved double wall steel tubing for fuel lines. NEVER use copper or plastic tubing.
Make smooth bends when forming a new fuel line. Use a bending spring or bending tool.
Form double lap flares on the ends of fuel lines. A single lap flare is NOT approved for fuel
lines.
Reinstall fuel line hold-down clamps and brackets. If not properly supported, the fuel line can
vibrate and fail.

Figure 4-14. - Air cleaner.

Route all fuel lines and hoses away from hot or moving parts. Double-check the clearance after
installation.
Only use approved synthetic rubber hoses in a fuel system. Vacuum hose is NOT to be used as
fuel hose.
Make sure fuel hoses completely cover its fitting or line before installing clamps. Pressure in the
fuel system could force the hose off if not installed properly.
Double-check all fitting for leaks. Start the engine and inspect the connections closely.

NOTE Most fuel injection systems have very high fuel pressure. Follow recommended
procedures for bleeding or releasing pressure before disconnecting a fuel line or fitting. This
action will prevent fuel spray from possibly causing injury or a fire.

AIR CLEANER

The fuel system mixes air and fuel to produce a combustible mixture. A large volume of air
passes through the carburetor or fuel injection system and engine, as much as 100,000 cubic feet
of air every 1,000 miles. Air always contains a lot of floating dust and grit. The dust and grit
could cause serious damage if they entered the engine. To prevent this, mount an air cleaner (fig.
4-14) at the air entrance of the carburetor or fuel injection system. The two types of cleaners
currently used are the wet and dry types.
The wet-type or oil bath, air cleaner consists of the main body, the filter element that is made of
woven copper gauze, and the cover (fig. 4-15). Operation is as follows:

Incoming air enters between the cover and the main body. The air is pulled down to the bottom
of the main body where it must make a 180-degree turn, as it passes over the oil reservoir.

Figure 4-15. - Wet-type air filter.

As the air passes over the oil reservoir, most of the particles will not be able to make the turn,
and they will hit the oil and be trapped.
As the air continues upward and passes through the filter element, the smaller particles that
bypassed the oil will be trapped.
The air keeps the element soaked with oil by creating a fine spray, as it passes the reservoir.
The air then makes another 180-degree turn and enters the carburetor.

The dry-type air cleaner passes the incoming air through a filtering medium before it enters the
engine. The air filter contains a ring of filter material (fine-mesh metal threads or ribbons,
pleated paper, cellulose fiber, or polyurethane), as shown in figure 4-16. These types of filter
materials provide a fine maze that traps most of the airborne particles.

The air cleaner also muffles the noise of the intake air through the carburetor or fuel injection
system, manifold, and valve ports. This noise would be very noticeable if it were not for the air
cleaner. In addition the air cleaner acts as a flame arrester in case the engine backfires through
the intake manifold. The air cleaner prevents the flame from escaping and igniting gasoline
fumes outside the engine.

Q1. What fuel additive is used to prevent engine ping or knock?

Q2. What is the measurement of the ability of gasoline to resist knock or ping?

Q3. What device is used to prevent the accidental use of leaded fuel in a vehicle designedfor
unleaded fuel?
PRINCIPLES OF CARBURETION
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the operating systems and principles of a simple carburetor
and a computerized controlled carburetor. Identify the different carburetor accessories and their
functions. Identify and describe possible carburetor troubles and quick system checks.

The principles of carburetion are presented so you may better understand the inner workings of a
carburetor and how the other components of the fuel system function to provide a combustible
mixture or air and fuel to the engine cylinders.

Air is composed of various gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen (78 percent nitrogen and 21
percent oxygen by volume). These gases are, in turn, made up of tiny particles called molecules.
All substances, whether solid, liquid, or gas, are made up of molecules. In solids, such as ice or
iron, the particles are held closely together so that they seem to have no motion. In liquids, the
molecules are not held together tightly, so they can move freely with respect to each other. In
gases, there is still less tendency for the molecules to bond; therefore, the molecules can move
quite freely. The molecules of gas are attracted to the earth by gravity or by their weight. It is the
combined weight of the countless molecules in the air that make up atmospheric pressure.

Evaporation is the changing of a liquid to a vapor. The molecules of the liquid not being closely
tied together are constantly moving among themselves. Any molecule that moves upward with
sufficient speed will jump out of the liquid and into the air. This process will cause the liquid to
evaporate over a period of time. The rate of evaporation is dependent on the following:

TEMPERATURE. The rate of movement of the molecules increase with temperature. Because of
this, the amount of molecules leaving the liquid for a given time will increase, as the temperature
increases.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. As atmospheric pressure increases, the amount of air molecules

present over the liquid also increases. The increased presence of air molecules will slow the rate
of evaporation. This is because the molecules of liquid will have more air molecules to collide
with. In many cases, they will fall back into the liquid after the collision

CLOSED CHAMBER. As evaporation takes place in a closed container, the space above the
liquid will reach a point of saturation. When this happens, every molecule of liquid that enters
the air will cause another airborne molecule of liquid to fall back.

VOLATILITY. The term volatility refers to how fast a liquid vaporizes. Some liquid vaporizes
easily at room temperature. Alcohol, for instance, vaporizes more easily than water. A highly
volatile liquid is one that is considered to evaporate easily.

ATOMIZATION (fig. 4-17). Atomization is the process of breaking up a liquid into tiny
particles or droplets. When a liquid is atomized, the droplets are all exposed individually to the
air. For this reason, atomization greatly increases evaporation by increasing the exposed surface
area of the liquid.
Figure 4-16. - Dry-type air filter.

Figure 1-17. - Example of atomization.

Figure 4-18. - Venturi effect.

The venturi effect (fig. 4-18) is used by the carburetor to mix air with the gasoline. The basic
carburetor has an hourglass-shaped tube called a throat. The most constricted part of the throat is
called the venturi. A tube, called the discharge nozzle, is positioned in the venturi. The discharge
nozzle is connected to a reservoir of gasoline called the float bowl. The negative pressure that
exists in the combustion chamber is due to the downward intake stroke of the piston, causing
atmospheric pressure to create an air flow through the throat. This air flow must increase
temporarily in speed, as it passes through the venturi due to its deceased size. The increased
speed of air flow results in a corresponding decrease in pressure within the venturi and at the end
of the discharge nozzle. This action permits the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the
gasoline in the float bowl to force the gasoline out through the discharge nozzle. This gasoline
then sprays and atomizes in the passing air flow to form the air-fuel mixture.

CARBURETOR
A carburetor is basically a device for mixing air and fuel in the correct amounts for efficient
combustion. The carburetor bolts to the engine intake manifold. The air cleaner fits over the top
of the carburetor to trap dust and dirt. The basic carburetor consists of the following parts:

1. CARBURETOR BODY. The carburetor body is a cast metal housing for the carburetor
components. Usually the main body houses the fuel bowl, main jets, air bleeds, power
valve, pump checks, diaphragm type accelerator pump, venturis, circuit passages, and
float mechanism. The body is flanged on the bottom to allow the carburetor to be bolted
to the intake manifold.
2. AIR HORN. The air horn is also called the throat or barrel. It routes outside air into the
engine intake manifold. It contains the throttle valve, the venturi, and the outlet end of the
main discharge tube. The parts which often fasten to the air horn body are as follows: the
choke, the hot idle compensator, the fast idle linkage rod, the choke vacuum break, and
sometimes the float and pump mechanisms.
3. THROTTLE VALVE (fig. 4-19). This disc- shaped valve controls air flow through the
air horn. When closed, it restricts the flow of air and fuel into the engine, and when
opened, air flow, fuel flow, andengine power increase.
4. VENTURI. The venturi produces sufficient suction to pull fuel out of the main discharge
tube.
5. MAIN DISCHARGE TUBE. The main discharge tube is also called the main fuel nozzle.
It uses venturi vacuum to feed fuel into the air horn and engine. It is a passage that
connects the fuel bowl to the center of the venturi.
6. FUEL BOWL. The fuel bowl holds a supply of fuel that is NOT under fuel pump
pressure.

Carburetor size is stated in CFM (cubic feet of air per minute). This is the amount of air that can
flow through the carburetor at wide, open throttle. CPM is an indication of the maximum air flow
capacity. Usually, small CPM carburetors are more fuel-efficient than larger carburetors. Air
velocity, fuel mixing, and atomization are better with small throttle bores. A larger CPM rating is
desirable for high engine power output.
A carburetor system or circuit is a network of
passages and related parts that help control the air-
fuel ratio under specific engine-operating
conditions. The seven basic carburetor systems are
the following:

1. FLOAT SYSTEM
2. IDLE SYSTEM
3. OFF IDLE SYSTEM
4. ACCELERATION SYSTEM
5. HIGH-SPEED SYSTEM
6. FULL-POWER SYSTEM
7. CHORE SYSTEM

Figure 4-19. - Simple carburetor with throttle valve.

Understanding each of these systems is important. It will help you when diagnosing and
repairing carburetor problems.

Float System

The float system (fig. 4-20) maintains a steady working supply of gasoline at a constant level in
the carburetor. This action is critical to the proper operation of the carburetor. Since the
carburetor uses differences in pressure to force fuel into the air horn, the fuel bowl must be kept
at atmospheric pressure. The float system keeps the fuel pump from forcing too much gasoline
into the carburetor bowl. An excessively high float level will cause fuel to flow too freely from
the discharge tube, causing an overly rich mixture, whereas an excessively low float level will
cause an overly lean mixture. The basic parts of the float system are the fuel bowl, the float, the
needle valve, the needle seat, the bowl vent, and the hinge assembly. Study the relationship of
each part as follows:

The CARBURETOR FLOAT rides on top of the fuel in the fuel bowl to open and close the
needle valve. It is normally made of thin brass or plastic. One end of the float is hinged to the
side of the carburetor body and the other end is free to swing up and down.
The NEEDLE VALVE regulates the amount of fuel passing through the fuel inlet and the needle
seat. The needle valve is usually made of brass. Sometimes the end of the valve will have a soft
viton (synthetic rubber) tip. The soft tip seals better than a metal tip, especially if dirt gets caught
in the needle seat.
The NEEDLE SEAT works with the needle valve to control fuel flow into the bowl. It is a brass
fitting that threads into the carburetor body.
The BOWL VENT prevents pressure or vacuum buildup in the carburetor fuel bowl. Without
venting, pressure could form in the bowl, as the fuel pump fills the carburetor. This could also
cause vacuum to form in the bowl, as fuel is drawn out of the carburetor and into the engine. On
vehicles equipped with an evaporation control type emission system, the fuel bowl is vented into
a hose going to a charcoal canister instead of the outside. The canister stores toxic fuel vapors
and prevents them from entering the atmosphere.

Basic float system operation is as follows:

When engine speed or load increases, fuel is rapidly pulled out of the fuel bowl and into the
venturi. This action causes the fuel to drop in the bowl. The needle valve also drops away from
its seat. The fuel pump can then force more fuel into the bowl.
As the fuel level in the bowl rises, the float pushes the needle valve against its seat. When the
fuel level is high enough, the float closes the opening between the needle valve and the seat by
the rising float, as the fuel reaches the desired level in the fuel bowl.

With the engine running, the needle valve usually lets some fuel leak into the bowl. As a result,
the float system maintains a stable quantity of fuel in the bowl. This is very important because
the fuel level in the bowl can affect the air-fuel ratio.

Figure 4-20. - Float system.

Idle System

The carburetor idle system (fig. 4-21) provides the air-fuel mixture at speeds below
approximately 800 rpm or 20 mph When the engine is idling, the throttle is almost closed Air
flow through the air horn is restricted to produce enough vacuum in the venturi. Since venturi
vacuum is too low to pull fuel from the main discharge tube, the high intake manifold vacuum
BELOW the throttle plate and the idle circuit are used to feed fuel into the air horn.

The fundamental parts of the carburetor idle system include a section of the main discharge tube,
a low- speed jet, an idle air bleed, a bypass, a idle passage, an economizer, an idle screw port,
and an idle mixture screw.
The LOW-SPEED JET is a restriction in the idle passage that limits maximum fuel flow in the
idle system. It is placed in the fuel passage before the idle air bleed and economizer.
The IDLE AIR BLEED works with the economizer and bypass to add air bubbles in the fuel
flowing to the idle port. The air bubbles help break up or atomize the fuel. This makes the air-
fuel mixture burn more efficiently once it is in the engine.
The IDLE PASSAGE carries the air-fuel slurry (mixture of liquid and air bubbles) to the idle
screw port.
The IDLE SCREW PORT is an opening into the air horn below the throttle valve.
The IDLE MIXTURE SCREW allows adjustment of the size of the opening in the idle screw
port. Turning the screw IN reduces the size of the idle port and the amount of fuel entering the
horn. Turning the screw OUT increases the size of the idle port and enriches the fuel mixture at
idle.

Most modern carburetors have sealed idle

mixture screws that are NOT normally
adjusted. The seal prevents tampering with the
factory settings of the idle mixture. Sometimes
a plastic limiter cap is pressed over the idle
mixture screws. They restrict how far the
screws can be adjusted toward the rich or lean
settings. Correcting idle screw adjustment on
modern carburetors is critical to proper
exhaust emission.

Figure 4-21. - Idle system.

The basic operation of the idle system is as follows:

 At idle, fuel flows out of the fuel bowl, through the main discharge tube, and into the
low-speed jet. The low-speed jet restricts maximum fuel flow.
 At the bypass, outside air is pulled into the idle system. This partially atomizes the fuel
into slurry. As the air and fuel bubbles pass through the economizer, the air bubbles are
reduced in size to further improve mixing.
 The fuel and air slurry then enters the idle screw port. The setting of the idle screw
controls how much fuel enters the air horn at idle.
 With the throttle plate closed, high intake manifold pressure pulls fuel out of the idle
system.

Off Idle System

The off idle, also known as the part throttle, feeds more fuel into the air horn when the throttle
plate is partially open. It is an extension of the idle system. It functions above approximately 800
rpm or 20 mph. Without the off idle system, the fuel mixture would become too lean slightly
above idle. The idle system alone is not capable of supplying enough fuel to the air stream
passing through the carburetor. The off idle system helps supply fuel during the change from idle
to high speed.
Basic off idle system operation is as follows:

The driver presses down on the accelerator and cracks open the throttle plate. As the throttle
plate swings open, the off idle ports are exposed to intake manifold vacuum.
Vacuum then begins to pull fuel out of the idle screw and the off idle port. This action provides
enough extra fuel to mix with the additional air flowing around the throttle plate.

Acceleration System

The carburetor acceleration system, like the off idle system, provides extra fuel when changing
from the idle 4-19

system to the high-speed system. The acceleration system squirts a stream of fuel into the air
horn when the fuel pedal is pressed and the throttle plates swing open. Without the acceleration
system, too much fuel would rush into the engine, as the throttle quickly opened. The mixture
would become too lean for combustion and the engine would STALL or HESITATE. The
acceleration system prevents a lean air-fuel mixture from upsetting a smooth increase in engine
speed.

The basic parts of the acceleration system are the pump linkage, the accelerator pump, the pump
check ball, the pump reservoir, the pump check weight, and the pump nozzle.

Figure 4-22. - Piston accelerator pump.

The ACCELERATOR PUMP develops the pressure to force fuel out of the pump nozzle and
into the air horn. There are two types of accelerator pumps - piston and diaphragm type (figs. 4-
22 and 4-23).

Figure 4-23. - Diaphragm accelerator pump.

The PUMP CHECK BALL only allows fuel to flow into the pump reservoir. It stops fuel from
flowing back into the fuel bowl when the pump is actuated.
The PUMP CHECK WEIGHT prevents fuel from being pulled into the air horn by venturi
vacuum. Its weight seals the passage to the pump nozzle and prevents fuel siphoning.
The PUMP NOZZLE, also known as the pump jet, has a fixed opening that helps control fuel
flow out of the pump. It also guides the fuel stream into the center of the air horn.

The basic operation of the acceleration system is as follows:

 The pump piston or diaphragm is pushed down in the pump chamber, as the throttle plate
is opened, forcing fuel through the outlet passage.
  At the same moment, the pump check ball will seat, keeping fuel from being pumped
back into the float bowl.
 The pump check weight will be forced off its seat, allowing fuel to pass to the pump
discharge nozzle, and then discharged into the carburetor.
 The pump piston or diaphragm is raised in the pumping chamber when the throttle plate
is closed, causing the pump check weight to seat blocking the outlet passageway.
 At the same time, the pump check ball is pulled off its seat and fuel is pulled into the
pump chamber from the float bowl.
 The pump chamber is filled with fuel and ready for discharge whenever the throttle plate
is opened.

The linkage between the accelerator pump and the throttle cannot be solid. If it were, the pump
would act as a damper, not allowing the throttle to be opened and closed readily. The linkage
activates the pump through a slotted shaft When the throttle is closed, the pump is held by its
linkage. When the throttle is open, the pump is activated by being pushed down by a spring that
is called a duration spring (fig. 4-24). The tension of the duration spring controls the length of
time that the stream of fuel lasts.

The spring is calibrated to specific applications. Too much spring pressure will cause fuel to be
discharged too quickly, resulting in reduced fuel economy. Too little spring pressure will result
in the fuel being discharged too slowly, causing engine hesitation.

Figure 4-24. - Duration spring.

High-Speed System

The, high-speed system, also called the main metering system, supplies the engine air-fuel
mixture at normal cruising speeds. This system begins to function when the throttle plate is
opened wide enough for the venturi action. Air flow through the carburetor must be relatively
high for venturi vacuum to draw fuel out of the main discharge tube.
The high-speed system provides the leanest, most fuel efficient air-fuel ratio. It functions from
about 20 to 55 mph or 2,000 to 3,000 rpm.

The high-speed system is the simplest system. It consists of the high-speed jet, the main
discharge passage, the emulsion tube, the air bleed, and the venturi.

The HIGH-SPEED JET is a fitting with a precision hole drilled into the center. This fitting
screws into a threaded hole in the fuel bowl. One jet is used for each air horn. The hole size
determines how much fuel flows through the system. A number is stamped on the high-speed jet
to denote the diameter of the hole. Since jet numbering systems vary, refer to the manufacturer's
manual for information on jet size.
The EMULSION TUBE and AIR BLEED add air to the fuel flowing through the main discharge
tube. The premixing of air with fuel helps the fuel atomize, as it is discharged into the air horn.
The VENTURI is the hourglass shape, formed in the side of the carburetor air horn. One or two
booster venturis (fig. 4-25) can be added inside the primary venturi to increase vacuum at lower
engine speeds.

The basic operation of the high-speed system is

as follows:

 When the engine speed is high enough,

air flow through the carburetor forms a
high vacuum in the venturi. The vacuum
pulls fuel through the main metering
system.
 The fuel flows through the main jet that
meters the amount of fuel entering the
system. The fuel then flows into the
main discharge tube and emulsion tube.
 The emulsion tube causes air from the
air bleed to mix with the fuel. The fuel, mixed Figure 4-25. - Booster venturi
with air is finally pulled out the main nozzle and into the engine.

Figure 4-26. - Mechanically operated metering rod.

Full-Power System
The full-power system provides a means of enriching the fuel mixture for high-speed, high-
power conditions. This system operates, for example, when the driver presses the fuel pedal to
pass another vehicle or to climb a steep hill. The full-power system is an addition to the high-
speed system. Either a metering rod or a power valve (jet) can be used to provide variable, high-
speed air-fuel ratio.

A metering rod is a stepped rod that moves in and out of the main jet to alter fuel flow. When the
rod is down inside the jet, flow is restricted and a leaner fuel mixture results. When the rod is
pulled out of the jet, flow is increased and a richer fuel mixture results for more power output.
The metering rod is either mechanical-linkage or engine-vacuum operated.

The MECHANICAL LINKAGE metering rod (fig. 4-26) is linked to the throttle lever.
Whenever the throttle is opened wide, the linkage lifts the metering rod out of the jet. When the
throttle is closed, the linkage lowers the metering rod into the jet.
The VACUUM OPERATED metering rod (fig. 4-27) that is controlled by engine vacuum is
connected to a diaphragm. At steady speeds, power demands are low and engine vacuum is high,
and the piston pushes the metering rod into the jet against spring pressure, restricting the flow to
the discharge tube. When the load increases, vacuum decreases, causing the piston spring to lift
the metering rod out of the jet, progressively increasing the flow of fuel to the discharge tube.

Figure 4-28. - Vacuum power jet.

A vacuum power jet valve (fig. 4-28), also known as an economizer, performs the same function
as a metering rod; it provides a variable high-speed fuel mixture. A power jet valve consists of a
fuel valve, a vacuum diaphragm, and a spring. The spring holds the power valve in the normally
OPEN position. A vacuum passage runs to the power valve diaphragm. When the power valve is
open, it serves as an extra jet that feeds fuel into the high-speed system.

When the engine is cruising at normal highway speeds, engine intake manifold vacuum is high.
This vacuum acts on the power valve diaphragm and pulls the fuel valve closed. No additional
fuel is added to the metering system under normal conditions; however, when the throttle plate is
swung open for passing or climbing a hill, engine vacuum drops. The spring in the power valve
can push the fuel valve open. Fuel flows through the power valve and into the main metering
system, adding more fuel for more engine power.

Choke System
When the engine is cold, the fuel tends to condense into large drops in the manifold, rather than
vaporizing. By supplying a richer mixture (8:1 to 9:1), there will be enough vapor to assure
complete combustion. The carburetor is fitted with a choke system to provide this richer mixture.
The choke system provides a very rich mixture to start the engine and to make the mixture less
rich gradually, as the engine reaches operating temperature.

Figure 4-29. - Manual choke system.

The two types of choke systems are the manual and automatic: The manual choke system (fig. 4-
29) was once the most popular way of controlling the choke plate; however, because of
emissions regulations the possible danger when used with catalytic converters and technological
advances in automatic choke systems, manual chokes are not often used today.

In the manual choke system, the choke plate is operated by a flexible cable that extends into the
operator's compartment. As the control is pulled out, the choke plate will be closed, so the engine
can be started. As the control is pushed back in, the position of the choke plate is adjusted to
provide the proper mixture. The following are two features that are incorporated into the manual
choke to reduce the possibility of the engine flooding by automatically admitting air into the
engine.
A spring-loaded poppet valve (fig. 4-30) that is automatically pulled open by the force of the
engine intake strokes.
An off-center choke valve (fig. 4-31) that creates a pressure differential between the two sides of
the choke plate when it is subjected to engine intake, causing it to be pulled open against the
force of spring loaded linkage.

Automatic chokes (fig. 4-32) have replaced the

conventional manual choke. They control the air-fuel ratio
for quick starting at low temperature and also provide for
the proper amount of choking to enrich the air-fuel
mixture for all conditions of engine operation during the
warm-up period. An automatic choke system has a choke
plate (valve), a thermostatic spring, and other parts
depending upon choke design.

Figure 4-31. - Off center choke valve. Figure 4-30. - Spring-loaded poppet valve in the choke valve.

The choke plate is a butterfly (disc) valve near

the top of the carburetor air horn. When the
choke plate is closed, it blocks normal air flow
through the carburetor.

The thermostatic spring is a bimetal spring

(spring made of two dissimilar metals) which
may be used to open and close the choke. The
two metals have a different rate of expansion
that make the spring coil tighter when cold and
uncoils when heated. This coiling-uncoiling
action is used to operate the choke.

Figure 4-32. - Automatic choke.

The basic operation of the automatic choke system is as follows:

 With the engine cold, the thermostatic spring holds the choke closed. When the engine is
started, the closed choke causes high vacuum in the carburetor air horn. This pulls a large
amount of fuel out of the main discharge tube.
 As the engine and thermostatic spring warm, the spring uncoils and opens the choke
plate. This action produces a leaner mixture. A warm engine will not run properly if the
choke were to remain closed.

Various methods are used to control the warming of the choke thermostatic spring. The four
methods of providing controlled heat to the thermostatic spring are as follows: electricity, engine
coolant, well-type heated, and exhaust manifold.

ELECTRICITY (fig. 4-33) uses an electric coil to heat the thermostatic spring. The heating coil
is switched on with the ignition switch. Some systems use a control unit that prevents power
from reaching the electric coil until the engine
compartment reaches a desired temperature.

Figure 4-33. - Electric choke. Figure 4-34. - Engine coolant heated choke.

ENGINE COOLANT (fig. 4-34) uses a passage in the thermostat housing to circulate engine
coolant for heating the thermostatic spring.
WELL-TYPE HEATED (fig. 4-35) mounts the thermostatic spring in the top of the exhaust
manifold. As the engine and manifold warms, the thermostatic spring uncoils to open the choke.
The EXHAUST MANIFOLD (fig. 4-36) uses
heat from the exhaust manifold to heat the
thermostatic spring. The exhaust heat is brought
to the choke through the means of a heat tube.
The heat tube passes through the exhaust
manifold, so as it takes in fresh air via the choke
stove, it picks up heat from the exhaust without
sending any actual exhaust fumes to the choke
mechanism.
Figure 4-35. - Well-type exhaust-heated choke.
When the choke system is operating during warm- up, the engine must run at a faster idle speed
to improve drivability and prevent flooding. To accomplish this, fit the carburetor with a fast idle
cam (fig. 4-37) that is operated by linkage from the choke.

Figure 4-36. - Exhaust-manifold heat-tube choke.

When the choke closes, the fast idle cam swings around in front of the fast idle screw. As a
result, the fast idle cam and fast idle screw prevent the throttle plate from closing. Engine idle
speed is increased to smooth cold engine operation and prevents stalling. As soon as the engine
warms, the choke opens and the fast idle cam is deactivated. When the throttle is opened, the
choke linkage swings away from the fast idle screw and the engine returns to curb idle (normal,
hot idle speed).

Figure 4-37. - Fast idle cam operation.

If for some reason the engine should flood when it is cold, a device is needed to open the choke,
so air may be admitted to correct the [Link] is accomplished by the choke unloader (fig.
4-38). The choke unloader can be either mechanical- or vacuum-operated.

A mechanical choke unloader physically opens the choke plate any time the throttle swings fully
open. It uses a metal lug on the throttle lever. When the throttle lever moves to the fully opened
position, the lug pushes on the choke linkage (fast idle linkage). This provides the operator a
means of opening the choke. Air can then enter the air horn to help clear a flooded engine
(engine with too much liquid fuel in the cylinders and intake manifold).

A vacuum choke unloader (fig. 4-39). also called a choke brake, uses engine vacuum to crack
open the choke plate as soon as the engine starts. It automatically prevents the engine from
flooding.

Before the engine starts, the choke spring holds the choke plate almost completely closed. This
action primes the engine with enough fuel for starting. Then as the engine starts, the intake
manifold vacuum acts on the choke brake diaphragm. The diaphragm pulls the choke linkage and
lever to swing the choke plate open slightly. This action helps avoid an overly rich mixture and
improves cold engine drivability.

Figure 4-38. - Choke unloader. Figure 4-39. - Vacuum choke unloader.

CARBURETOR ACCESSORIES

There are several devices used on carburetors to improve drivability and economy. These devices
are as follows: the fast idle solenoid, the throttle return dashpot, the hot idle compensator, and
the altitude compensator. Their applications vary from vehicle to vehicle.
Fast Idle Solenoid
A fast idle solenoid, also known as an antidieseling solenoid (fig. 4-40), opens the carburetor
throttle plates during engine operation but allows the throttle plates to close as soon as the engine
is turned off. In this way, a faster idle speed can be used while still avoiding dieseling (engine
keeps running even though the ignition key is turned off). This is a particular problem with
newer emission controlled vehicles due to higher operating temperatures, higher idle speeds,
leaner fuel mixtures, and lower octane fuel.

Figure 4-40. - Antidieseling solenoid operation.

When the engine is running, current flows to the fast idle solenoid, causing the plunger to move
outward. The throttle plates are held open to increase engine speed. The plunger is adjustable, so
the idle speed can be adjusted. When the engine is turned, off current flow to the solenoid stops.
The solenoid plunger retracts and the throttle plates are free to swing almost closed.

Throttle Return Dashpot

The throttle return dashpot, also known as an antistall dashpot (fig. 4-41), acts as a damper to
keep the throttle from closing too quickly when the accelerator pedal is suddenly released. It is
commonly used on carburetors for automatic transmission equipped vehicles.

Without the throttle return dashpot, the engine could stall when the engine quickly returned to
idle. The drag of the automatic transmission could kill the engine.
The throttle return dashpot works something like a shock absorber. It uses a spring-loaded
diaphragm mounted in a sealed housing. A small hole is drilledinto the diaphragm housing to
prevent rapid movement of the dashpot plunger and diaphragm. Air must bleed out of the hole
slowly.

When the vehicle is traveling down the

road (throttle plates open), the spring
pushes the dashpot plunger forward.
When the engine returns to idle, the
throttle lever strikes the extended
dashpot plunger, and air leaks out of the
throttle return dashpot, returning the
engine slowly to curb idle. This action
gives the automatic transmission enough
time to disconnect (torque converter
releases) from the engine without the
engine stalling. 4-29

Figure 4-41. - Throttle return dashpot

Hot Idle Compensator

A hot idle compensator (fig. 4-42) is a thermostatically controlled device that prevents engine
stalling or a rough idle under high engine
temperatures. The temperature sensitive valve
admits extra air into the engine to increase idle
speed and smoothness.

At normal engine temperatures, the hot-idle

compensator valve remains closed, and the
engine idles normally. When temperatures are
high (prolonged idling periods, for example),
fuel vapors can enter the air horn and enrich the
air-fuel mixture. The hot idle compensator opens
to allow extra air to enter the intake manifold.
This action compensates for the extra fuel
vapors and corrects the air-fuel mixture.
Figure 4-42. - Hot idle compensator.

Altitude Compensator

An altitude compensator is used to change the air- fuel mixture in the carburetor with changes in
the vehicle height above sea level. Normally the compensator is an aneroid device (bellows
device that expands and contracts with changes in atmospheric pressure). As a vehicle is driven
up a mountain, the density of the air decreases. This condition tends to make the air- fuel mixture
richer. The reduced air pressure causes the aneroid to expand, opening an air valve. Extra air
flows into the air horn and the air-fuel mixture becomes leaner. The opposite occurs when the
vehicle descends from the mountain. The greater air density and pressure

tends to make the carburetor mixture too lean. The increased air pressure collapses the aneroid
and the air valve closes. This action enriches the mixture enough to compensate for the low
altitude.

COMPUTER-CONTROLLED CARBURETORS
A computer-controlled carburetor uses a solenoid- operated valve to respond to commands from
the microcomputer (electronic control unit). The system uses various sensors to send information
to the computer that calculates how rich or lean to set the carburetor air-fuel mixture. The system
is also known as a computer controlled emission system which consists of the following: oxygen
sensor, temperature sensor, pressure sensor, electromechanical carburetor, mixture control
solenoid, computer, and idle speed actuator. The function of each is as follows:

The OXYGEN SENSOR, or exhaust gas sensor, monitors the oxygen content in the engine
exhaust. The amount of oxygen in the exhaust indicates the richness (low oxygen content) or
leanness (high oxygen content) of the air- fuel mixture. The sensor voltage output changes with
any change in oxygen content in the exhaust gases.
The TEMPERATURE SENSOR detects the operating temperature of the engine. Its resistance
changes with the temperature of the engine. The change in resistance allows the computer to
enrich the fuel mixture during cold engine operations.
The MANIFOLD PRESSURE SENSOR (MAP) measures intake manifold vacuum and engine
load. High engine load or power output causes intake manifold vacuum to drop. The pressure
sensor then signals the computer with a change in resistance and current flow. As manifold
pressure drops, the computer increases the air-fuel mixture for added power. As the manifold
pressure increases, the computer makes the carburetor setting leaner for improved economy.
The ELECTROMECHANICAL CARBURETOR has both electrical and mechanical control
devices. It is commonly used with a computer control system.
The MIXTURE CONTROL SOLENOID alters the air-fuel mixture in the electromechanical
carburetor. Electrical signals from the computer activate the solenoid to open and close air and
fuel passages in the carburetor.
The COMPUTER, also called the electronic control unit (ECU), uses sensor information to
operate the mixture control solenoid of the carburetor.
The IDLE SPEED ACTUATOR is a tiny electric motor and gear mechanism that allows the
computer to change engine idle speed by holding the throttle lever in the desired position.

Many of the components and sensors are also used in gasoline fuel injection systems, which we
will discuss later in this chapter.

In a computer-controlled carburetor, the air-fuel ratio is maintained by cycling the mixture

solenoid ON and OFF several times a second. Control signals from the computer are used to
meter different amounts of fuel out of the carburetor. When the computer sends a rich command
to the solenoid, the signal voltage to the mixture solenoid is in the OFF position more than it is
ON, causing the solenoid to stay open more. During a lean signal the mixture solenoid has more
ON time, causing less fuel to pass through the solenoid valve and the mixture becomes leaner.

NOTE Computerized carburetor systems vary. For exact detail on a particular system, refer to
the manufacturer's service manual, which will explain how the specific system functions.

CARBURETOR TROUBLES
Some of the engine troubles that can usually (but not ALWAYS) be traced to some fault in the
carburetor system are as follows:

 EXCESSIVE FUEL CONSUMPTION can result from a high float level, a leaky float, a
sticking metering rod or full power piston, a sticking accelerator pump, and/or too rich of
an idling mixture.
 A SLUGGISH ENGINE may be the result of a poorly operating accelerator pump, a low
float level, dirty or gummy fuel passages, or a clogged air cleaner.
 POOR IDLING, often characterized by a stalling of the engine, is usually due to a too
rich idle mixture, a defective choke, or an incorrectly adjusted idle speed screw at the
throttle plate.
 FAILURE OF THE ENGINE TO START may be caused by an incorrectly adjusted
choke, clogged fuel lines, or air leak into the intake manifold.
 HARD STARTING OF A WARM ENGINE could be due to a defective or improperly
adjusted throttle link.
 SLOW ENGINE WARM-UP may indicate a defective choke or defective radiator
thermostat.
 SMOKY BLACK EXHAUST indicates a very rich air-fuel mixture.
 STALLING OF THE ENGINE AS IT WARMS could be caused by a defective choke or
closed choke valve.
 A BACKFIRING ENGINE may be due to an incorrect, often lean, air-fuel mixture
reaching the engine. In turn, this condition could be caused by a clogged fuel line or a
fluctuating fuel level.
 An ENGINE RUNS BUT MISSES, the most likely cause is a vacuum leak at a vacuum
hose or the intake manifold. In addition, it could be an improper air-fuel mixture reaching
the engine due to clogged or worn carburetor jets or an incorrect fuel level in the float
bowl.
Several quick checks can be made to see how well the carburetor is working. More accurate
analysis requires test instruments, such as an exhaust gas analyzer and an intake manifold
vacuum gauge.

The quick checks are as follows:

1. FLOAT LEVEL ADJUSTMENT. With the engine warmed up and running at idle speed,
remove the air cleaner. Carefully note the condition of the high- speed nozzle. If the nozzle tip is
wet or is dripping fuel, the float level is probably too high. This could cause a continuous
discharge of fuel from the nozzle, even at idle.
2. IDLE SYSTEM. If the engine does not idle smoothly after it is warmed up, the idle system
could be at fault. Slowly open the throttle until the engine is running at about 3,000 rpm. If the
speed does not increase evenly and the engine runs roughly through this speed range, the idle or
main metering system is probably defective.

3. ACCELERATOR PUMP SYSTEM. With the air cleaner off and the engine not running, open
the throttle suddenly. See if the accelerator pump system discharges a squirt of fuel into the air
horn. The flow should continue for a few seconds after the throttle plate reaches the wide, open
position.

4. MAIN METERING SYSTEM. With the engine warmed up and running at 2,000 rpm, slowly
cover part of the air horn with a piece of stiff cardboard The engine should speed up slightly,
since this action causes a normal operating main metering system to discharge more fuel.

WARNING
Do NOT use your hand to cover the air horn when performing this test.

Q5. Name the seven basic carburetor systems?

Q6. What system maintains a steady working supply of fuel to a constant level in the carburetor?

Q7. What device acts as a damper to keep the throttle from closing too quickly when the
accelerator pedal is suddenly released?

Q8. What sensor in a computerized carburetor system measures intake vacuum and engine load?

GASOLINE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify and describe the different gasoline fuel injection systems.

A modern gasoline injection system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to spray fuel into
the engine intake manifold. Like a carburetor, it must provide the engine with the correct air-fuel
mixture for specific operating conditions. Unlike a carburetor, however, PRESSURE, not engine
vacuum, is used to feed fuel into the engine. This makes the gasoline injection system very
efficient.

A gasoline injection system has several possible advantages over a carburetor type of fuel
system.

Some advantages are as follows:

1. Improved atomization. Fuel is forced into the intake manifold under pressure that helps
break fuel droplets into a fine mist.
2. Better fuel distribution. Equal flow of fuel vapors into each cylinder.
 3. Smoother idle. Lean fuel mixture can be used without rough idle because of better fuel
distribution and low-speed atomization.
4. Lower emissions. Lean efficient air-fuel mixture reduces exhaust pollution.
5. Better cold weather drivability. Injection provides better control of mixture enrichment
than a carburetor.
6. Increased engine power. Precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased air flow
can result in more horsepower output.
7. Fewer parts. Simpler, late model, electronic fuel injection system have fewer parts than
modern computer-controlled carburetors.

There are many types of gasoline injection systems. Before studying the most common ones, you
should have a basic knowledge of the different classifications. Systems are classified either
single- or multi-point injection and indirect or direct injection.

The point or location of fuel injection is one way to classify a gasoline injection system. A
single-point injection system, also call throttle body injection (TBI), has the injector nozzles in a
throttle body assembly on top of the engine. Fuel is sprayed into the top center of the intake
manifold

A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-fuel
passage) going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward each intake
valve. Thereby, the term multi-point (more than one location) fuel injection is used.

An indirect injection system sprays fuel into the engine intake manifold. Most gasoline injection
systems are of this type. Direct injection forces fuel into the engine combustion chambers. Diesel
injection systems are direct type.

There are three basic configurations of gasoline fuel injection - timed, continuous, and throttle
body.

TIMED FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Timed fuel injection systems for gasoline engines inject a measured amount of fuel in timed
bursts that are synchronized to the intake strokes of the engine. 'limed injection is the most
precise form of fuel injection but is also the most complex. There are two basic forms of timed
fuel injection-mechanical and electronic.

The basic operation of a mechanical-timed injection system (fig. 4-43) is as follows:

 A high-pressure electric pump draws fuel from the fuel tank and delivers it to the
metering unit. A pressure relief valve is installed between the fuel pump and the metering
unit to regulate fuel line pressure by bleeding off excess fuel back to the tank.
 The metering unit is a pump that is driven by the engine camshaft. It is always in the
same rotational relationship with the camshaft, so it can be timed to feed the fuel to the
injectors just at the right moment.
  Each injector contains a spring-loaded valve that is opened by fuel pressure, injecting fuel
into the intake at a point just before the intake valve.
 The throttle valve regulates engine speed and power output by regulating manifold
vacuum, which, in turn, regulates the amount of fuel supplied to the injectors by the
metering pump.

Figure 4-43. - Mechanical-timed injection.

The more common type of timed fuel injection is the electronic-timed fuel injection, also known
as electronic fuel injection (EFI) (fig. 4-44). Anelectronic fuel injection system can be divided
into four subsystems:

1. Fuel delivery system

2. Air induction system
3. Sensor system
4. Computer control system

The fuel delivery system of an EFI system includes an electric fuel pump, a fuel filter, a pressure
regulator, the injector valves, and the connecting lines and hoses.

The ELECTRIC FUEL PUMP draws fuel out of the tank and forces it into the pressure regulator.
The FUEL PRESSURE REGULATOR controls the amount of pressure entering the injector
valves. When sufficient pressure is attained, the regulator returns excess fuel to the tank. This
maintains a preset amount of fuel pressure for injector valve operation.
The FUEL INJECTOR for an EFI system is a coil or solenoid-operated fuel valve. When not
energized, spring pressure keeps the injector closed, keeping fuel from entering the engine.
When current flows through the injector coil or solenoid, the magnetic field attracts the injector
armature. The injector opens, squirting fuel into the intake manifold under pressure.

The air induction system for the EFI typically consists of a throttle valve, sensors, an air filter,
and connecting ducts.

The throttle valve regulates how much air flows into the engine. In turn, it controls engine power
output. Like the carburetor throttle valve, it is connected to the gas pedal. When the pedal is
depressed, the throttle valve swings open to allow more air to rush into the engine.

The EFI sensor system monitors engine operating conditions and reports this information to the
computer. A sensor is an electrical device that changes circuit resistance or voltage with a change
in a condition (temperature, pressure, position of parts, etc.). For example, the resistance of a
temperature sensor may decrease as temperature increases. The computer can use the icreased
current flow through the sensor to calculate any needed change in the injector valve opening.
Typical sensors for an EFI system include the following:

1. Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor

2. Manifold pressure sensor
3. Throttle position sensor
4. Engine temperature sensor
5. Air flow sensor
6. Inlet air temperature sensor
7. Crankshaft position sensor

Since some of these sensors were discussed in the section on computerized carburetor systems,
we will only concentrate on the sensors that are particular to the EFI system. These sensors are as
follows:

The THROTTLE POSITION SENSOR is a variable resistor connected to the throttle plate shaft.
When the throttle swings open for more power or closes for less power, the sensor changes
resistance and signals the computer. The computer can then enrich or lean the mixture as needed
The AIR FLOW SENSOR is used in many EFI systems to measure the amount of outside air
entering the engine. It is usually an air flap or door that operates a variable resistor. Increased air
flow opens the air flap more to change the position of the resistor. Information is sent to the
computer indicating air inlet volume.
The INLET AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR measures the temperature of the air entering the
engine. Cold air is more dense, requiring a little more fuel. Warm air is NOT as dense as cold,
requiring a little less fuel. The sensor helps the computer compensate for changes in outside air
temperature and maintain an almost perfect air-fuel mixture ratio.
The CRANKSHAFT POSITION SENSOR is used to detect engine speed It allows the computer
to change injector openings with changes in engine rpm.

The signal from the engine sensors can be either a digital or an analog type output. Digital
signals are on- off signals. An example is the crankshaft position sensor that shows engine rpm.
Voltage output or resistance goes from maximum to minimum, like a switch. An analog signal
changes in strength to let the computer know about a change in condition. Sensor internal
resistance may smoothly increase or decrease with temperature, pressure, or part position. The
sensor acts as a variable resistor.

Basic operation of an electronic-timed injection system is as follows:

 Fuel is fed by a high-pressure electric fuel pump to the injectors that are connected in
parallel to a common fuel line.
 The fuel pressure regulator is installed in-line with the injectors to keep fuel pressure
constant by diverting excess fuel back to the tank.
 Each injector contains a solenoid valve and is normally in a closed position. With a
pressurized supply of fuel behind it, each injector will operate individually whenever
electric current is applied to the solenoid valve.
 The electronic computer sends the electric impulses and provides the proper amount of
fuel. The computer receives a signal for the ignition distributor to establish the timing
sequence.
 By sending electric current impulses to the injectors in a sequence timed to coincide with
the needs of the engine, the system will supply fuel to the engine as it should.

CONTINUOUS FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Continuous fuel injection systems (fig. 4-45) provide a continuous spray of fuel from each
injector at a point in the intake port located just before the intake valve. Because the entrance of
the fuel into the cylinder is controlled by the intake valve, the continuous system fulfills the
requirements of a gasoline engine.

Basic operation of a continuous fuel injection is as follows:

 Fuel is fed to the system by an electric fuel pump that delivers fuel to the mixture control
unit. A fuel pressure regulator maintains fuel line pressure and sends excess fuel back to
the tank.
  The mixture control unit regulates the amount of fuel that is sent to the injectors based on
the amount of air flow through the intake and the engine temperature. The unit is
operated by the air flow sensing plate and warm-up regulator.
 The accelerator pedal regulates the rate of air flow through the intake by opening and
closing the throttle valve.
 A cold-start injector is installed in the intake to provide a richer mixture during engine
start-up and warm-up. It is actuated by electric current from the thermal sensor any time
the temperature of the coolant is below a certain level.

Figure 4-45. - Continuous fuel injection system.

The injector for a continuous fuel injection system is a simple spring-loaded valve. It injects fuel
all the time the engine is running. A spring holds the valve in a normally closed position with the
engine OFF. This action keeps fuel from dripping into the engine. When the engine STARTS,
fuel pressure builds and pushes the injector valve open. A steady stream of gasoline then sprays
toward each intake valve. The fuel is pulled into the engine when the intake valves open

THROTTLE BODY INJECTION SYSTEM

The throttle body injection (TBI) system (fig. 4-46) uses one or two injector valves mounted in a
throttle body assembly. The injectors spray fuel into the top of the throttle body air horn The TBI
fuel spray mixes with the air flowing through the air horn. The mixture is then pulled into the
engine by intake manifold vacuum. The throttle body injection assembly typically consists of the
following: throttle body housing, fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, throttle positioner,
throttle position sensor, and throttle plates.

The THROTTLE BODY housing, like a carburetor body, bolts to the pad on the intake manifold.
It houses the metal castings that hold the injectors, the fuel pressure regulator, and the throttle
plates. The throttle plates are located in the lower section of the body. A linkage or cable
connects the throttle plates with the accelerator pedal. An inlet fuel line and outlet return line
connects to the fittings on the body.

Figure 4-46. - Throttle body injection.

The THROTTLE BODY INJECTOR consists of an electric solenoid coil, armature or plunger,
ball or needle valve and seat, and injector spring. Wires from the computer connect to terminals
on the injectors. When the computer energizes the injectors, a magnetic field is produced in the
injector coil. The magnetic field pulls the plunger and valve up to open the injector. Fuel can
then squirt through the injector nozzle and into the engine.
The THROTTLE BODY PRESSURE REG- ULATOR consists of a fuel valve, a diaphragm, and
a spring. When fuel pressure is low, the spring holds the fuel valve closed, causing pressure to
build as fuel flows into the regulator from the fuel pump. When a preset pressure is reached,
pressure acts on the diaphragm. The diaphragm compresses the spring and opens the fuel valve.
Fuel can then flow back to the fuel tank, limiting the maximum fuel pressure at the injectors.
The THROTTLE POSITIONER is used on throttle body assemblies to control engine idle speed.
The computer actuates the positioner to open or close the throttle plates. In this way, the
computer can maintain a precise idle speed with changes in engine temperature, load, and other
conditions.

Although throttle body injection does not provide the precise fuel distribution of the direct port
injection, it is much cheaper to produce and provide a much higher degree of precision fuel
metering than a carburetor.

Q9. What type of fuel injection system is the most precise but is also the most complex?

Q10. In an electronic fuel injection system, what sensor is used to detect engine speed?

Q11. On a throttle body injection system, what device is used to control engine idle speed?
EXHAUST AND EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify components of the exhaust and emission control systems.
Describe the operation of the exhaust and emission control systems.

Over the past several years, exhaust and emission control has greatly increased because of
stringent antipollution laws and EPA guidelines. This has made the exhaust and emission control
systems of vehicles invaluable and a vital part of today's vehicles.

The waste products of combustion are carried away from the engine to the rear of the vehicle by
the exhaust system where they are expelled to the atmosphere. The exhaust system also serves to
dampen engine noise. The parts of a typical exhaust system include the following: exhaust
manifold, header pipe, catalytic converter, intermediate pipe, muffler, tailpipe, hangers, heat
shields, and muffler clamps.

The control of exhaust emissions is a difficult job. The ideal situation would be to have the fuel
combine completely with the oxygen from the intake air. The carbon would then combine with
the oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2 ); the hydrogen would combine to form water (H2 O);
and the nitrogen present in the intake would stand alone. The only other product present in the
exhaust would be oxygen from the intake air that was not used in the burning of the fuel. In a
real life situation, however, this is not what happens. The fuel never combines completely with
the oxygen, and undesirable exhaust emissions are created as a result.

The most dangerous of the emissions is CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) which is a poisonous gas
that is colorless and odorless. CO is formed as a result of insufficient oxygen in the combustion
mixture and combustion chamber temperatures that are too low. Other exhaust emissions that are
considered major pollutants are as follows:

HYDROCARBONS (HC) are unburned fuel. They are particulate (solid) in form, and, like
carbon monoxide, they are manufactured by insufficient oxygen in the combustion mixture and
combustion chamber temperatures that are too low. Hydrocarbons are harmful to all living
things. In any urban area where vehicular traffic is heavy, hydrocarbons in heavy concentrations
react with the sunlight to produce a brown fog, known as photochemical smog.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOX ) are formed when nitrogen and oxygen in the intake air
combine when subjected to high temperatures of combustion. Oxides of nitrogen are harmful to
all living things.

The temperatures of the combustion chamber would have to be raised to a point that would melt
pistons and valves to eliminate carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions. This is
compounded with the fact that oxides of nitrogen emissions go up with any increase in the
combustion chamber temperature. Knowing these facts, it can be seen that emission control
devices are necessary.
EXHAUST MANIFOLD
The exhaust manifold (fig. 4-47) connects all the engine cylinders to the exhaust system. It is
usually made of cast iron. If the exhaust manifold is properly formed, it can create a scavenging
action that will cause all of the cylinders to help each other get rid of exhaust gases. Back
pressure (the force that the pistons must exert to push out the exhaust gases) can be reduced by
making the manifold with smooth walls and without any sharp bends. All these factors are taken
into consideration when the exhaust manifold is designed, and the best possible manifold is
manufactured to fit into the confines of the engine compartment.

Figure 4-47. - Exhaust manifold.

MANIFOLD HEAT CONTROL VALVE

On some gasoline engines, a valve is placed in the exhaust manifold to deflect exhaust gases
toward a hot spot in the intake manifold until the engine reaches operating temperature (fig. 4-
48). This valve is a flat metal plate that is the same shape as the opening that controls it. It pivots
on a shaft and is operated by a thermostatic coil spring. The spring pulls the valve closed against
a counterweight before warm-up. The spring expands as the engine warms up, and the
counterweight pulls the valve open.

MUFFLER
The muffler (fig. 4-49) reduces the acoustic pressure of exhaust gases and discharges them to the
atmosphere with a minimum of noise. The muffler usually is located at a point about halfway in
the vehicle with the exhaust pipe between it and the exhaust manifold and the tailpipe leading
from the muffler to the rear of the vehicle.
The inlet and outlet of the muffler usually is slightly larger than their connecting pipes, so that it
may hook up by slipping over them. The muffler is then secured to the exhaust pipe and tailpipe
by clamps.

A typical muffler has several concentric chambers with openings between them. The gas enters
the inner chamber and expands, as it works its way through a series of holes in the other
chambers and finally to the atmosphere. They must be designed also to quiet exhaust noise while
creating minimum back pressure. High back pressure could cause loss of engine power and
economy and also cause overheating.

Figure 4-49. - Muffler.

Figure 4-48. - Manifold heat control valve.

Exhaust system components usually are made of steel. They are coated with aluminum or zinc to
retard corrosion. Stainless steel also is used in exhaust systems in limited quantities due to its
high cost. A stainless steel exhaust system will last indefinitely.

CATALYTIC CONVERTERS
It is impossible to keep carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions at acceptable levels by
controlling them in the cylinder without shortening engine life considerably. The most practical
method of controlling these emissions is outside the engine using a catalytic converter. The
catalytic converter is similar in appearance to the muffler and is positioned in the exhaust system
between the engine and muffler. As the engine exhaust passes through the converter, carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons are oxided (combined with oxygen), changing them into carbon
dioxide and water.

The catalytic converter contains a material (usually platinum or palladium) that acts as a catalyst.
The catalyst is something that causes a reaction between two substances without actually getting
involved. In the case of the catalytic converter, oxygen is joined chemically with carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons in the presence of its catalyst. Because platinum and palladium are
both very precious metals and the catalyst must have a tremendous amount of surface area in
order to work properly, it has been found that the following internal structures work best for
catalytic converters:

PELLET TYPE (fig. 4-50) is filled with aluminum oxide pellets that have a very thin coating of
catalytic material. Aluminum oxide has a rough outer surface, giving each pellet a tremendous
amount of surface area. The converter contains baffles to ensure maximum exposure of the
exhaust to the pellets.
MONOLITHIC TYPE (fig. 4-50) uses a one- piece ceramic structure in a honeycomb style form.
The structure is coated thinly with a catalytic material. The honeycomb shape has a tremendous
surface area to ensure maximum exposure of exhaust gases to the catalyst.

An adequate amount of oxygen must be present in the exhaust system for the catalytic converter
to operate; therefore, a supporting system, such as an air injection system, usually is placed on
catalytic converter equipped engines to dilute the exhaust stream with fresh air.

AIR INJECTION SYSTEM

An air injection system (fig. 4-51) forces fresh air into the exhaust ports of the engine to reduce
HC and CO emissions. The exhaust gases leaving an engine can contain unburned and partially
burned fuel. Oxygen from the air injection system causes this fuel to continue to burn. The major
parts of the system are the air pump, the diverter valve, the air distribution manifold, and the air
check valve.

The AIR PUMP is belt-driven and forces air at low pressure into the system. A hose is connected
to the output of the diverter valve.
The DIVERTER VALVE keeps air from entering the exhaust system during deceleration. This
prevents backfiring in the exhaust system. Also, the diverter valve limits maximum system air
pressure when needed, releasing excessive pressure through a silencer or a muffler.

Figure 4-50. - Catalytic converter.

AIR DISTRIBUTION MANIFOLD directs a stream of fresh air toward each engine exhaust
valve. Fittings on the air distribution manifold screw into a threaded hole in the exhaust manifold
or cylinder head.
AIR CHECK VALVE is usually located in the line between the diverter valve and the air
distribution manifold. It keeps exhaust gases from entering the air injection system.

Basic operation of the air injection system is as follows:

When the engine is running, the spinning vanes of the air pump force air into the diverter valve.
If not decelerating, the air is forced through the diverter valve, the check valve, the air injection
manifold, and into the engine. The fresh air blows on the exhaust valves.
During periods of deceleration, the diverter valve blocks air flow into the engine exhaust
manifold. This prevents a possible backfire that could damage the exhaust system of the vehicle.
When needed, the diverter valve will release excess pressure in the system.

POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATION (PCV) SYSTEM

The positive crankcase ventilation system uses manifold vacuum to purge the crankcase blow-by
fumes. The fumes are then aspirated back into the engine where they are reburned.

A hose is tapped into the crankcase at a point that is well above the engine oil level. The other
end of the hose is tapped into the intake manifold or the base of the carburetor.

NOTE; If the hose is tapped into the carburetor base, it will be in a location that is between the
throttle valves and the intake manifold so that it will receive manifold vacuum.

An inlet breather is installed on the crankcase in a location that is well above the level of the
engine oil. The inlet breather also is located strategically to ensure complete purging of the
crankcase fresh air. The areas of the crankcase where the vacuum hose and inlet breather are
tapped have baffles to keep motor oil from leaving the crankcase.

A flow control valve is installed in the line that connects the crankcase to the manifold. It is
called a positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve (fig. 4-52) and serves to avoid the air-fuel
mixture by doing the following:

Any periods of large throttle opening will be accompanied by heavy engine loads. Crankcase
blow- by will be at its maximum during heavy engine loads. The PCV valve will react to the
small amount of manifold vacuum that also is present during heavy engine loading by opening
fully through the force of its control valve spring. In this way, the system provides maximum
effectiveness during maximum blow-by periods.
Any period of small throttle opening will be accompanied by small engine loads, high manifold
vacuum, and a minimum amount of crankcase blow-by. During these periods, the high manifold
vacuum will pull the PCV valve to its position of minimum opening. This is important to prevent
an excessively lean air-fuel mixture.

In the event of engine backfire (flame traveling back through the intake manifold), the reverse
pressure will push the rear shoulder of the control valve against the valve body. This will seal the
crankcase from the backfire which could otherwise cause an explosion.

The positive crankcase ventilation system can be either the open or closed type (fig. 4-52).

The open type has an inlet breather that is open to the atmosphere. When this system is used, it is
possible for a portion of the crankcase blow-by to escape through the breather whenever the
engine is under a sustained heavy load.
The closed type has a sealed breather that is connected to the air filter by a hose. Any blow-by
gases that escape from the breather when this system is used will be aspirated into the carburetor
and reburned.
Figure 4-51. - Air injection system.

EXHAUSTGAS RECIRCULATION (EGR) SYSTEM

When the temperature of the combustion flame exceeds approximately 2,500F, the nitrogen that
is present in the intake air begins to combine with oxygen to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx ).
The exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system (fig. 4-53) helps to control the formation of oxides
of nitrogen by recirculating a portion of the exhaust gases back through the intake manifold,
resulting in cooler combustion chamber temperatures.

A basic EGR system is simple, consisting of a vacuum operated EGR valve and a vacuum line
from the carburetor. The EGR valve usually bolts to the engine intake manifold or a carburetor
plate. Exhaust gases are routed through the cylinder head and intake manifold to the EGR valve.

The EGR valve consists of a vacuum diaphragm, a spring, an exhaust gas valve, and a diaphragm
housing. It is designed to control exhaust flow into the intake manifold.

Figure 4-53. - EGR system.

Though there are minor differences between systems, the basic operation of an exhaust gas
recirculation system is as follows:

At idle, the throttle plate in the carburetor or fuel injection throttle body is closed. This blocks off
engine vacuum, so it cannot act on the EGR valve. The EGR spring holds the valve shut, and the
exhaust gases do NOT enter the intake manifold. If the EGR valve were to open at idle, it could
upset the air-fuel mixture and the engine would stall.
When the throttle plate is swung open to increase speed, engine vacuum is applied to the EGR
hose. Vacuum pulls the EGR diaphragm up. In turn, the diaphragm pulls the valve open. Engine
exhaust can enter the intake manifold and combustion chambers. At higher engine speeds, there
is enough air flowing into the engine that the air-fuel mixture is not upset by the open EGR
valve.

There are two different methods of supply vacuum to the EGR valve as follows:

 The first method uses a vacuum port into the carburetor throat located just above the
throttle plate. As the throttle begins to open, vacuum will begin to be applied to the port
and operates the EGR valve. The valve will continue to operate fully until approximately
half throttle is reached. As the throttle is open past the halfway point, exhaust gas
recirculation gradually will diminish to zero, as the throttle approaches the fully opened
position.
 The second method uses a vacuum port that is directly in the carburetor venturi (fig. 4-
53). The carburetor venturi provides vacuum for the EGR valve any time the engine is
running at high speed. The problem with using venturi vacuum is that it is not strong
enough to open the EGR valve. So to make it work, manifold vacuum is used to operate
the EGR valve through a vacuum amplifier. The vacuum amplifier switches the manifold
vacuum supply to the EGR valve whenever venturi vacuum is applied to its signal port.
At times of large engine loading (wide, open throttle), manifold vacuum will be weak,
producing the desired condition of no exhaust gas recirculation.

An engine coolant temperature switch may be used to prevent exhaust gas recirculation when the
engine is cold. A cold engine does not have extremely high combustion temperatures and does
not produce very much NOx. By blocking vacuum to the EGR valve below 100F, you can
improve the drivability and performance of the cold engine.

FUEL EVAPORIZATION CONTROL SYSTEM

The fuel evaporization control system prevents vapors from the fuel tank and carburetor from
entering the atmosphere (fig. 4-54). Older, pre-emission vehicles used vented fuel tank caps.
Carburetor bowls were also vented to the atmosphere. This caused a considerable amount of
emissions. Modern vehicles commonly use fuel evaporization control systems to prevent this
source of pollution. The major components of the fuel evapotization control systems are the
sealed fuel tank cap, fuel air dome, liquid-vapor separator, roll- over valve, fuel tank vent line,
charcoal canister, carburetor vent line, and the purge line.
 SEALED FUEL TANK CAP is used to keep fuel vapors from entering the atmosphere
through the tank filler neck. It may contain pressure and vacuum valves that open in
extreme cases of pressure or vacuum. When the fuel expands (from warming), tank
pressure forces fuel vapors out a vent line or line at the top of the fuel tank, not out of the
cap.

Figure 4-54. - Fuel evaporization system.

  FUEL AIR DOME is a hump designed into the top of the fuel tank to allow for fuel
expansion. The dome normally provides about 10 percent air space to allow for fuel
heating and volume increase.
 LIQUID-VAPOR SEPARATOR is frequently used to keep liquid fuel from entering the
evaporation control system. It is simply a metal tank located above the main fuel tank.
Liquid fuel condenses on the walls of the separator and then flows back into the fuel tank.
 ROLL-OVER VALVE is sometimes used in the vent line from the fuel tank. It keeps
liquid fuel from entering the vent line after an accident where the vehicle rolled upside
down. The valve contains a metal ball or plunger valve that blocks the vent line when the
valve is turned over.
 FUELTANK VENTLINE carries fuel vapors up to a charcoal canister in the engine
compartment.
 CHARCOAL CANISTER stores fuel vapors when the engine is NOT running. The metal
or plastic canister is filled with activated charcoal granules capable of absorbing fuel
vapors.
 CARBURETOR VENT LINE connects the carburetor fuel bowl with the charcoal
canister. Bowl vapors flow through this line and into the canister.
 PURGE LINE is used for removing or cleaning the stored vapors out of the charcoal
canister. It connects the canister and the engine intake manifold.

Basic operation of a fuel evaporization control system is as follows:

When the engine is running, intake manifold vacuum acts on the purge line, causing fresh air to
flow through the filter at the bottom of the canister. The incoming fresh air picks up the stored
fuel vapors and carries them through the purge line. The vapors enter the intake manifold and are
pulled into the combustion chambers for burning.
When the engine is shut off, engine heat produces excess vapors. These vapors flow through the
carburetor vent line and into the charcoal canister for storage. The vapors that form in the tank
flow through the liquid vapor separator into the tank vent line to the charcoal canister. 'The
charcoal canister absorbs these fuel vapors and holds them until the engine is started again.

REVISION QUESTIONS

Q12. A gasoline engine produces what three major pollutants?

Q13. What material(s) is used in a catalytic converter to act(s) as a catalyst?

Q14. What type of catalytic converter is of a honeycomb design?

Q15. What device is used to prevent exhaust gas recirculation when the engine is cold?
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the different type of diesel fuel systems, how the
components function to provide fuel to the engine in proper quantities, and servicing of the diesel
fuel systems.

Maintenance personnel form part of an important network of dedicated people who ensure that
medium- and heavy-duty trucks and construction equipment are kept in a state of safe and
acceptable performance standards. The diesel fuel injection system is a major component of a
properly operating engine. An engine out of adjustment can cause excessive exhaust smoke, poor
fuel economy, heavy carbon buildup within the combustion chambers, and short engine life.

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the properties of diesel fuel. Describe the function and
operation of governors and fuel system components.

Like the gasoline engine, the diesel engine is an internal combustion engine using either a two-
or four- stroke cycle. Burning or combustion of fuel within the engine cylinders obtains power.
The diesel engine does not use a carburetor because the diesel fuel is mixed in the cylinder with
compressed air.

Compression ratios in the diesel engine range between 14:1 and 19:1. This high ratio causes
increased compression pressures of 400 to 600 psi and cylinder temperature reach 800F to
1200F. At the proper time, the diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder by a fuel injection system,
which usually consists of a pump, fuel line, and injector or nozzle. When the fuel oil enters the
cylinder, it will ignite because of the high temperatures. The diesel engine is known as a
COMPRESSION- IGNITION engine, while the gasoline engine is a SPARK-IGNITION engine.

Figure 5-1 shows the comparison of the four strokes of a four-cycle diesel engine and a four-
cycle gasoline engine.

The speed of a diesel engine is controlled by the amount of fuel injected into the cylinders. In a
gasoline engine, the speed of the engine is controlled by the amount of air admitted into the
carburetor or gasoline fuel injection systems.

Mechanically, the diesel engine is similar to the gasoline engine. The intake, compression,
power, and exhaust strokes occur in the same order. The arrangement of the pistons, connecting
rods, crankshaft, and engine valves is about the same. The diesel engine is also classified as IN-
LINE or V-TYPE.

In comparison to the gasoline engine, the diesel engine produces more power per pound of fuel,
is more reliable, has lower fuel consumption per horsepower per hour, and presents less of a fire
hazard.
These advantages are partially offset by higher initial cost, heavier construction needed for its
high compression pressures, and the difficulty in starting which results from these pressures.

DIESEL FUEL
Diesel fuel is heavier than gasoline because it is obtained from the residue of the crude oil after
the more volatile fuels have been removed. As with gasoline, the efficiency of diesel fuel varies
with the type of engine in which it is used. By distillation, cracking, and blending of several oils,
a suitable diesel fuel can be obtained for all engine operating conditions. Using a poor or
improper grade of fuel can cause hard starting, incomplete combustion, a smoky exhaust, and
engine knocks.

The high injection pressures needed in the diesel fuel system result from close tolerances in the
pumps and injectors. These tolerances make it necessary for the diesel fuel to have sufficient
lubrication qualities to prevent rapid wear or damage. It must also be clean, mix rapidly with the
air, and burn smoothly to produce an even thrust on the piston during combustion.

Diesel Fuel Oil Grades

Diesel fuel is graded and designated by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
while its specific gravity and high and low heat values are listed by the American Petroleum
Institute (API). Each individual oil refiner and supplier attempts to produce diesel fuels that
comply as closely as possible with ASTM and API specifications. Because of different crude oil
supplies, the diesel fuel may be on either the high or low end of the prescribed heat scale in Btu
per pound or per gallon. Because of deterioration of diesel fuel, there are only two recommended
grades of fuel that is considered acceptable for use in high-speed heavy-duty vehicles. These are
the No. 1D or No. 2D fuel oil classification

Grade No. 1D comprises the class of volatile fuel oils from kerosene to the intermediate
distillates. Fuels within this classification are applicable for use in high- speed engines in service
involving frequent and relatively wide variations in loads and speeds. In cold weather conditions,
No. 1D fuel allows the engine to start easily. In summary, for heavy-duty high-speed diesel
vehicles operating in continued cold-weather conditions, No. 1D fuel provides better operation
than the heavier No. 2D.

Grade No. 2D includes the class of distillate oils of lower volatility. They are applicable for use
in high- speed engines in service involving relatively high loads and speeds. This fuel is used
more by truck fleets, due to its greater heat value per gallon, particularly in warm to moderate
climates. Even though No. 1D fuel has better properties for cold weather operations, many still
use No. 2D in the winter, using fuel heater/water separators to provide suitable starting, as well
as fuel additive conditioners, which are added directly into the fuel tank.
Figure 5-1. - Comparison of sequence of events in diesel and gasoline four-cycle engines.

Selecting the correct diesel fuel is a must if the engine is to perform to its rated specifications.
Generally, the seven factors that must be considered in the selection of a fuel oil are as follows:

1. Starting characteristics
2. Fuel handling
3. Wear on injection equipment
4. Wear on pistons
5. Wear on rings, valves, and cylinder liners
6. Engine maintenance
7. Fuel cost and availability

Other considerations in the selection of a fuel oil are as follows:

 Engine size and design

 Speed and load range
 Frequency of load and speed changes
 Atmospheric conditions

Cetane Number ; This is a measure of the fuel oils volatility; the higher the rating, the easier
the engine will start and the combustion process will be smoother within the ratings specified by
the engine manufacturer. Current 1D and 2D diesel fuels have a cetane rating between 40 and 45.

Cetane rating differs from octane rating that is used in gasoline in that the higher the number of
gasoline on the octane scale, the greater the fuel resistance to self- ignition, which is a desirable
property in gasoline engines with a high compression ratio. Using a low octane fuel will cause
pm-ignition in high compression engines. However, the higher the cetane rating, the easier the
fuel will ignite once injected into the diesel combustion chamber. If the cetane number is too
low, you will have difficulty in starting. This can be accompanied by engine knock and puffs of
white smoke during warm-up in cold weather.

High altitudes and low temperatures require the use of diesel fuel with an increased cetane
number. Low temperature starting is enhanced by high cetane fuel oil in the proportion of 1.5F -
lower starting temperature for each cetane number increase in the fuel.

Volatility; Fuel volatility requirements depend on the same factors as cetane number. The
more volatile fuels are best for engines where rapidly changing loads and speeds are
encountered. Low volatile fuels tend to give better fuel economy where their characteristics are
needed for complete combustion and will produce less smoke, odor, deposits, crankcase dilution,
and engine wear.

The volatility of a fuel is established by a distillation test where a given volume of fuel is placed
into a container that is heated gradually. The readiness with which a liquid changes to a vapor is
known as the volatility of the [Link] 90 percent distillation temperature measures volatility of
diesel fuel. This is the temperature at which 90 percent of a sample of the fuel has been distilled
off. The lower the distillation temperature, the higher the volatility of the fuel. In small diesel
engines higher fuel volatility is needed than in larger engines in order to obtain low fuel
consumption, low exhaust temperature, and minimum exhaust smoke.

Viscosity; This is a measure of the resistance to flow of the fuel, and it will decrease as the fuel
oil temperature increases. What this means is that a fluid with a high viscosity is heavier than a
fluid with low viscosity. A high viscosity fuel may cause extreme pressures in the injection
systems and will cause reduced atomization and vaporization of the fuel spray.
The viscosity of diesel fuel must be low enough to flow freely at its lowest operational
temperature, yet high enough to provide lubrication to the moving parts of the finely machined
injectors. The fuel must also be sufficiently viscous so that leakage at the pump plungers and
dribbling at the injectors will not occur. Viscosity also will determine the size of the fuel
droplets, which, in turn, govern the atomization and penetration qualities of the fuel injector
spray.

Recommended fuel oil viscosity for high-speed diesel engines is generally in the region of 39
SSU (Seconds Saybolt Universal) which is derived from using a Saybolt Viscosimeter to
measure the time it takes for a quantity of fuel to flow through a restricted hole in a tube. A
viscosity rating of 39 SSU provides good penetration into the combustion chamber, atomization
of fuel, and suitable lubrication.

Sulfur Content; Sulfur has a definite effect on the wear of the internal components of the
engine, such as piston ring, pistons, valves, and cylinder liners. In addition a high sulfur content
fuel requires that the engine oil and filter be changed more often. This is because the corrosive
effects of hydrogen sulfide in the fuel and the sulfur dioxide or sulfur triioxide that is formed
during the combustion process combines with water vapor to form acids. High additive
lubricating oils are desired when high sulfur fuels are used. Refer to the engine manufacturer's
specifications for the correct lube oil when using high sulfur fuel.

Sulfur content can only be established by chemical analysis of the fuel. Fuel sulfur content above
0.4% is considered as medium or high and anything below 0.4% is low. No. 2D contains
between 0.2 and 0.5% sulfur, whereas No. 1D contains less than 0.1%.

Sulfur content has a direct bearing on the life expectancy of the engine and its components.
Active sulfur in diesel fuel will attack and corrode injection system components in addition to
contributing to combustion chamber and injection system deposits.

Cloud and Pour Point; Cloud point is the temperature at which wax crystals in the fuel
(paraffin base) begin to settle out with the result that the fuel filter becomes clogged. This
condition exists when cold temperatures are encountered and is the reason that a thermostatically
controlled fuel heater is required on vehicles operating in cold weather environments. Failure to
use a fuel heater will prevent fuel from flowing through the filter and the engine will not run.
Cloud point generally occurs 9-14F above the pour point.

Pour point of a fuel determines the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be pumped through
the fuel system. The pour point is 5F above the level at which oil becomes a solid or refuses to
flow.

Cleanliness and Stability; Cleanliness is an important characteristic of diesel fuel. Fuel

should not contain more than a trace of foreign substances; otherwise, fuel pump and injectors
difficulties will develop leading to poor performance or seizure. Because it is heavier and more
viscous, diesel fuel will hold dirt particles in suspension for a longer period than gasoline.
Moisture in the fuel can also damage or cause seizure of injector parts when corrosion occurs.
Fuel stability is its capacity to resist chemical change caused by oxidation and heat. Good
oxidation stability means that the fuel can be stored for extended periods of time without the
formation of gum or sludge. Good thermal stability prevents the formation or carbon in hot parts,
such as fuel injectors or turbine nozzles. Carbon deposits disrupt the spray patterns and cause
inefficient combustion.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN

The fuel injected into the combustion chamber must be mixed thoroughly with the compressed
air and 5-4 distributed as evenly as possible throughout the chamber if the engine is to function
at maximum efficiency and exhibit maximum drivabilty. A well- designed engine uses a
combustion chamber that is designed for the intended usage of the engine. The injects used
should compliment the combustion chamber. The combustion chambers described on the
following pages are the most common and cover irtually all of the designs that are currently in
use. These are the open chamber, precombustion chamber, turbulence chamber, and spherical
(hypercycle) chamber.

Open Combustion Chamber

The open combustion chamber (fig. 5-2) is the simplest

form of chamber. It is suitable for only slow- speed,
four-stroke cycle engines, but is widely used in two-
stroke cycle diesel engines. In the open chamber, the
fuel is injected directly into the space on top of the
cylinder. The combustion space, formed by the top of
the piston and the cylinder head, usually is shaped to
provide s swirling action of the air, as the piston comes
up on the compression stroke. There are no special
pockets, cells, or passages to aid the mixing of the fuel
and air. This type of chamber requires a higher injection
pressure and a greater degree of fuel atomization than is
required by other combustion chambers to obtain an
acceptable level of fuel mixing. To equalize combustion
in the combustion chamber, use a multiple orifice-type
injector tip for effective penetration. This chamber
design is very susceptible to ignition lag.

Figure 5-2. - Open combustion chamber.

Precombustion Chamber

The precombustion chamber (fig. 5-3) is an auxiliary chamber at the top of the cylinder. It is
connected to the main combustion chamber by a restricted throat or passage. The precombustion
chamber conditions the fuel for final combustion in the cylinder. A hollowed-out portion of the
piston top causes turbulence in the main combustion chamber, as the fuel enters from the
precombustion chamber to aid in mixing with air.
The following steps occur during the precombustion process:

Figure 5-3. - Precombustion chamber.

During the compression stroke of the engine, air is forced into the precombustion chamber and,
because the air is compressed, it is hot. At the beginning of injection, the precombustion chamber
contains a definite volume of air.
As the injection begins, combustion begins in the precombustion chamber. The burning of the
fuel, combined with the restricted passage to the main combustion chamber, creates a
tremendous amount of pressure in the combustion chamber. The pressure and the initial
combustion cause a super-heated fuel charge to enter the main combustion chamber at a high
velocity.
The entering mixture hits the hollowed-out piston top, creating turbulence in the chamber to
ensure complete mixing of the fuel charge with the air. This mixing ensures even and complete
combustion. This chamber design provides satisfactory performance with low fuel injection
pressures and coarse spray patterns because a large amount of vaporization occurs in the
precombustion chamber. This chamber also is not very susceptible to ignition lag, making it
suitable for high-speed operations.

Turbulence Chamber
The turbulence chamber (fig. 54) is similar in appearance to the precombustion chamber, but its
function is different. There is very little clearance between the top of the piston and the head, so
a high percentage of the air between the piston and cylinder head is forced into the turbulence
chamber during the compression stroke. The chamber is usually spherical, and the small opening
through which the air must pass causes an increase in air velocity, as it enters the chamber. This
turbulence speed is about 50 times crankshaft speed. The fuel injection is timed to occur when
the turbulence in the chamber is greatest. This ensures a thorough mixing of the fuel and air,
causing the greater part of combustion to take place in the turbulence chamber. The pressure,
created by the expansion of the burning gases, is the force that drives the piston downward on the
power stroke.

Spherical (Hypercycle) Chamber

The spherical (hypercycle) combustion chamber (fig. 5-5) is designed principally for use in the
multifuel diesel engine. The chamber consists of a basic open type chamber with a spherical
shaped relief in the top of the piston head. The chamber works in conjunction with a strategically
positioned injector and an intake port that produces a swirling effect, as it enters the chamber.

Figure 5-4. - Turbulence chamber.

Operation of the chamber is as follows:

1. As the air enters the combustion chamber, the shape of the intake port (fig. 5-5)
introduces a swirling effect to it.
2. During the compression stroke, the swirling motion of the air continues as the
temperature in the chamber increases (fig. 5-5).
3. As the fuel is injected, approximately 95 percent of it is deposited on the head of the
piston and the remainder mixes with the air in the spherical combustion chamber (fig. 5-
5).
4. As combustion begins, the main portion of the fuel is swept off the piston head by the
high- velocity swirl that was created by the intake and the compression strokes. As the
fuel is swept off of the head, it burns through the power stroke, maintaining even
combustion and eliminating detonation (fig. 5-5).
Figure 5-5. - Spherical chamber.
GOVERNORS
A governor is required on a diesel engine to control the idling and maximum speeds of the
engine, with some governors being designed to control the speed within the overall operating
range of the engine. It is possible for the operator to control the engine speed between idle and
maximum through the operation of the throttle. Idle and maximum speeds must be controlled to
prevent the engine from stalling during low-speed idle and to keep the speed from exceeding the
maximum desired limits desired by the manufacturer. The main reason that a diesel requires a
governor is that a diesel engine operates with excess air under all loads and speeds.

Even though it is not part of the fuel system, a governor is directly related to this system since it
functions to regulate speed by the control of fuel or of the air-fuel mixture, depending on the type
of engine. In diesel engines governors are connected in the linkage between the throttle and the
fuel injectors. The governor acts through the fuel injection equipment to regulate the amount of
fuel delivered to the cylinders. As a result the governor holds engine speed reasonably constant
during fluctuations in load.

Before discussing governor types and operations, governor terms should be addressed and
understood since they are commonly used when discussing engine speed regulation.

Terms
To understand why different types of governors are needed for different kinds of job, you will
need to know the meaning of several terms that are used in describing the characteristics of
action of the governor.

Maximum no-load speed or high idle is used to describe the highest engine rpm obtainable when
the throttle linkage is moved to its maximum position with no load applied to the engine.
Maximum full-load speed or rated speed is used to indicate the engine rpm at which a particular
engine will produce its maximum designed horsepower setting as stated by the manufacturer.
Idle or low-idle speed is used to indicate the normal speed at which the engine will rotate with
the throttle linkage in the released or closed position,
Work capacity is used to describe the amount of available work energy that can be produced to
the output shaft of the governor.
Stability refers to the ability of the governor to maintain speed with either constant or varying
loads without hunting.
Speed droop is used to express the difference in the change in the governor rotating speed which
causes the output shaft of the governor to move from its full-open throttle position to its full-
closed position or vice versa.
Hunting is a repeated and sometimes rhythmic variation of speed due to overcontrol by the
governor. Also called speed drift.
Sensitivity is an expression of how quickly the governor responds to a speed change.
Response time is normally the time taken in seconds for the fuel linkage to be moved from a no-
load to a full-load position.
Isochronous is used to indicate zero-droop capability. In others words, the full-load and no- load
speeds are the same.
Overrun is used to express the action of the governor when the engine exceeds its maximum
governed speed. 5-8
Underrun is a simple term to describe the ability of the governor to prevent engine speed from
dropping below a set idle, particularly when the throttle has been moved rapidly to a decreased
fuel setting from maximum full-load position.
Deadband is the change in speed required before the governor will make a corrective movement
of the throttle.
State of balance is used to describe the speed at which the centrifugal force of the rotating
flyweights of the governor matches and balances the spring force of the governor.

Types of Governors
The type of governor used on diesel engines is dependent upon the application required. The six
basic types of governors are as follows:

1. Mechanical centrifugal flyweight style that relies on a set of rotating flyweights and a control
spring; used since the inception of the diesel engine to control its speed.
2. Power-assisted servomechanical style that operates similar to the mechanical centrifugal
flyweight but uses engine oil under pressure to move the operating linkage.
3. Hydraulic governor that relies on the movement of a pilot valve plunger to control pressurized
oil flow to a power piston, which, in turn, moves the fuel control mechanism.
4. Pneumatic governor that is responsive to the air flow (vacuum) in the intake manifold of an
engine. A diaphragm within the governor housing is connected to the fuel control linkage that
changes its setting with increases or decreases in the vacuum.
5. Electromechanical governor uses a magnetic speed pickup sensor on an engine-driven
component to monitor the rpm of the engine. The sensor sends a voltage signal to an electronic
control unit that controls the current flow to a mechanical actuator connected to the fuel linkage.
6. Electronic governor uses magnetic speed sensor to monitor the rpm of the engine. The sensor
continuously feeds information back to the ECM (electronic control module). The ECM then
computes all the information sent from all other engine sensors, such as the throttle position
sensor, turbocharger-boost sensor, engine oil pressure and temperature sensor, engine coolant
sensor, and fuel temperature to limit engine speed.

The governors, used on heavy-duty truck applications and construction equipment, fall into one
of two basic categories:

1. Limiting-speed governors, sometimes referred to as minimum/maximum models since they

are intended to control the idle and maximum speed settings of the engine. Normally there is no
governor control in the intermediate range, being regulated by the position of the throttle linkage.
2. Variable-speed or all range governors that are designed to control the speed of the engine
regardless of the throttle setting.

Other types of governors used on diesel engines are as follows:

1. Constant-speed, intended to maintain the engine at a single speed from no load to full load.
2. Load limiting, to limit the load applied to the engine at any given speed. Prevents overloading
the engine at whatever speed it may be running.
3. Load-control, used for adjusting to the amount of load applied at the engine to suit the speed at
which it is set to run.
4. Pressure regulating, used on an engine driving a pump to maintain a constant inlet or outlet
pressure on the pump.

At this time on heavy-duty truck and construction equipment applications, straight mechanically
designed units dominate the governor used on nonelectronic fuel injection systems.

Mechanical Governors
In most governors installed on diesel engines used by the Navy, the centrifugal force of rotating
weights (flyballs) and the tensions of a helical coil spring (or springs) are used in governor
operation. On this basis, most of the governors used on diesel engines are generally called
mechanical centrifugal flyweight governors.

In mechanical centrifugal flyweight governors (fig. 5-6), two forces oppose each other. One of
these forces is tension spring (or springs) which may be varied either by an adjusting device or
by movement of the manual throttle. The engine produces the other force. Weights, attached to
the governor drive shaft, are rotated, and a centrifugal force is created when the engine drives the
shaft. The centrifugal force varies with the speed of the engine.

Transmitted to the fuel system through a connecting linkage, the tension of the spring (or
springs) tends to increase the amount of fuel delivered to the cylinders. On the other hand, the
centrifugal force of the rotating weights, through connecting linkage, tends to reduce the quantity
of fuel injected. When the two opposing forces are equal, or balanced, the speed of the engine
remains constant

To show how the governor works when the load increases and decreases, let us assume you are
driving a truck in hilly terrain. When a truck approaches a hill at a steady engine speed, the
vehicle is moving from a set state of balance in the governor assembly (weights and springs are
equal) with a fixed throttle setting to an unstable condition. As the vehicle starts to move up the
hill at a fixed speed, the increased load demands result in a reduction in engine speed. This
upsets the state of balance that had existed in the governor. The reduced rotational speed at the
engine results in a reduction in speed, and, therefore, the centrifugal force of the governor
weights. When the state of balance is upset, the high-speed governor spring is allowed to expand,
giving up some of its stored energy, which moves the connecting fuel linkage to an increased
delivery position. This additional fuel delivered to the combustion chambers would result in an
increase in horsepower, but not necessarily an increase in engine speed.
Figure 5-6. - Mechanical (centrifugal) governor.

When the truck moves into a downhill situation, the operator is forced to back off the throttle to
reduce the speed of the vehicle; otherwise, the brakes or engine/transmission retarder has to be
applied. The operator can also downshift the transmission to obtain additional braking power.
However, when the operator does not reduce the throttle position or brake the vehicle mass in
some way, an increase in road speed results. This is due to the reduction in engine load because
of the additional reduction in vehicle resistance achieved through the mass weight of the vehicle
and its load pushing the truck downhill. This action causes the governor weights to increase in
speed, and they attempt to compress the high-speed spring, thereby reducing the fuel delivery to
the engine. Engine overspeed can result if the road wheels of the vehicle are allowed to rotate
fast enough that they, in effect, become the driving member.
The governor assembly would continue to reduce fuel supply to the engine due to increased
speed of the engine. If overspeed does occur, the valves can end up floating (valve springs are
unable to pull and keep the valves closed) and striking the piston crown. Therefore, it is
necessary in a downhill run for the operator to ensure that the engine speed does not exceed
maximum governed rpm by application of the vehicle, engine, or transmission forces.

Favorable, as well as unfavorable, characteristics are to be found in mechanical governors.

Advantages are as follows:

 They are inexpensive.

 They are satisfactory when it is not necessary to maintain exactly the same speed,
regardless of load.
 They are extremely simple with few parts.

Disadvantages are as follows:

 They have large deadbands, since the speed- measuring device must also furnish the force
to move the engine fuel control.
 Their power is relatively small unless they are excessively large.
 They have an unavoidable speed droop, and therefore cannot truly provide constant speed
when this is needed.

Hydraulic Governors
Although hydraulic governors have more moving parts and are generally more expensive than
mechanical governors, they are used in many applications because they are more sensitive, have
greater power to move the fuel control mechanism of the engine, and can be timed for identical
speed for all loads.

In hydraulic governors (fig. 5-7), the power which moves the engine throttle does NOT come
from the speed-measuring device, but instead comes from a hydraulic power piston, or
servomotor. This is a piston that is acted upon by fluid pressure, generally oil under the pressure
of a pump. By using appropriate piston size and oil pressure, the power of the governor at its
output shaft (work capacity) can be made sufficient to operate the fuel-changing mechanism of
the largest engines.

The speed-measuring device, through its speeder rod, is attached to a small cylindrical valve,
called a pilot valve. The pilot valve slides up and down in a bushing, which contains ports that
control the oil, flow to and from the servomotor. The force needed to slide the pilot valve is very
little; a small ball head is able to control a large amount of power at the servomotor.

The basic principle of a hydraulic governor (fig. 5-7) is very simple. When the governor is
operating at control speed or state of balance, the pilot valve closes the port and there is no oil
flow.
When the governor speed falls due to an
increase in engine load, the flyweights move in
and the pilot valve moves down. This opens the
port to the power piston and connects the oil
supply of oil under pressure. This oil pressure
acts on the power piston, forcing it upward to
increase the fuel.

When the governor speed rises due to a decrease

of engine load, the flyweights move out and the
pilot valve moves up. This opens the port from
the power piston to the drain into the sump. The
spring above the power piston forces the power
piston down, thus decreasing the speed.

Figure 5-7. - Hydraulic governor.

Unfortunately, the simple hydraulic governor has a serious defect, which prevents its practical
use. It is inherently unstable; that is, it keeps moving continually, making unnecessary corrective
actions. In other words it hunts. The cause of this hunting is the unavoidable time lag between
the moment the governor acts and the moment the engine responds. The engine cannot come
back to the speed called for by the governor.

Most hydraulic governors use a speed droop to obtain stability. Speed droop gives stability
because the engine throttle can take only one position for any speed. Therefore, when a load
change causes a speed change, the resulting governor action ceases at a particular point that gives
the amount of fuel needed for a new load. In this way speed droop prevents unnecessary
governor movement and overcorrection (hunting).

Electronic Governors

The recent introduction of electronically controlled diesel fuel injection system on several heavy-
duty high-speed truck engines has allowed the speed of the diesel engine to be controlled
electronically, rather than mechanically. The same type of balance condition in a mechanical
governor occurs in an electronic governor. The major difference is that in the electronic
governor, electric currents (amperes) and voltages (pressure) are used together instead of
mechanical weight and spring forces. This is possible through the use of magnetic pickup sensor
(MPS), which is, in effect, a permanent-magnet single-pole device. This magnetic pickup
concept is being used on all existing electronic systems and its operation can be considered
common to all of them. MPS's are a vital communications link between the engine crankshaft
speed and the onboard computer (ECM). The MPS is installed next to a drive shaft gear made of
a material that reacts to a magnetic field. As each gear tooth passes the MPS, the gear interrupts
the MPS's magnetic field. This, in turn, produces an ac current signal, which corresponds to the
rpm of the engine. This signal is sent to the ECM to establish the amount of fuel that should be
injected into the combustion chambers of the engine.
Electronic speed governing systems are set up to provide six basic governing modes:

1. Idle speed control

2. Maximum speed control
3. Power takeoff speed control
4. Vehicle speed cruise control
5. Engine speed cruise control
6. Road speed limiting

Each of the control modes above is described in more detail below.

1. The idle speed control provides fixed speed control over the entire torque capability of
the engine. Also, the idle speed set point is calculated as a function of the engine
temperature to provide an optional cold idle speed, which is usually several hundred rpm
higher than normal operating temperature.
2. The engine maximum rpm setting can be programmed for different settings. This can
improve fuel economy by eliminating engine overspeed in all gear ranges.
3. The power takeoff speed control setting can operate at any speed between idle and
maximum. The operator uses rotary control or a toggle switch in the cab to vary
electronically the engine power to the PTO from idle to the preset rpm.
4. Vehicle and engine cruise control includes set, resume, and coast features similar to that
of a passenger car, as well as an accelerate (ACCEL) mode to provide a fixed speed
increase each time the control switch is activated.
5. The road speed limiting function allows the organization assigned to determine what
maximum vehicle road speed they desire independent of the maximum governed speed
setting of the engine. Road speed governing provides the best method for ensuring ideal
fuel economy.

The major advantage of the electronic governor over the mechanical governor lies in its ability to
modify speed reference easily by various means to control such things as acceleration and
deceleration, as well as load.

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Before discussing the various types of fuel injection systems, let's spend some time looking at
the basic components that are necessary to hold, supply, and filter the fuel before it passes to the
actual injection system. The basic function of the fuel system is to provide a reservoir of diesel
fuel, to provide sufficient circulation of clean filtered fuel for lubrication, cooling and
combustion purposes, and to allow warm fuel from the engine to recirculate back to the tank(s).
The specific layout and arrangement of the diesel fuel system will vary slightly between makes
and models.

The basic fuel system consists of the fuel tank(s) and a fuel transfer pump (supply) that can be a
separate engine-driven pump or can be mounted on or inside the injection pump. In addition, the
system uses two fuel filters - a primary and secondary filter - to remove impurities from the fuel.
In some system you will have a fuel filter/water separator that contains an internal filter and
water trap.

Tank and Cap

Fuel tanks used today can be constructed from black sheet steel, or for lighter weight, aluminum
alloy is used. Baffles are welded into the tanks during construction. The baffle plates are
designed with holes in them to prevent the fuel from sloshing during the movement of the
vehicle. The fuel lines (inlet and return) should be separated by a baffle in the tank to prevent
warm return fuel from being sucked right back up by the fuel inlet line. Both the inlet and return
lines should be kept 2 inches above the bottom of the tank, so sediment or water is not drawn
into the inlet.

A well-designed tank will contain a drain plug in the base to allow for fuel tank drainage. This
allows the fuel to be drained from the tank before removal for any service. Many tanks are
equipped with a small low- mounted catchment basin so that any water in the tank can be quickly
drained through a drain cock, which is surrounded by a protective cage to prevent damage. The
fuel tank filler cap is constructed with both a pressure relief valve and a vent valve. The vent
valve is designed to seal when fuel enters it due to overfilling, vehicle operating angle, or sudden
jolt that would cause fuel slosh within the tank. Although some fuel will tend to seep from the
vent cap, this leakage should not exceed 1 ounce per minute.

The diesel fuel tank is mounted directly on the chassis of construction equipment because of its
weight (when filled) and to prevent movement of the tank when the equipment is operated over
rough terrain. Its location depends on the type of equipment and the use of the equipment. On
equipment used for ground clearing and earthwork, the tank is mounted where it has less chance
of being damaged by foreign objects or striking the ground.

Gauges

The electric gauges used in the diesel fuel system are the same types as used in the gasoline fuel
system. Some manufacturers use a bayonet type gauge permanently attached to the filler cap of
the fuel tank or installed under the fuel cap. These are graduated and the fuel level is checked by
the same method as oil in an engine.

Fuel Filters
The purpose of any diesel fuel filter is mainly to remove foreign particles as well as water. The
use of a suitable filtration system on diesel engines is a must to avoid damage to closely fitted
injection pump and injector components. The components are manufactured to tolerances as little
as 0.0025 mm; therefore, insufficient fuel filtration can cause serious problems. Six principal
filter elements have been used for many years:

1. Pleated paper
2. Packed cotton thread
3. Wood fibers
4. Mixtures of packed cotton and wood fibers
5. Wound cotton or synthetic yarn
6. Fiber glass

Filter ability will vary between the type and manufacturer. On diesel engines a primary and
secondary filter are used. The primary filter is capable of removing dirt particles down to 30
microns and the secondary filter between 10 to 12 microns. Secondary filters are available
between 3 and 5 microns, which are used in severe service operations. The primary is usually
located between the tank and the supply pump and
the secondary filter between the supply pump and the
injection pump. Diesel fuel filters are referred to as
full-flow filters, because all the fuel must pass
through them before reaching the injection pumps.

Some filters use an internal replaceable element

inside a bowl or shell; these are commonly referred
to as a shell and element design (fig. 5-8). However,
most filters used today are of the spin-on type, which
allows for faster change out since the complete filter
is a throwaway. Fuel filter elements or cartridges
should be replaced at the recommended interval
designated by the manufacturer's service manual.

NOTE
Should the engine run rough after a fuel filter change,
it is likely that air is trapped in the system. Bleed all
air from the filter by loosening the bleed screw. In
the absence of a bleed screw, individually loosen the
fuel lines until all air has been vented.

Fig 5-8. - Fuel filter assembly with replaceable element.

Water Separators

The purpose of a fuel filter is mainly to remove foreign particles as well as water. However, too
much water in a fuel filter will render it incapable of protecting the system. So to ensure this
does not happen, most diesel engine fuel systems are now equipped with fuel filter/water
separators for the main purpose of trapping and holding water that may be mixed in with the fuel.
Generally, when a fuel filter/water separator is used on a diesel engine, it also serves as the
primary filter.

There are a number of manufacturers who produce fuel filter/water separators with their concept
of operation being common and only design variations being the major difference. Basic
operation is as follows:
The first stage of the fuel filter/water separator uses a pleated paper element to change water
particles into large enough droplets that will fall by gravity to a water sump at the bottom of the
filter.
The second stage is made of silicone-treated nylon that acts as a safety device to prevent small
particles of water that avoid the first stage from passing into the engine.

Supply Pump
Fuel injection pumps must be supplied with fuel under pressure because they have insufficient
suction ability. All diesel injection systems require a supply pump to transfer fuel from the
supply tank through the filters and lines to the injection pump. Supply pumps can be either
external or internal to the injection pump. The two types of supply pumps used on diesel engines
today are the gear type and the vane type.

The remaining task to be accomplished by the fuel system is to provide the proper quantity of
fuel to the cylinders of the engine. This is done differently by each manufacturer and is referred
to as FUEL INJECTION.

Q1. What grade of diesel fuel is used in warm and moderate climates?

Q2. What determines the lowest temperature at which diesel fuel can be pumped through the
system?

Q3. What is the most important characteristic of diesel fuel?

Q4. What combustion chamber is designed principally for the use in the multifuel engine?

Q5. What term is used to indicate the zero-droop capability of a governor?

Q6. What type of governor uses a magnetic speed pickup to monitor the rpm of the engine?

Q7. What component in a hydraulic governor provides power to move the throttle of the engine?

Q8. How many governing modes does the electronic speed governing system provide?

Q9. How far should the inlet and outlet lines be from the bottom of a fuel tank?

METHODS OF INJECTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the principles and operation of the different diesel fuel
systems.

You have probably heard the statement that "the fuel injection system is the actual heart of the
diesel engine." When you consider that indeed a diesel could not be developed until an adequate
fuel injection system was designed and produced, this statement takes on a much broader and
stronger meaning.

In this section, various methods of mechanical injections and metering control are described.
There have been many important developments in pumps, nozzles, and unit injectors for diesel
engines over the years with the latest injection system today relying on electronic controls and
sensors.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

Diesel fuel injection systems must accomplish five particular functions-meter, inject, time,
atomize, and create pressure. A description of these functions follows:

1. METER - Accurately measure the amount of fuel to be injected.

2. INJECT - Force and distribute the fuel into the combustion chamber.
3. TIME - Injection of the fuel must start and stop at the proper time.
4. ATOMIZE - Break the fuel up into a fine mist.
5. CREATE PRESSURE - Create the necessary high pressure for injection.

You can remember these functions by the initials, MITAC. All five of these functions are
necessary for complete and efficient combustion

Metering

Accurate metering or measuring of the fuel means that, for the same fuel control setting, the
same quantity of fuel must be delivered to each cylinder for each power stroke of the engine.
Only in this way can the engine operate at uniform speed with uniform power output. Smooth
engine operation and an even distribution of the load between the cylinders depend upon the
same volume of fuel being admitted to a particular cylinder each time it fires and upon equal
volumes of fuel being delivered to all cylinders of the engine.

Injection Control
A fuel system must also control the rate of injection. The rate at which fuel is injected determines
the rate of combustion. The rate of injection at the start should be low enough that excessive fuel
does not accumulate in the cylinder during the initial ignition delay (before combustion begins).
Injection should proceed at such a rate that the rise in combustion pressure is not to great, yet the
rate of injection must be such that fuel is introduced as rapidly as possible to obtain complete
combustion. An incorrect rate of injection affects engine operation in the same way as improper
timing. When the rate of injection is too high, the results are similar to those caused by an
injection that is too early; when the rate is too low, the results are similar to those caused by an
injection that is too late.

Timing In addition to measuring the amount of fuel injected, the system must properly time
injection to ensure efficient combustion so that maximum energy can be obtained from the fuel.
When the fuel is injected too early in the cycle, ignition may be delayed because the temperature
of the air, at this point, is not high enough. An excessive delay, on the other hand, gives rough
and noisy operation of the engine. It also permits some fuel to be lost due to the wetting of the
cylinder walls and piston head. This, in turn, results in poor fuel economy, high exhaust gas
temperature, and smoke in the exhaust. When fuel is injected too late in the cycle, all the fuel
will not be burned until the piston has traveled well past top center. When this happens, the
engine does not develop enough power, the exhaust is smoky, and fuel consumption is high.

Atomization of Fuel
As used in connection with fuel injection, atomization means the breaking up of the fuel, as it
enters the cylinder into small particles, which form a mistlike spray. Atomization of the fuel
must meet the requirements of the type of combustion chamber in use. Some chambers require
very fine atomization; while 5-15 others function with coarser atomization. Properly atomization
makes it easier to start the burning process and ensures that each minute particle of fuel is
surrounded by particles of oxygen with which it can combine.

Atomization is generally obtained when liquid fuel, under high pressure, passes through the
small opening (or openings) in the injector or nozzle. As the fuel enters the combustion space,
high velocity is developed because the pressure in the cylinder is lower than the fuel pressure.
The created friction, resulting from the fuel passing through the air at high velocity, causes the
fuel to break up into small particles.

Creating Pressure

A fuel injection system must increase the pressure of the fuel to overcome compression pressure
and to ensure proper dispersion of the fuel injected into the combustion space. Proper dispersion
is essential if the fuel is to mix thoroughly with the air and burn efficiently. While pressure is a
chief contributing factor, the dispersion of the fuel is influenced, in part, by atomization and
penetration of the fuel. (Penetration is the distance through which the fuel particles are carried by
the motion given them, as they leave the injector or nozzle.)

If the atomization process reduces the size of the fuel particles too much, they will lack
penetration. Too little penetration results in the small particles of fuel igniting before they have
been properly distributed or dispersed in the combustion space. Since penetration and
atomization tend to oppose each other, a compromise in the degree of each is necessary in the
design of the fuel injection equipment, particularly if uniform distribution of fuel within the
combustion chamber is to be obtained.

CATERPILLAR FUEL SYSTEMS

The Caterpillar diesel engine uses the pump and nozzle injection system. Each pump measures
the amount of fuel to be injected into a particular cylinder, produces the pressure for injection of
the fuel, and times the exact point of injection. The injection pump plunger is lifted by cam
action and returned by spring action. The turning of the plungers in the barrels varies the
metering of fuel. These plungers are turned by governor action through a rack that meshes with
the gear segments on the bottom of the pump plungers. Each pump is interchangeable with other
injection pumps mounted on the pump housing.

The sleeve metering and scroll-type pumps that are used by Caterpillar operate on the same
fundamentals - a jerk pump system (where one small pump contained in its own housing
supplied fuel to one cylinder). Individual "jerk" pumps, that are contained in a single injection
pump housing with the same number of pumping plungers being the same as that of the engine
cylinders, are commonly referred to as in- line multiple-plunger pumps.

Sleeve Metering Fuel System

The sleeve metering fuel system (fig. 5-9) was designed to have the following seven advantages:

1. Reverse flow check valve

2. Chamber

3. Barrel

4. Spring

5. Fuel inlet

6. Retainer

7. Plunger

8. Sleeve

9. Fuel outlet

10. Sleeve control lever

11. Lifter

12. Camshaft

Figure 5-9. - Sleeve metering fuel pump assembly.

1. To have fewer moving parts and fewer total parts.

2. Simple design with compactness.

3. It can use a simple mechanical governor. No hydraulic assist required.

4. The injection pump housing is filled with fuel oil, rather than crankcase oil for lubrication of
all internal parts.

5. The plunger, barrel, and sleeve design used in all Caterpillar sleeve metering units follows a
common style.

6. The transfer pump, governor, and injection pump are mounted in one unit.

7. Uses a centrifugal timing advance for better fuel economy and easier starts.

The term sleeve metering comes from the method used to meter the amount of fuel sent to the
cylinders - a sleeve system (fig. 5-10). Rather than rotate the plungers to control the amount of
fuel to be injected, like most pump and nozzle injection systems, the use of a sleeve is
incorporated with the plunger. The sleeve blocks a spill port that is drilled into the plunger.

1. Barrel

2. Plunger

3. Fill port

4. Spill port

5. Metering sleeve

Figure 5-10. - Sleeve metering barrel and plunger assembly.

The amount of plunger travel with its port blocked determines the amount of fuel to be injected.
Basic operation is as follows:

 Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by the transfer pump through the fuel/water separator
and the primary and secondary filters.
 Fuel from the transfer pump fills the injection pump housing at approximately 30 to 35
psi with the engine operating under full load. Any pressure in excess of this will be
directed back to the inlet side of the transfer pump by the bypass valve. A constant-bleed
valve is also used to allow a continuous return of fuel back to the tank at a rate of
approximately 9 gallons per hour, so the temperature of the fuel stays cool for lubrication
purposes and assist in maintaining housing pressure.
 Since the injection pump is constantly filled with diesel from the transfer pump under
pressure, any time the fill port is uncovered, the internal drilling of the plunger will be
primed by the incoming fuel caused by the downward moving plunger relative to pump
camshaft rotation (fig. 5-11).
 At the correct moment, the rotation of the pump cam lobe begins to force the plunger
upward until the fill port is closed, as it passes into the barrel. At the same time the sleeve
 closes the spill port. The pump, line, and fuel valves are subjected to a buildup in fuel
pressure and injection will begin (fig. 5-11).

Figure 5-11. - Injection pump operating cycle.

Injection of the fuel will continue as long as both the fill port and spill ports are completely cover
by the barrel and sleeve (fig. 5-11).
Injection ends the moment that the spill port starts to edge above the sleeve, releasing the
pressure in the plunger and letting fuel escape from the pump back into the housing. Also, at the
end of the stroke, the check valve closes to prevent the fuel from flowing back from the injector
fuel line (fig. 5-11).

To increase the amount of fuel injected, raise the sleeve through the control shaft and fork so that
the sleeve is effectively positioned higher up on the plunger. This means that the spill port will
be closed for a longer period of time, as the cam lobe is raising the plunger. Increasing the
effective stroke of the plunger (time that both ports are closed) will increase the amount of fuel
delivered.

NOTE
For procedures on removing, replacing, and servicing the injection pumps in a sleeve metering
fuel system, refer to the manufacturer's service manual. 5-18

GOVERNOR ACTION. - The governor on a Caterpillar sleeve metering fuel system is a

mechanical governor and acts throughout the entire speed range of the engine. The majority of
the sleeve metering fuel system uses three springs-a low-idle (inner) spring, a high-idle (outer)
spring, and a dashpot spring. When the operator requires more power from the engine, he/she
steps on the throttle. This causes the governor control lever to apply pressure that compresses the
governor spring and to transfer this motion to the thrust collar. Since governor action from the
spring and weight motion is of the back and forth variety, an additional linkage between the
injection pumps and the governor transforms this sliding horizontal governor movement from the
thrust collar into a rolling motion at the sleeve control shaft. A simple connecting lever
commonly known as a bell crank lever accomplishes this action.

The bell crank lever contacts the thrust collar on one end and the governor sleeve control shaft
on the other end. The bell crank pivots on a fixed vertical bell crankshaft to gain mechanical
advantage through the lever principle. At the sleeve shaft end, it rides in a ball- and-socket joint
that holds it in place and minimizes linkage movement. Therefore, any horizontal movement at
the governor weight shaft and spring will cause an equally precise movement at the ball-and-
socket joint, leading to reposition of the sleeves. If, in this case, the operator has increased the
throttle position, the sleeves would be lifted, thereby covering the spill port for a longer overall
effective plunger stroke.

As with any mechanical governor, an increase in either the throttle position or load will cause a
speed change to the engine. Spring pressure is always trying to increase the fuel delivered to the
engine, while centrifugal force of the rotating weights is always trying to decrease the amount of
fuel going to the engine. Somewhere within the throttle range, however, a state of balance
between these two opposing forces will exist as long as the engine speed is capable of
overcoming the load placed on it to keep the spring and weight force in a state of balance.

When the engine is stopped, the action of the governor spring force places the thrust collar and
the sleeve control shaft to the full-fuel position; therefore, easier starting is accomplished Once
the operator cranks and starts the engine, centrifugal force will cause the flyweights to move
outward, which now opposes the spring force, and the thrust collar and spring seat will come
together, as they are pushed to a decreased fuel position. When the force of the weights equals
the preset force of the spring established by the idle adjusting screw, these forces will be in a
state of balance, and the engine will run at a steady idle speed with the throttle at a normal idle
position.

Governor action will operate from idle throughout the speed range of the engine. A load stop pin
controls the maximum speed of the engine. Rotation of the throttle lever causes the load stop
lever to lift the load stop pin until it comes in contact with the stop bar or screw, thereby limiting
any more fuel to the engine.

The purpose of the dashpot governor spring is to prevent any surging or irregular speed
regulation of the engine by the fact that the piston either pulls fuel into or pushes fuel out of its
cylinder through an orifice. The dashpot governor spring force varies with the piston movement,
and as the engine load is increased or decreased, fuel is drawn into the piston cylinder through
the orifice. This action gives the effect of a high governor spring rate that minimizes speed
variations through oscillation during load changes of the engine. At any time the ignition switch
is turned off or the governor speed control lever is moved to the OFF position, the sleeve levers
move the sleeves down, cutting off fuel to the cylinders.

NOTE

Any and all adjustments to the governor and governor controls should be made according to the
manufacturer's manual and specifications.
AUTOMATIC TIMING ADVANCE UNIT. - All current Caterpillar engines use some form of
automatic timing for the fuel injection pump. On sleeve metering injection systems, this advance
is mounted on the front end of the camshaft of the engine. The gear of the automatic advance
unit meshes with and drives the fuel injection pump camshaft. The principal parts of the advance
unit are the slides, the springs, and the weights. Operation of the automatic advance-timing unit
is as follows:

The slides are located and driven by two dowels, attached to the engine camshaft gear. The
slides, in turn, fit into notches within the weights, thereby transferring their drive from the engine
camshaft gear to the weights.
With the engine running, centrifugal force exerted by the rotating weight assemblies cause them
to act against the force of the springs.
Since the weights are designed with notches in them, as they move outward under centrifugal
force, they cause the slides to effect a change in the angle between the timing advance gear and
the two drive dowels of the engine camshaft.
This relative movement of the timing advance unit gear will, therefore, automatically advance or
retard the timing of the fuel injection pump in relation to the engine speed and load.

However, built into the advance unit is a maximum timing variation of 5 degrees with the timing
change starting at approximately low idle rpm and continuing on up to the rated speed of the
engine; therefore, you cannot adjust the automatic timing advance unit. The timing unit is
lubricated by engine oil under pressure from drilled holes at the engine camshaft front bearing.

Scroll Metering Fuel System

The scroll metering fuel system is similar to the sleeve metering fuel system in that it uses a
plunger and barrel to create high pressure for injection. This system was designed to create
higher injection pressure on direct-injection engines, offering an approximate 10 percent fuel
economy improvement over precombustion-type engines, along with the ability to meet long-
term EPA exhaust emissions regulations and better overall engine performance, as well as the
ability to provide greater part commonality between different series engines.

In a scroll system two helix cut ports are used - the bypass closed port and the spill port Fuel is
supplied from the transfer pump to an internal fuel manifold in the injection pump housing at
approximately 35 psi. When the pump plunger is at the bottom of its stroke, fuel at transfer pump
pressure flows around the pump barrel and to both the bypass closed port and spill port, which
are both open at this time to allow fuel to flow into the barrel area above the plunger. The pump
plunger is moved up and down by the action of a roller lifter, riding on the injection pump
camshaft, which rotates at one-half of engine speed. As the injection pump camshaft rotates and
the plungers rises, some fuel will be pushed back out of the bypass closed port until the top of the
plunger eventually closes both the bypass closed port and the spill port. Further plunger
movement will cause an increase in the trapped fuel pressure, and at approximately 100 psi, a
check valve will open and fuel will flow into the injection line to the injection nozzle.

The fuel pressure of 100 psi is not enough to open the injection nozzle, which has an opening
pressure of between 1,200 and 2,350 psi for a 3300 series engine and between 2,400 and 3,100
psi on 3406 engines. However, as the plunger continues to move up in its barrel, this fuel
pressure is reached very quickly.

A high-pressure bleed-back passage and groove machined around the barrel are in alignment
during the effective stroke to bleed off any fuel that leaks between the plunger and the barrel for
lubrication purposes.

When the upward moving plunger uncovers the spill port, injection ceases, and although the
plunger can still travel up some more, this is simply to allow most of the warm fuel (due to being
pressurized) to spill back into the manifold. As the plunger moves downward in the barrel, it will
once again uncover the bypass closed port and cool fuel will fill the area above the plunger for
the next injection. When the spill port is opened,pressure inside the barrel is released and the
check valve is seated by its spring.

Within the check valve assembly is a reverse flow check valve that opens when fuel pressure in
the injection line remains above 1,000 psi and closes as soon as the fuel pressure drops to 1,000
psi. This will keep the fuel lines filled with fuel at 1,000 psi and ready for the next injection. This
provides for a consistent and smooth engine power curve.

TRANSFER PUMP. - With the introduction of the scroll metering fuel system, the gear-type fuel
transfer pump that had been used for years by Caterpillar was superseded by the use of a piston-
type transfer pump. Current scroll metering fuel systems use a single-piston, double-acting pump
with three one-way check valves.

The transfer pump is bolted to the low side of the injection pump housing. It is capable of
delivering up to 51 gallons of fuel per hour at 25 psi. There is no need for a relief valve in this
transfer pump due to the fact that maximum pressure is controlled automatically by the force of
the piston return spring.

The transfer pump is activated by an eccentric (a device that converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion) on the injection pump camshaft, causing the pushrod to move in and out,
as the engine is running. This action causes the piston to move down against the force of the
piston return spring inside the transfer pump housing. The downward movement of the piston
will cause the inlet check valve and the outlet check valve to close, while allowing the pumping
check valve to open to allow fuel below the piston to flow into the area immediately above the
downward piston.

As the injection pump camshaft eccentric rotates around to its low point, the transfer pump
spring pushes the piston up inside its bore, causing the pumping check valve to close, and both
the out and inlet valves are forced open. Fuel above the piston will be forced through the outlet
check valve and the pump outlet port at approximately 35 psi. As this occurs, fuel will also flow
through the pump inlet port and the inlet check valve to fill the area below the piston and the
pump will repeat the cycle.

GOVERNOR. - The governor assembly used with the scroll metering fuel system is a hydra-
mechanical servo-type unit. The reason for using a servo-valve is to provide a "boost" to the
governor. Without the servo-valve, both the governor spring and flyweights would have to be
very large and heavy. With the use of the servo assist, little force is required to move both the
accelerator and the governor control lever. Basically, the governor assembly consists of three
separate components:

1. The mechanical components of the governor, such as the weights, springs, and linkage.
2. The governor servo that provides hydraulic assistance through the use of pressurized engine
oil to provide rapid throttle response and to reduce overall size requirement of the flyweights and
springs.
3. The dashpot assembly that is designed to provide stability to the governor during rapid
load/throttle changes.

FUEL INJECTOR NOZZLE. - The fuel injector nozzle, used with the scroll metering fuel
system, is a multiple-hole design, inward-opening, non-leakoff type. There are minor changes
between the earlier nozzles and current models. Older nozzles are identified by the use of a
color-coded black or blue washer, while the newer ones use a copper washer.

The nozzle is a multiple-hole design since it is used in direct injection engines only. The number
and size of the holes will vary between different series of engines. For example, the 3306 engine
nozzle uses a nine-hole tip, while the nozzle in the 3406 uses a six-hole tip. These different
nozzles cannot be intermixed in the same engine or switched from one series engine to another.

The nozzle is designed for injection pressures of 15,000 psi and short injection duration to
prevent a loss in fuel economy due to stringent EPA emission requirements. The nozzle
incorporates a carbon dam on the lower end of the pencil part of the body and a seal washer on
the upper end. The carbon dam prevents carbon blow-by into the nozzle bore in the cylinder
head, while the upper seal prevents compression leakage from the cylinder.

Injector nozzle operation is as follows:

 The nozzle receives high-pressure fuel from the fuel pump through the inlet passage and
filter screen and into the fuel passage.
 When fuel pressure is high enough, the injector valve is lifted against the force of the
return spring and fuel is injected through the multiple holes in the spray tip. This causes
an increase in fuel pressure and the fuel to be finely atomized spray for penetration of the
compressed air in the combustion chamber.
 When fuel pressure drops below injection pressure, the return spring closes the fuel
valve.
NOTE For information on the removal and repair of the fuel injector nozzle, consult the
manufacturer's service manual.

DISTRIBUTOR-TYPE FUEL SYSTEMS

The distributor-type fuel system is found on small- to medium-sized diesel engines. Its operation
is similar to an ignition distributor found on gasoline engine. A rotating member, called a rotor,
within the pump distributes fuel at high pressure to the individual injectors in engine firing-order
sequence.

There are several manufacturers of distributor-type fuel injection systems. Operation of the fuel
distribution is similar, in that a central rotating member forms the pumping and the distributing
rotor is driven from the main drive shaft on which the governor is mounted.

The distributor-type fuel system that will be discussed is the DB2 Roosa Master diesel fuel-
injection pump, manufactured by Stanadyne's Hartford Division.

Injection Pump
The Roosa Master fuel injection pump is described as an opposed plunger, inlet metering,
distributor-type pump. Simplicity, the prime advantage of this design, contributes to greater ease
of service, low maintenance cost, and greater dependability. Before describing the injection
pump components and operation, let's familiarize ourselves with the model numbering system.
For example, model number DB2833JN3000 breaks down like this:

D - Pump series
B - Rotor
2 - Generation
8 - Number of cylinders
33 - Abbreviation of plunger diameter; 33, 0.330 in.
JN - Accessory code that relates to special pump options
3000 - Specification number

Figure 5-12. - Drive shaft.

NOTE For information on the accessory code and the specification number for a particular
pump, always refer to the manufacturer's service manual.

The main components of the DB2 fuel injection pump are the drive shaft, distributor rotor,
transfer pump, pumping plungers, internal cam ring, hydraulic head, end plate, governor, and
housing assembly with an integral advance mechanism. The rotating members that revolve on a
common axis include the drive shaft, distributor rotor, and transfer pump.
DRIVE SHAFT (fig. 5-12) - The drive shaft is
the driving member that rotates inside a pilot
tube pressed into the housing. The rear of the
shaft engages the front of the distributor rotor
and turns the rotor shaft. Two lip type seals
prevent the entrance of engine oil into the
pump and retain fuel used for pump
lubrication.

DISTRIBUTOR ROTOR (fig. 5-13) - The

distributor rotor is the drive end of the rotor,
containing two pumping plungers located in
the pumping cylinder. Slots in the rear of the
rotor provide a place for two spring-loaded
transfer pump blades.

Figure 5-13. - Distributor rotor.

In the rotor, the shoe, which provides a large

bearing surface for the roller, is carried in guide
slots. The rotor shaft rotates with a very close fit
in the hydraulic head. A passage through the
center of the rotor shaft connects the pumping
cylinder with one charging port and one
discharging port The hydraulic head in which the
rotor turns has a number of charging and
discharging port, based on the number of engine
cylinders. An eight- cylinder engine will have
eight charging and eight discharging ports. The
governor weight retainer is supported on the
forwarded end of the rotor.

Figure 5-14. - Transfer pump.

TRANSFER PUMP (fig. 5-14) - The transfer

pump is a positive displacement, vane-style unit,
consisting of a stationary liner with spring-loaded
blades that ride in slots at the end of the rotor
shaft. The delivery capacity of the transfer pump
is capable of exceeding both pressure and volume
requirements of the engine, with both varying in
proportion to engine speed. A pressure regulator
valve in the pump end plate controls fuel pressure.
A large percentage of the fuel from the pump is
bypassed through the regulating valve to the inlet
side of the pump. The quantity and pressure of the fuel bypassed increases, as pump speed
increases.

The operation of the model DB2 injection is similar to that of an ignition distributor. However,
instead of the ignition rotor distributing high-voltage sparks to each cylinder in firing order, the
DB2 pump distributes pressurized diesel fuel as two passages align during the rotation of the
pump rotor, also in firing order. The basic fuel flow is as follows:

Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by a fuel lift pump (mechanical or electrical) through the
primary and secondary filters before entering the transfer pump.
As fuel enters the transfer pump, it passes through a cone-type filter and on into the hydraulic
head assembly of the injection pump.
Fuel under pressure is also directed against a pressure regulator assembly, where it is bypassed
back to the suction side should the pressure exceed that of the regulator spring.
Fuel under transfer pump pressure is also directed to and through a ball-check valve assembly
and against an automatic advance piston.
Pressurized fuel is also routed from the hydraulic head to a vent passage leading to the governor
linkage area, allowing any air and a small quantity of fuel to return to the fuel tank through a
return line which self-bleeds air from the system. Fuel that passes into the governor linkage
compartment is sufficient to fill it and lubricate the internal parts.
Fuel leaving the hydraulic head is directed to the metering valve, which is controlled by the
operator throttle position and governor action. This valve controls the amount of fuel that will be
allowed to flow on into the charging ring and ports.

Rotation of the rotor by the drive shaft of the pump aligns the two inlet passages of the rotor with
the charging ports in the charging ring, thereby allowing fuel to flow into the pumping chamber
(fig. 5-15).

The pumping chambers consists of a circular cam ring, two roller, and two plungers. As the rotor
continues to turn, the inlet passages of the rotor will move away from the charging ports,
allowing fuel to be discharged, as the rotor registers with one of the hydraulic head outlets.

Figure 5-15. - Rotor in charge position.

With the discharge port open (fig. 5-16), both

rollers come in contact with the cam ring
lobes, which forces them toward each other.
This causes the plungers to pressurize the
fuel between them and sending it on up to the
injection nozzle and into the combustion
chamber. The cam is relieved to allow a
slight outward movement of the roller before
the discharge port is closed off. This action
drops the pressure in the injection line
enough to give sharp cutoff injection and to
prevent nozzle dribbling.
Figure 5-17. - Delivery valve.

Figure 5-16. - Rotor in discharge position.

The maximum amount of fuel that can be injected is limited by maximum outward travel of the
plungers. The roller shoes, contacting an adjustable leaf spring, limit this maximum plunger
travel. At the time the charging ports are in register, the rollers are between the cam lobes;
therefore, their outward movement is unrestricted during the charging cycle except as limited by
the leaf spring.

To prevent after-dribble and therefore unburnt fuel at the exhaust, the end of injection must occur
crisply and rapidly. To ensure that the nozzle valve does, in fact, return to its seat as rapidly as
possible, the DELIVERY VALVE (fig. 5-17). located in the drive passage of the rotor, acts to
reduce injection line pressure. This occurs after fuel injection and the pressure is reduced to a
value lower than that of the injector nozzle closing pressure. The valve remains closed during
charging and opens under high pressure, as the plungers are forced together. Two small grooves
are located on either side of the charging port or the rotor near its flange end. These grooves
carry fuel from the hydraulic head charging posts to the housing. This fuel flow lubricates the
cam, the rollers, and the governor parts. The fuel flows through the entire pump housing, absorbs
heat, and is allowed to return to the supply tank through a fuel return line connected to the pump
housing cover, thereby providing for pump
cooling.

In the DB2 fuel pump, automatic advance is

accomplished in the pump by fuel pressure
acting against a piston, which causes rotation of
the cam ring, thereby aligning the fuel passages
in the pump sooner (fig. 5-18). The rising fuel
pressure from the transfer pump increases the
flow to the power side of the advance piston.
This flow from the transfer pump passes
through a cut on the metering valve, through a
passage in the hydraulic head, and then by the
check valve in the drilled bottom head locking
screw. Figure 5-18. - Speed advance operation.
The check valve provides a hydraulic lock, preventing the cam from retarding during injection.
Fuel is directed by a passage in the advance housing and plug to the pressure side of the advance
piston. The piston moves the cam counterclockwise (opposite to the direction of the pump
rotation). The spring-loaded side of the piston balances the force of the power side of the piston
and limits the maximum movement of the cam. Therefore, with increasing speed, the cam is
advanced and, with decreasing speed, it is retarded.

We know that a small amount of fuel under pressure is vented into the governor linkage
compartment. Flow into this area is controlled by a small vent wire that controls the volume of
fuel returning to the fuel tank, thereby avoiding any undue fuel pressure loss. The vent passage is
located behind the metering valve bore and leads to the governor compartment by a short vertical
passage. The vent wire assembly is available in several sizes to control the amount of vented fuel
being returned to the tank. The vent wire should NOT be tampered with, as it can be altered only
by removing the governor cover. The correct wire size would be installed when the pump
assembly is being flow-tested on a pump calibration stand.

NOTE
For information concerning removal, installation, and servicing the injection pump, always refer
to the manufacturer's service manual.

Injection Pump Accessories

The DB2 injection pump can be used on a variety of applications; therefore, it is available with
several options as required. The options are as follows:

The flexible governor drive is a retaining ring that serves as a cushion between the governor
weight retainer and the weight retainer hub. Any torsional vibrations that may be transmitted to
the pump area are absorbed in the flexible ring, therefore reducing wear of pump parts and
allowing more positive governor control.

The electrical shutoff (fig. 5-19) is available as either an energized to run (ETR) or energized to
shut off (ETSO) model. In either case it will control the run and stop functions of the engine by
positively stopping fuel flow to the pump plungers, thereby preventing fuel injection.
The torque screw, used on DB2 pumps, allows a tailored maximum torque curve for a particular
engine application. This feature is commonly referred to as
torque backup, since the engine torque will generally
increase toward the preselected and adjusted point as engine
rpm decreases. The three factors that affect this torque are
the metering valve opening area, the time allowed for fuel
charging, and the transfer pump pressure curve. Turning in
the torque screw moves the fuel- metering valve toward its
closed position. The torque screw controls the amount of
fuel delivered at full-load governor speed.

Figure 5-19. - Electrical shutoff.

If additional load is applied to the engine while it is running at full-load governed speed, there
will be a reduction in engine rpm. A greater quantity of fuel is allowed to pass into the pumping
chamber because of the increased time that the charging ports are open. Fuel delivery will
continue to increase until the rpm drop to the engine manufacturer's predetermined point of
maximum torque.

NOTE
Do NOT attempt to adjust the torque curve on the engine at any time. This adjustment can be
done only during a dynamometer test where fuel flow can be checked along with the measured
engine torque curve or on a fuel pump test stand.

Governor
The DB2 fuel injection pump uses a mechanical type governor (fig. 5-20). The governor function
is that of controlling the engine speed under various load settings. As with any mechanical
governor, it operates on the principle of spring pressure opposed by weight force, with the spring
attempting to force the linkage to an increased fuel position at all times. The centrifugal force of
the rotating flyweights attempts to pull the linkage to a decreased fuel position.

Figure 5-20. - Governor assembly.

Rotation of the governor linkage varies the valve opening, thereby limiting and controlling the
quantity of fuel that can be directed to the fuel plungers. The position of the throttle lever
controlled by the operator's foot will vary the tension of the governor spring. This force, acting
on the linkage, rotates the metering valve to an increased or decreased fuel position as required.
At any given throttle position the centrifugal force of the rotating flyweights will exert force
back through the governor linkage which is equal to that of the spring, resulting in a state of
balance. Outward movement of the weights acting through the governor thrust sleeve can turn
the fuel-metering valve by means of the governor linkage arm and hook. The throttle and
governor spring position will turn the metering valve in the opposite
direction.

The governor is lubricated by fuel received from the fuel housing. Fuel
pressure in the governor housing is maintained by a spring-loaded ball-
check return fitting (fig. 5-21) in the governor cover of the pump.

Figure 5-21. - Spring-loaded ball-check valve.

Nozzle
The injector nozzle, used with the DB2 fuel injection pump, is opened
outward by high fuel pressure and closed by spring tension (fig. 5-22).
It has a unique feature in that it is screwed directly into the cylinder
head An outward opening valve creates a narrow spray that is evenly
distributed into the precombustion chamber. Both engine compression
and combustion pressure forces assist the nozzle spring in closing an
outward opening valve. These factors allow the opening pressure
settings of the nozzle to be lower than those of conventional injectors.

During injection, a degree of swirl is imparted to the fuel before it

actually emerges around the head of the nozzle. This forms a closely
controlled annular orifice with the nozzle valve seat, which produces a
high- velocity atomized fuel spray, forming a narrow cone suitable for
efficient burning of the fuel in the precombustion chamber.

Figure 5-22. - Injector nozzle.

The nozzle has been designed as basically a throwaway item. After a period of service, the
functional performance may not meet test specifications. Nozzle testing is comprised of the
following checks:

 Nozzle opening pressure

 Leakage
 Chatter
 Spray pattern

Each test is done independently of the others (for example, when checking the opening pressure,
do not check for leakage). If all the tests are satisfied, the nozzle can be reused. If any one of the
tests is not satisfied, replace the nozzle. For testing procedures, consult the manufacturer's
service manual.
CAUTION When testing nozzles, do not place your hand or arms near the top of the nozzle. The
high-pressure atomized fuel spray from the nozzle has sufficient penetrating power to puncture
flesh and destroy tissue and may result in blood poisoning. The nozzle tip should always be
enclosed in a receptacle, preferably transparent, to contain the spray.

DETROIT DIESEL UNIT INJECTION SYSTEMS

The fuel system used by Detroit diesel is known as a low-pressure fuel system, owing to the fact
that fuel delivered to the unit injectors averages 45 to 70 psi. This is much lower than the average
2,500 to 300 psi that passes through the fuel line from the injection pump and nozzles used in
other systems.

The four main functions of the fuel system used with a Detroit diesel engine are as follows:

1. To supply clean, cool fuel to the system by passing it through at least a primary and
secondary filter before the pump and injectors.
2. To cool and lubricate the injectors, as the fuel flows through them, and return to the tank
(recirculatory system).
3. To maintain sufficient pressure at all times through the action of the positive
displacement gear pump and the use of a restricted fitting located at the cylinder head
return fuel manifold.
4. To purge the fuel system of any air; the system is recirculator-y in operation, therefore
allowing any air to be returned to the fuel tank.

Since the basic fuel system used on all Detroit diesel engines is identical as far as components
used, the description of operation for one can be readily related to any other series of Detroit
diesel engine (fig. 5-23).

The basic fuel system consists mainly of the following:

1. Fuel injectors.
2. Fuel pipes to and from the injectors (inlet and outlet).
3. Fuel manifolds, which are cast internally within the cylinder head. The upper manifold is
the "inlet" and the lower is the "return" or "outlet." To prevent confusion, the words in
and out are cast in the side of the head.
4. Fuel pump (supply pump, not an injection pump).
5. Fuel strainer or primary filter.
6. Fuel filter (secondary).
7. Fuel lines.
8. One-way check valve.
9. Restricted fitting on in-line engines or a restricted TEE on V-type engines.
Figure 5-23. - Diagram of typical Detroit diesel fuel system.

Fuel Pump
The fuel pump is a positive displacement gear-type unit that transfers fuel from the tank to the
injectors at 65 to 75 psi (fig. 5-24). The standard pump has the ability to deliver 1.5 gallons per
minute, or 90 gallons per hour.
The fuel pump body and cover are aligned by means
of two dowels. The body and cover are machined
surfaces that contain no gasket between them,
although a thin coat of sealant applied to these
surfaces is recommended at installation. A relief
valve bypasses fuel back to the inlet side of the
pump when pressure reaches above the 65 to 75 psi.

There are two oil seals pressed into the pump bore
from the flanged end for the following purposes:

1. The seal closest to the drive coupling prevents

lube oil from entering the fuel pump.
2. The inner seal closest to the pump gears prevents
fuel leakage.

Figure 5-24. - Typical gear fuel pump assembly.

The installed seals do not butt up against each other, but have a small space between them.
Drilled and taped into this cavity in the fuel pump body are two small holes - one which is
usually plugged and the other one is open to allow any fuel or lube oil to drain, thereby
indicating damaged seals. Sometimes a small fitting and tube extend from one of these holes to
direct any leakage to a noticeable spot. Acceptable leakage should not exceed 1 drop per minute.

If you are ever in doubt as to the rotation of the fuel pump, it can be identified as follows:

1. Stamped on the pump cover are the letters LH or RH, plus an arrow indicating the
direction of rotation.
2. On in-line engines, the rotation of the fuel pump can be determined by its location on the
engine. When viewed from the flywheel end: left-hand side location, LH pump rotation;
right-hand side location, RH pump rotation.
3. A similar method would be to grasp the pump in your left or right hand, as it mounts on
the engine. Whichever thumb covers the relief valves indicates the rotation of the pump.

The letter I/L (inlet) is also stamped on the pump cover; however, if not visible, the inlet side is
the hole on the pump cover closest to the relief valve plug.

Since the pump constantly circulates a supply of fuel to and through the injectors, the unused
fuel cools and lubricates the injectors and purges the system of any air, then returns to the fuel
tank via the restricted fitting and return line.

All Detroit diesel engines are equipped with a return Line restricted fitting, the actual size
varying with the engine injector size and application. Every restricted fitting has the letter R
followed by a number that indicates its hole size in thousandths of an inch. Therefore, a fitting
with R80 stamped on it indicates a 0.080-inch-diameter hole drilled within the fitting.
These fittings may look like an ordinary brass fittings externally; therefore, care must be taken to
ensure that, in fact, the proper restricted fitting, and not just any fitting, is installed into the return
line. Use of too large a fitting can lead to a low fuel pressure within the fuel manifold. This
condition can cause poor engine performance. A small fitting can lead to increased fuel
temperatures and some restriction against the fuel flow. Refer to the service manual of the engine
for any particular specifications.

The basic fuel flow is as follows:

The fuel pump draws fuel from the tank past a one-way no-return check valve into the primary
filter. Here the fuel passes through a 30-micron- filtering-capacity, cotton-wound, sock-type
element. From the primary filter it passes up to the suction side of the fuel pump. Here the fuel is
forced out at 65 to 75 psi to the secondary filter that is a pleated paper element of lo-micron
filtering capacity.
Fuel then passes up to the inlet fuel manifold of the cylinder head where it is distributed through
the fuel jumper lines into each injector.
All surplus fuel (not injected) returns from the injectors through fuel jumper lines to the return
fuel manifold, through the restricted fitting, which maintains adequate fuel pressure in the
cylinder head at all times, then back to the tank.

Injectors
The fuel injector, or what is often referred to as a unit injector (fig. 5-25), is used by Detroit
diesel in all series of engine that they build. Certainly, there are some variations in basic design
and in the actual testing procedures used; however, the function and operation is the same for all.

Unit injectors were designed with simplicity in mind both from a control and adjustment outlook.
They are used on direct-injection, open-type, two-cycle combustion chamber engines
manufactured by General Motors. No high-pressure fuel lines or air-fuel mixing or vaporizing
devices are required with these injectors. The fuel from the fuel pump is delivered to the inlet
fuel manifold (cast internally within the cylinder head) at a pressure of 65 to 75 psi. The fuel
then flows to the injectors through fuel pipes called jumper lines.

Once the fuel from the pump reaches the injector, it performs the following functions:

1. Times injection: liming of the injector is accomplished by movement of the injector

control rack, which causes rotation of the plunger within the injector bushing. Since the
plunger is manufactured with a helical chamber area, this rotation will either advance or
retard closing of the ports in the injector bushing, and therefore the start and end of the
actual injection period. Pushrod adjustment establishes the height of the injector follower
above the body. In turn, this factor establishes the point or time that the descending
plunger closes the bushing ports, allowing injection to begin.
2. Meter the fuel: The rotation of the plunger by movement of the injector control rack will
advance or retard the start and end of injection. If the length of time that the fuel can be
injected is varied, the amount of fuel will be varied.
 3. Pressurizes the fuel: Fuel that is trapped underneath the plunger on its downward stroke
will develop enough pressure to force its way past the check valve or needle valve,
therefore entering the combustion chamber.
4. Atomizes the fuel: Fuel under pressure that forces its way past the check or needle valve
must than pass through small holes or orifices in the injector spray tip. This passage
breaks the fuel down into a finely atomized spray, as it enters the combustion chamber.

The two-stroke Detroit diesel engine unit fuel injector is located in the cylinder head. The
injector sits in a copper tube in the head that is surrounded by water for cooling purposes. The
injector is placed in the cylinder head by a dowel pin on the underside of its body. The injector is
held in place by a single bolt and clamp arrangement. The clamp sits low on the injector body,
which allows clearance for the valve bridge operating mechanism. The injector is also known as
an offset body because the fuel inlet and outlet are offset to one another. This arrangement
allows sufficient clearance between the valves.

Each injector has a circular disc pressed into a recess at the front side of the injector for
identification purposes. The identification tag indicates the nominal output of the injector in
cubic millimeters. Both the plunger and bushing are marked with corresponding numbers to
identify them as mating parts. Therefore, if either the plunger or bushing requires replacement,
both must be replaced as an assembly.

The injector control rack for each injector is actuated by a lever on the injector control tube that,
in turn, is connected to the governor by mean of a fuel rod. These levers can be adjusted, thus
permitting a uniform setting of all injector racks. Basic operation of the unit injector is as
follows:

Fuel, under pressure, enters the injector at the inlet side through a filter cap and filter element.
From the filter element, the fuel passes through a drilled passage into the supply chamber - that
area between the plunger bushing and the spill deflector and the area underneath the injector
plunger within the bushing. The plunger operates up and down in the bushing, the bore of which
is open to the fuel supply in the annular chamber by two funnel-shaped ports in the plunger
bushing.
The plunger descends, under pressure of the injector rocker arm, first closing of the lower port
and then the upper. Before the upper port is shut off, fuel being displaced by the descending
plunger flows up through the "T" drilled hole in the plunger and escapes through the upper port
and into the supply chamber.
With the upper and lower ports closed off, the remaining fuel is subjected to increased pressure
by the continued downward movement of the plunger. When sufficient pressure is built up, it
opens the flat, non-return, check valve. The fuel is compressed until the pressure force acting on
the needle valve is sufficient to open the valve against the downward force of the valve spring.
As soon as the needle valve lifts off its seat, the fuel is forced through the small orifices in the
spray tip and atomized into the combustion chamber.
As the plunger continues to descend, it uncovers the lower port, so fuel pressure is relieved, and
the valve spring closes the needle valve, ending injection. Then the plunger returns to its original
position and waits for the next injection cycle.
Injector Timing
Whenever an injector has been removed and reinstalled or a new injector has been installed in an
engine, the injector must be timed and the control rack positioned.

The injector plunger is timed by the fact that it meshes with a flat area on the internal rack gear
inside the injector body. It is also timed to the fuel control rack - a dot on the gear that is centered
between two dots on the injector control rack. Actual effective length that the plunger moves
down in its bushing is controlled by the height of the injector follower above the injector body.

To time an injector properly, adjust the injector

follower to a definite height in relation to the injector
body (fig. 5-26). This will vary according to the size
of the injector being used. This dimension is given in
the engine tune-up section of the service manual.
Current timing pin dimensions can also be found
stamped on the valve rocker cover emissions decal.
Be certain that you select the proper timing pin gauge
(fig. 5-27); otherwise, the engine will run rough and
fail to perform properly under load. In addition,
continued operation of the injector set at the wrong
timing height can result in engine damage.

Figure 5-26. - Timing fuel injectors.

All the injectors can be timed in firing-order

sequence during one full revolution of the
crankshaft on all two-cycle engines. A four-cycle
engine requires two revolutions of the crankshaft.
The sequence for injector timing is as follows:

1. Rocker injector arm.

2. Push rod.

3. Lock nut.

4. Fuel injector.

5. Injector follower.

6. Injector timing gage.

Figure 5-27. - Timing gauge.

 1. The governor speed control lever should be in the IDLE position. If a stop lever is
provided, secure it in the STOP position.
2. Rotate the engine crankshaft, using an engine barring tool, until the exhaust valves are
fully depressed on the cylinder that you wish to set the injector. If a barring tool is not
available, a 3/4- inch-square drive socket set with a suitable socket to fit over the
crankshaft pulley will also do.
3. Insert the small end of the timing pin (gauge) into the hole provided in the top on the
injector body, with the flat portion of the gauge facing the injector follower.
4. Gently push the gauge by holding the knurled stem with the thumb and forefinger
towards the follower. There should be a slight drag between the gauge and the follower.
5. If this cannot be done, loosen the injector pushrod locknut and adjust it until the drag of
the gauge (slight feel) has been determined. Hold the pushrod and tighten the locknut.
Recheck the feel, and, if needed, readjust.
6. When hot setting this adjustment, wipe off the top of the injector follower and place a
clean drop of oil on it. When properly adjusted, the gauge should just wipe off the oil
film from the follower when the slight drag is felt.
7. Time remaining injectors in the same manner.

Equalizing Injectors
Since all the injector racks are connected to the fuel control tube and then to the governor by the
fuel rod or rods, they must be set correctly. This ensures that they are equally related to the
governor. Their positions determine the amount of fuel that will be injected into the individual
cylinders, ensuring equal distribution of the load. Failure to set the racks properly will result in
poor performance and a lack-of-power complaint.

Adjusting the inner and outer adjusting screws on the rack control lever (fig. 5-27) equalizes the
injectors. This is a rather delicate adjustment. and it may be necessary to make these adjustments
several times before the engine operates just right.

To increase the amount of fuel injected, loosen the outer adjusting screw and tighten the inner
adjusting screw, thereby moving the control rack inward. To decrease fuel injection, loosen the
inner adjusting screw slightly and tighten the outer adjusting screw which moves the control rack
outward. In making the operating adjustments, never turn the adjusting screws more than one-
fourth turn at a time; for if one injector is adjusted too far out of line with the others, it will
prevent the full travel of the racks and reduce the maximum power to the engine.

NOTE For exact procedures for adjusting the injector rack control levers, refer to the
manufacturer's service manual.

Sometimes smoother engine operation can be obtained by making slight changes to the
adjustments after the engine is warmed to operating temperature (above 140F). For example, one
cylinder may not be carrying its share of the load as indicated by a comparatively cooler
cylinder. Therefore, the control rack should be adjusted for more fuel. A slight knocking noise
from another cylinder would indicate an adjustment for slightly less fuel.
Do not attempt to obtain a smooth running engine by changing control-rack settings without first
timing and equalizing injection in the recommended manner.

Governor
Detroit diesel engines use both mechanical and hydraulic governors on the engines of the
following type:

1. Mechanical limiting speed governor

2. Variable mechanical speed governor
3. Variable low-speed limiting speed mechanical governor
4. Mechanical constant speed governor (earlier engines)
5. Dual-range limiting speed mechanical governor
6. Woodward SG hydraulic governor
7. Woodward PSG hydraulic governor
8. Woodward electric governor

On Detroit diesel engines the type of governor used is dependent on the particular engine
application; therefore, setup can vary slightly between engines. All Detroit diesel mechanical
governors are easily identifiable by a nameplate attached to the governor housing. The following
letters are typical examples.

DWLS: double-weight limiting speed (mobile equipment)

SWLS: single-weight limiting speed (mobile equipment)
SWVS: single-weight variable speed (industrial and marine)
VLSLS: variable low-speed limiting speed (highway vehicles)
DWDRG: double-weight dual range governor (highway vehicles)
SG, PSG, SGX, UG8: Woodward hydraulic-type governors (industrial and generator sets)

The functions of all these governors, whether mechanical or hydraulic, are to control engine
speed and correct for any change in load applied or removed from the engine. They all work on
the basic principle of weights against spring pressure; therefore, all governors are of the speed-
sensing type.

Since the action of all these governors is the same, but with a difference only in purpose, we will
discuss the two most common types found on a Detroit diesel engine - the limiting and variable
speed governors.

The limiting speed type governor is found in both single- and double-weight version and can also
be found on both in-line and V-type engines. Riveted on the side of the governor housing is an
identification plate, which shows the following:

1. Governor part number

2. Date of manufacture
3. Idle speed range
4. Type, such as DWLS, meaning double-weight limiting speed
5. Drive ratio

Regardless of whether the limiting speed governor is of the single- or double-weight variety, the
action of the governor is the same. The purpose of the limiting speed governor is as follows:

1. Controls engine idle speed

2. Limits the maximum speed of the engine

The application of the engine determines whether a single- or double-weight governor will be
used. The most prominent application for the limiting speed governor is highway truck engines,
since the governor has no control in the intermediate engine speed range. This allows the
operator to have complete control of the injector rack movement through throttle action alone.
This permits fast throttle response for engine acceleration or deceleration.

The variable speed mechanical governor is found extensively on industrial and marine
applications, since it is designed for the following functions:

1. Controls the engine idle speed

2. Controls the maximum engine speed
3. Holds the engine speed at any position between idle and maximum as desired and set by the
operator.

The response and reaction of the variable speed mechanical governor is similar to that of the
limiting speed type with just a few exceptions. Since the varia- ble speed mechanical governor
controls speed through- out the total rpm range, there is no intermediate range as with the
limiting speed governor. The variable speed governor uses only one set of weights and one
spring.

In a variable speed mechanical governor, any given throttle setting or load from idle to maximum
speed, a state of balance can exist. If, however, the load is increased or decreased, a corrective
action will be initiated. The bell crank lever and pivoting differential lever will be moved by the
action of the governor spring or weights to reestablish a state of balance.

Remember the governor can only react and change to the rpm of the engine.

The variable speed mechanical governor is readily identifiable from the limiting speed governor
by the fact that it has only one lever on the top of the governor cover, which is the stop/run lever.
The speed control lever is located vertically on the end of the governor spring housing. A large
booster spring is attached between the speed control lever and a bracket on the cylinder head,
used to assist the operator in overcoming governor resistance during throttle movement. The
letters SWVS (single-weight variable speed) are stamped on the governor identification plate.

NOTE Before performing any adjustments or repairs to the governor, it is recommended that you
consult the manufacturer's service manual.
CUMMINS DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS
Over the years Cummins has produced a series of innovations, such as the first automotive
diesel, in addition to being the first to use supercharging and then turbocharging. All cylinders
are commonly served through a low-pressure fuel line. The camshaft control of the mechanical
injector controls the timing of injection throughout the operating range. This design eliminates
the timing-lag problems of high-pressure systems.

To meet Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exhaust emissions standards, Cummins offers
the Celect (electronically controlled injection) system. Since the Celect system did not start
production until 1989, there are literally thousands of Cummins with pressure-time (PT) fuel
systems. We will discuss the operation of the PT system first, then discuss the basic operating
concept of the Celect system.

Pressure-Time Fuel System

The pressure-time (PT) fuel system (fig. 5-28) is exclusive to Cummins diesel engines; it uses
injectors that meter and injects the fuel with this metering based on a pressure-time principle. A
gear-driven positive displacement low-pressure fuel pump naturally supplies fuel pressure. The
time for metering is determined by the interval that the metering orifice in the injector remains
open. This interval is established and controlled by the engine speed, which determines the rate
of camshaft rotation and consequently the injector plunger movement.

Figure 5-28. - Pressure-time fuel system.

Since Cummins engines are all four-cycle, the camshaft is driven from the crankshaft gear at
one-half of engine speed. The fuel pump turns at engine speed. Because of this relationship,
additional governing of fuel flow is necessary in the fuel pump.

A flyball type mechanical governor controls fuel pressure and engine torque throughout the
entire operating range. It also controls the idling speed of the engine and prevents engine
overspeeding in the high- speed range. The throttle shaft is simply a shaft with a hole; therefore,
the alignment of this hole with the fuel passages determines pressure at the injectors.

A single low-pressure fuel line from the fuel pump serves all injectors; therefore, the pressure
and the amount of metered fuel to each cylinder are equal.

The fuel-metering process in the IT fuel system has three main advantages:

1. The injector accomplishes all metering and injection functions.

2. The injector injects a finely atomized fuel spray into the combustion chamber at spray-in-
pressures exceeding 20,000 psi.
3. A low-pressure common-rail system is used, with the pressure being developed in a gear-type
pump. This eliminates the need for high- pressure fuel lines running from the fuel pump to each
injector.

FUEL PUMP. - The fuel pump (fig. 5-29) commonly used in the pressure-time system is the
PTG- AFC pump (PT pump with a governor and an air-fuel control attachment). The "P" in the
name refers to the actual fuel pressure that is produced by the gear pump and maintained at the
inlet to the injectors.

The "T" refers to the fact that the actual "time" available for the fuel to flow into the injector
assembly (cup) is determined by the engine speed as a function of the engine camshaft and
injection train components.

The air-fuel control (AFC) is an acceleration exhaust smoke control device built internally into
the pump body. The AFC unit is designed to restrict fuel flow in direct proportion to the air
intake manifold pressure of the engine during acceleration, under load, and during lug-down
conditions.

Within the pump assembly a fuel pump bypass button of varying sizes can be installed to control
the maximum fuel delivery pressure of the gear-type pump before it opens and bypasses fuel
back to the inlet side of the pump. In this way the horsepower setting of the engine can be altered
fairly easily.
Figure 5-29. - Pressure-time (PT) gear pump.

The major functions of the PTG-AFC fuel pump assembly are as follows:

1. To pull and transfer fuel from the tank and filter

2. To develop sufficient fuel pressure to the fuel rail (common fuel passage) to all of the injectors
3. To provide engine idle speed control (governing)
4. To limit the maximum no-load and full-load speed of the engine (governing)
5. To allow the operator to control the throttle position and therefore the power output of the
engine
6. To control exhaust smoke emissions to EPA specifications under all operating conditions
7. To allow shutdown of the engine when desired

A major feature of the PT pump system is that there is no need to time the pump to the engine.
The pump is designed simply to generate and supply a given flow rate at a specified pressure
setting to the rail to all injectors. The injectors themselves are timed to ensure that the start of
injection will occur at the right time for each cylinder.

The basic flow of fuel into and through the PT pump assembly will vary slightly depending on
the actual model. A simplified fuel flow is as follows:
As the operator cranks the engine, fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by the gear pump through the
fuel supply line to the primary filter. This filter is normally a filter/water separator.
The filter fuel then flows through a small filter screen that is located within the PT pump
assembly, and then flows down into the internal governor sleeve.
The position of the governor plunger determines the fuel flow through various governor plunger
ports.
The position of the mechanically operated throttle determines the amount of fuel that can flow
through the throttle shaft.
Fuel from the throttle shaft is then directed to the AFC needle valve.
The position of the AFC control plunger within the AFC barrel determines how much throttle
fuel can flow into and through the AFC unit and on to the engine fuel rail, which feeds the fuel
rail.

The AFC plunger position is determined by the amount of turbocharger boost pressure in the
intake manifold, which is piped through the air passage from the intake manifold to the AFC
unit. At engine start-up, the boost pressure is very low; therefore, flow is limited. Fuel under
pressure flows through the electric solenoid valve, which is energized by power from the ignition
switch. This fuel then flows through the fuel rail pressure line and into the injectors.

A percentage of the fuel from both the PT pump and the injectors is routed back to the fuel tank
in order to carry away some of the heat that was picked up cooling and lubricating the internal
components of the pump and the injectors.

INJECTORS. - A PT injector is provided at each engine cylinder to spray the fuel into the
combustion chambers. PT injectors are of the unit type and are operated mechanically by a
plunger return spring and a rocker arm mechanism operating off the camshaft. There are four
phases of injector operation, which are as follows:

Metering (fig. 5-30) - The plunger is just beginning to move downward and the engine is on the
beginning of the compression stroke. The fuel is trapped in the cup, the check ball stops the fuel
flowing backwards, and fuel begins to be pressurized. The excess fuel flows around the lower
annular ring, up the barrel, and is trapped there.
Pre-injection (fig. 5-30) - The plunger is almost all the way down, the engine is almost at the end
of the compression stroke, and the fuel is being pressurized by the plunger.
Injection (fig. 5-30) - The plunger is almost all the way down, the fuel injected out the eight
orifices, and the engine is on the end of the compression stroke.
Purging (fig. 5-30) - The plunger is all the way down, injection is complete, and the fuel is
flowing into the injector, around the lower annular groove, up a drilled passageway in the barrel,
around the upper annular groove, and out through the fuel drain. The cylinder is on the power
stroke. During the exhaust stroke, the plunger moves up and waits to begin the cycle all over.

Injector adjustments are extremely important on PT injectors because they perform the dual
functions of metering and injecting. Check the manufacturer's manual for proper settings of
injectors. On an engine where new or rebuilt injectors have been installed, initial adjustments can
be made with the engine cold. Always readjust the injectors, using a torque wrench calibrated in
inch-pounds after the engine has been warmed up. Engine oil temperature should read between
140F and 160F.

Anytime an injector is serviced, you must be certain that the correct orifices, plungers, and cups
are used, as these can affect injection operation. You can also affect injection operation by any
of the following actions:

1. Improper timing.
2. Mixing plungers and barrels during teardown (keep them together, since they are
matched sets).
3. Incorrect injector adjustments after installation or during tune-up adjustment.
4. Installing an exchange set of injectors without taking time to check and correct other
possible problems relating to injection operation. This is often overlooked.
Proper injector adjustment and maintenance will ensure a smooth running engine as long as the
following factors are met:

1. Adequate fuel delivery pressure from the fuel pump to the fuel manifold.
2. Selection of the proper sizes of balance and metering orifices.
3. The length of time that the metering orifice is uncovered by the upward moving injector
plunger.

NOTE For required adjustments and maintenance schedules, always consult the manufacturer's
service manual.

Celect System
The Celect system is a full electronic controlled injection and governing system. The major
reason behind the adoption of electronic fuel injection control is to be able to meet not only the
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) exhaust emission controls but also ensure optimum fuel
economy. This is done by constantly monitoring major engine operating parameters that have a
direct bearing on engine combustion efficiency. A number of engine- and vehicle-mounted
sensors are used to update timing and metering values continually. The Celect system controls
the following major operating factors:

1. Engine torque and horsepower curves

2. AFC (air-fuel control) to limit exhaust smoke
3. Engine low idle and high speeds
4. Functions as a vehicle road speed governor
5. Optional vehicle/engine cruise control
6. PTO (power takeoff) operation
7. Idle shutdown, 3 to 60 seconds
8. Gear down protection
Figure 5-30. - Pressure-time injector operation.

For the Celect system to operate, major components are required. These components are as
follows:

1. The electronic control module (ECM) contains the hardware required to activate the ECI
system. Within the ECM are such controls as the EPROM (electrically erasable
 programmable read-only memory), CPU (central processing unit), RAM (random access
memory), and also contain in the ECM is the A/D (analog/digital) converter. The ECM
sends electrical signals to the injectors, engine brake solenoids, the fuel shutoff valve, and
other optional items. The ECM is mounted to a cooling plate which has diesel fuel
continually routed through it from the pump in order to keep the internal solid-state
components at a safe operating temperature.
2. The engine position sensor (EPS) is required to tell the ECM where the various pistons
are and what stroke they are on, so the correct injector solenoid can be activated at the
right time.
3. The oil temperature sensor (OTS) is used to advise the ECM of the oil temperature. The
signal is used by the ECM to determine the engine idle speed at start-up as well as
reducing the fueling rate any time the oil temperature rises to an undesirable level.
4. The oil pressure sensor (OPS) is used by the ECM to monitor engine oil pressure during
operation.
5. The coolant temperature sensor (CTS) is used to monitor the temperature of the engine
coolant.
6. The coolant level sensor (CLS) is used to tell the ECM of a coolant level loss.
7. The ambient air pressure sensor (APS) is used by the ECM to determine the basic
operating altitude of the vehicle.
8. The intake manifold temperature sensor (IMTS) allows the ECM to determine air
temperature and adjust fuel rate accordingly.
9. The throttle position sensor (TPS) is basically a potentiometer or variable resistor
arrangement that is designed to a output voltage signal to the ECM, based on the degree
of the throttle pedal depression. The ECM is able to determine how much fuel the
operator is asking for.
10. The vehicle speed sensor (VSS) is required to tell the ECM the road speed of the vehicle.
The VSS sensor is mounted into the transmission
11. Output shaft housing in order to monitor the output shaft speed. The electronically
controlled injectors receive low-pressure fuel from a simple engine-driven gear pump.
Each injector is mechanically operated; however, timing and duration of injection is
controlled electronically by a signal from the ECM. This signal is referred to as pulse-
width-modulated (PWM). The longer the PWM signal is, the longer the injector will
deliver fuel to the combustion chamber. The greater the fuel delivery, the greater the
horsepower produced.

Two other major control switches are required with the Celect-ECI system in order to control the
cruise control, the PTO (power takeoff), and the engine compression brake:

1. A clutch switch is used to allow cruise control or engine brake activation. It is mounted so that
when the clutch pedal is pushed down (clutch disengaged), the clutch switch opens the switch
and deactivates the engine brake or PTO.

2. A brake switch is located in the service air line and will remain in the closed position any time
the brakes are released. Applying the brakes will cause the brake switch to open and break the
electrical circuit to both the cruise control and PTO systems. In addition to the engine-mounted
components, there are several cab-mounted controls arranged on a small control panel that can
be activated by the operator through a series of small toggle-type switches. This control panel
contains the following:

The idle-speed adjustment switch is used to adjust the engine idle speed between 550 and 800
rpm. Each time the switch is moved briefly to the + or - position, the idle speed will change by
approximately 25 rpm.
The cruise control panel has two toggle switches - one is a simple ON/OFF switch and the other
is the actual cruise control position select switch that the operator uses to set and adjust the cruise
control speed during operation.
The engine brake panel has two toggle switches - one switch has an ON/OFF position to activate
either a Jacobs or Cummins "C" brake system and the other switch, used with the engine
brake control, can be placed into position 1, 2, or 3. In position 1 the compression brake is
activated only on two cylinders; position 2 will activate the compression brake on four cylinders;
position 3 will allow all six cylinders to provide compression braking.

On the right-hand side of the control panel are two warning lights - one yellow, the other one red.
The yellow light is labeled warning, while the red light is labeled stop. When the yellow light
comes on during engine operation, this indicates that a Celect system problem has been detected
and recorded in the ECM memory. The problem is not serious enough to shut down the engine,
but should be checked out at the earliest opportunity. If the red light comes on, the operator
should immediately bring the vehicle to a stop and shut off the engine.

Celect System Operation

The ECI (electronically controlled injection) Celect system uses an engine-driven gear pump to
pull fuel from the fuel tank. The fuel is passed through a primary filter or filter/water separator
unit, then to the ECM where the fuel is circulated through a cooling plate. The cooling plate,
mounted to the rear of-the ECM, ensures adequate cooling of the electronic package.

The gear pump is designed to deliver fuel to the fuel manifold at 140 psi, which supplies the
electronically controlled injectors. A spring-loaded bypass valve allows excess fuel under
pressure to return to the suction side of the pump to maintain maximum system pressure.

A rocker arm and pushrod assembly mechanically operates the injector. The injector requires
rocker arm actuation of the plunger to create high fuel pressure for injection. To control both the
start of injection timing and the quantity of fuel metered, the ECM sends out a pulse-width-
modulated (PWM) electrical signal to each injector. The PWM signal determines the start of
injection, while the duration of this signal determines how long the injector can effectively
continue to spray fuel into the combustion chamber, as the plunger is forced down by the rocker
arm assembly. A shorter PWM signal means that the effective stroke of the injector plunger will
be decreased. A longer PWM signal means that the effective stroke will be increased. The start
of injection and the duration of the PWM signal is determined by the ECM, based on the various
input sensor signals and the preprogrammed PROM information within the ECM. Each PROM is
designed for a specific engine/vehicle combination, based on the desired horsepower setting and
rpm, the tire size, and gear ratios used in the vehicle.
Contained within the injector are a timing plunger, a return spring, and an injector control valve -
that is the key to the operation. The control valve is electrically operated, receiving signals from
the ECM to energize/de-energize, which determines the start of injection. The length of time that
this solenoid is energized determines the quantity of metered fuel to be injected into the
combustion chamber. Also within the injector body is a metering spill port which must be closed
to allow injection, a metering piston, the bias spring, and the spill-timing port. The injection
sequence of events occur as follows:

1. The injector receives a signal from the ECM; the injector control valve will close and the
metering phase begins while the metering piston and timing plunger are bottomed in the injector.

2. As the camshaft rotates, the injector pushrod cam follower will ride down the cam ramp,
thereby allowing the rocker arm and pushrod to be forced up by the energy of the timing plunger
return spring. Fuel at gear pump pressure of 140 psi can flow into the fuel supply passage and
unseat the lower check valve, allowing the metering chamber to be charged with pressurized fuel
as long as the timing plunger is being pulled upward by the force of the large external spring.
Fuel pressure, acting on the bottom of the metering piston, forces it to maintain contact with the
timing plunger within the bore of the injector body.

3. Metering ends when the ECM energizes the injector control valve, causing it to open.
Pressurized fuel can flow through the open injector control valve into the upper timing chamber,
which stops the upward travel of the metering piston. To ensure that the metering piston remains
stationary, the small bias spring in the timing chambers holds it in place, while the timing
plunger continues upward due to camshaft rotation. Fuel and spring pressure, acting on the
metering piston, will ensure fuel pressure is maintained below the piston to keep the lower
metering ball-check valve closed. This allows a precisely metered quantity of fuel to be trapped
in the metering chamber.

4. As long as the timing plunger moves upward due to the rotating camshaft lobe action and the
force of the external return spring on the ECI injector, the upper timing chamber will continue to
fill with pressurized fuel.

5. When the engine camshaft lobe starts to lift the injector cam follower roller, the pushrod
moves up and the rocker arm reverses this motion to push the timing plunger downward. On the
initial downward movement, the injector control valve remains open and fuel flows from the
timing chamber and through the control valve to the fuel supply passage. When the ECM closes
the control valve, fuel is trapped in the timing chamber; this fuel acts as a solid hydraulic link
between the timing plunger and metering piston. The downward movement of the timing plunger
causes a rapid pressure increase in the trapped fuel within the metering chamber. At
approximately 5,000 psi, the tapered needle valve in the tip of the injector will be lifted against
the force of its return spring and injection begins.

6. Injection will continue until the spill passage of the downward-moving metering piston
uncovers the spill port. Fuel pressure within the chamber is lost and the needle valve reseats by
spring pressure. This terminates injection. Immediately after the metering spill port is uncovered,
the upper edge of the metering piston also passes the timing spill port to allow fuel within the
upper timing chamber to be spilled back to the fuel drain, as the timing plunger completes its
downward movement. Injection has now been completed.

A - Sliding gear X - Plunger button J - Plunger lock FF - Governor weight

B - Advance unit spring Y - Stop plate K-Plunger inner spring GG - Sliding sleeve

C - Advance unit hub Z - Smoke limit cam L - Spring upper seat HH - Friction drive spider

D - Timing pointer AA - Governor cove U - Fuel plunger RR - Sliding gear spacer

E - Timing cover BB - Governor end cap N - Drive gear retainer KK - Tappet roller

F - Tappet roller pin CC - Governor inner spring P-Plunger drive gear LL - Camshaft

G - Tappet guide DD - Governor outer spring T -Plunger bore screw QQ - End play spacer

H-Spring lower seat EE - Governor housing R - Plunger sleeve NN - Injection pump housing

S - Hydraulic head PP - Advance unit housing V -Fuel delivery valve SS - Spider thrust plate

W - Delivery valve screw TT - Spider assembly Q-Gear thrust washer MM - Camshaft ball
bearing
M - Plunger guide JJ - Camshaft bushing type bearing

Figure 5-31. - Metering and distributing fuel pump assembly-left sectional view.
AMERICAN BOSCH FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
The American Bosch fuel injection system is used on multifuel engines. The pump meters and
distributes fuel. It is a constant-stroke, distributing-plunger, and sleeve-control type of pump. As
with other fuel systems, only clean fuel should be used. Good maintenance of the filtering
system and reasonable care in fuel handling will give trouble-free operation. Fuels used in the
multifuel engine must contain sufficient lubrication to lubricate the fuel pump and injectors.
Because of close tolerances, extreme cleanliness and strict adherence to service instructions are
required when it is time to service this system.

Fuel Pump
The PSB model fuel pump is similar to other distributor fuel system, in that a pump sends a
measured amount of fuel to each injector at a properly timed interval. The difference in the PSB
system is that the amount of fuel sent directly from the pump at high enough pressure needed for
injection. This eliminates the need for unit-type injectors and the associated linkage and
camshaft, making the system less cumbersome.

The purpose of the fuel pump (fig. 5-31) is to deliver measured quantities of fuel accurately
under high pressure to the spray nozzle for injection. The positive displacement fuel supply
pump (fig. 5-32) is gear-driven by the pump camshaft through an engine camshaft gear and
provides fuel to the hydraulic head for injection and cooling.

A - Housing cover

B - Supply pump housing

C - Camshaft driven gear

D - Drive shaft

E - Idler gear

F - Check valve spring

G - Check valve

H - Valve screw

Figure 5-32. - Fuel supply pump assembly - sectional view.

Figure 5-33. - Fuel intake flow diagram. Figure 5-35. - Fuel delivery flow diagram.

Figure 5-33 shows fuel intake at the hydraulic head. Injection (fig. 5-34) begins when fuel flows
around the fuel plunger annulus (fig. 5-35) through the open distributing slot to the injection
nozzle. A continued upward movement of the fuel plunger causes the spill passage to pass
through the plunger sleeve (fig. 5-36). This reduces pressure, allowing the fuel delivery valve to
close, ending injection. This is accomplished through a single plunger, multi-outlet hydraulic
head assembly (fig. 5-31).

Fig 5-34. - Beginning of fuel delivery flow diagram. Fig 5-36. - End of fuel delivery flow diag.
The plunger is designed to operate at crankshaft speed on four-cycle engines. It is actuated by a
camshaft and tappet arrangement. The pump camshaft, which also includes the gearing for fuel
distribution, is supported on the governor end by a bushing-type bearing and by a ball roller
bearing on the driven end. An integral mechanical centrifugal governor (fig. 5-37), that is driven
directly from the pump camshaft without gearing,
controls fuel delivery in relation to engine speed.
This pump has a smoke limit cam within the
governor housing to assist in controlling exhaust
smoke of various fuels. The mechanical centrifugal
advance unit of this pump provides up to g-degrees
advance timing and is driven clockwise at
crankshaft speed.

A - Fuel control rod

B - Fulcrum lever

C - Shaft spring plate

D - Operating shaft spring

E - Operating shaft

F - Operating lever

Figure 5-37. - Governor - sectional view.

Types of Nozzles
Bosch nozzles are inward opening with a multiple orifice and hydraulically operated nozzle
valve. The two models of this nozzle in use are the American Bosch and Robert Bosch. They
may be easily identified by either the length of the nozzle tip holding nut or the nozzle drilling
code on the smaller diameter of the nozzle valve body. The American Bosch nozzle nut is 3
inches long, and the nozzle tip has a hand-printed drilling code. The Robert Bosch nozzle nut is 2
inches long, and the nozzle tip has a machined-etched drilling code. Component parts, although
similar, are not interchangeable between the two nozzles.

Nozzle Operation
The pressurized fuel from the injection pump enters the top of the nozzle body and flows through
a passage in the body and nozzle spring retainer. An annular groove in the top face of the nozzle
valve body fills with fuel, and two passages in the nozzle valve body direct fuel around the
nozzle valve. When the fuel in the pressure chamber reaches a predetermined pressure, the spring
force (adjusted by shims) is overcome and injection occurs. Atomized fuel sprays from the
orifice holes in the nozzle tip, as the nozzle valve is opened inward by pressurized fuel. When
injection ends, spring pressure snaps the valve in its seat. During each injection, a small quantity
of high-pressurized fuel passes between the nozzle valve stem and the nozzle valve body to
lubricate and to cool the nozzle valve. A manifold that connects to all of the nozzles returns this
fuel to the tank.

Fuel Density Compensator

The multifuel engine operates on a variety of fuels that have a broad range of viscosities and heat
values. These variations in the fuels affect engine output. Because it is unacceptable for the
power output of the engine to vary with fuel changes, the multifuel engine is fitted with a device
known as a fuel density compensator (fig. 5-38). 'The fuel density compensator is a device that
serves to vary the quantity of fuel injected to the engine by regulating the full-load stop of the
fuel pump. The characteristics of the fuels show that their heat values decrease almost inversely
proportional to their viscosities. The fuel density compensator uses viscosity as the indicator for
regulating fuel flow. Its operation is as follows:

The fuel enters the compensator through the fuel pressure regulator where the fuel pressure is
regulated to a constant 20 psi regardless of engine speed and load range.
The pressure-regulated fuel then passes through a series of two orifices. The two orifices, by
offering greatly different resistances to flow, form a system that is sensitive to viscosity changes.
The first orifice is annular, formed by the clearance between the servo piston and its cylinder.
This orifice is sensitive to viscosity. The second orifice is formed by an adjustable needle valve
and is not viscosity sensitive. 5-43

The higher the viscosity of the fuel, the more trouble that it will have passing through the first
orifice. Because of this, the fuel pressure under the servo piston will rise proportionally with
viscosity. Because the second orifice is not viscosity sensitive, the pressure over the servo piston
will remain constant. This will cause a pressure differential that increases proportional with
viscosity, in turn, causing the piston to seek a position in its bore that becomes higher as
viscosity increases.
The upward movement of the servo piston will move a wedge-shaped moveable plate, which will
decrease fuel delivery. A lower viscosity fuel will cause the piston to move downward, causing
the pump to increase fuel delivery.
After the fuel passes through the two orifices, it leaves the compensator through an outlet port.
From here the fuel passes back to the pump.
Figure 5-38. - Fuel density compensator.

REVISION QUESTIONS

Q10. For what does MITAC stand?

Q11. In a sleeve metering injection system, at what rate does the constant bleed valve return fuel
to the fuel tank?

Q12. In a sleeve metering injection system, where is the automatic advance unit mounted?
Q13. In a scroll metering fuel system, where is the transfer pump located?

Q14. What three rotating members revolve on a common axis within a distributor-type fuel
injection system?

Q15. In a distributor-type fuel injection system, what controls the maximum amount of fuel that
can be injected?

Q16. What component maintains fuel pressure in the DB2 governor housing?

Q17. At what pressure range does the relief valve on a Detroit diesel engine bypass fuel back to
the inlet side of the fuel pump?

[Link] type of injector is used in a Detroit diesel engine?

Q19. What number of crankshaft revolutions is required to time all the injectors in a two-cycle
Detroit diesel engine?

Q2O. On a Cummins engine using a PT fuel system, what device is used to control exhaust
smoke during acceleration?

Q21. How is the PT pump timed to the engine?

Q22. On a Cummins engine that has a Celect system, the ECM determines engine idle speed at
start- up, based on data relayed by what sensor?

Q23. On a Cummins engine that has a Celect system, the gear pump delivers fuel to the fuel
manifold at what pressure?

Q24. In the Celect system, what component within the injector receives signals from the ECM
that controls the start of injection?

Q25. What type engine uses an American Bosch fuel injection system?
SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the operation of and the differences between superchargers
and turbochargers.

Supercharging and turbocharging is a method of increasing engine volumetric efficiency by

forcing the air into the combustion chamber, rather than merely allowing the pistons to draw it
naturally. Supercharging and turbocharging, in some cases, will push volumetric efficiencies
over 100 percent.

SUPERCHARGERS
A supercharger is an air pump that increases engine power by pushing a denser air charge into
the combustion chamber. With more air and fuel, combustion produces more heat energy and
pressure to push the piston down in the cylinder. There are three basic types of superchargers:

1. Centrifugal supercharger (fig. 5-39). The centrifugal supercharger has an impeller equipped
with curved vanes. As the engine drives the impeller, it draws air into its center and throws it off
at its rim. The air then is pushed along the inside of the circular housing. The diameter of the
housing gradually increases to the outlet where the air is pushed out.

Figure 5-39. - Centrifugal supercharger.

2. Rotor (Rootes) supercharger (fig. 5-40). The Rootes supercharger is of the positive
displacement type and consists of two rotors inside a housing. As the engine drives the rotors, air
is trapped between them and the housing. Air is then carried to the outlet where it is discharged.
The rotors and the housing in this type of supercharger must maintain tight clearances and
therefore are sensitive to dirt.
Figure 5-40. - Rootes supercharger.

3. Vane-type supercharger (fig. 5-41). The vane- type supercharger has an integral steel rotor
and shaft, one end supported in the pump flange and the other end in the cover, and revolves in
the body, the bore of which is eccentric to the rotor. Two sliding vanes are placed 180 degrees
apart in slots in the rotor and are pressed
against the body bore by springs in the slots.
When the shaft rotates, the vanes pick up a
charge of air at the inlet port, and it is carried
around the body to the outlet where the air is
discharged. Pressure is produced by the
wedging action of the air, as it is forced toward
the outlet port by the vane

The term supercharger generally refers to a

blower driven by a belt, chain, or gears.
Superchargers are used on large diesel and
racing engines. The supercharger raises the air
pressure in the engine intake manifold. Then,
when the intake valves open, more air-fuel
mixture (gasoline engine) or air (diesel engine)
can flow into the cylinders. Figure 5-41. - Vane-type supercharger
An intercooler is used between the supercharger outlet and the engine to cool the air and to
increase power (cool charge of air carries more oxygen needed for combustion).

A supercharger will instantly produce increased pressure at low engine speed because it is
mechanically linked to the engine crankshaft. This low-speed power and instant throttle response
is desirable for passing and entering interstate highways.

TURBOCHARGERS
A turbocharger is an exhaust-driven supercharger (fan or blower) that forces air into the
engine under pressure. Turbochargers are frequently used on small gasoline and diesel engines
to increase power output. By harnessing engine exhaust energy, a turbocharger can also improve
engine efficiency (fuel economy and emissions levels).

The turbocharger (fig. 5-42) consists of three

basic parts - a turbine wheel; an impeller or
compressor; and housings that support the parts
and direct the flow of exhaust gases and intake air.
Basic operation of a turbocharger is as follows:

When the engine is running, hot gases blow out

the open exhaust valves and into the exhaust
manifold. The exhaust manifold and connecting
tubing route these gases into the turbine housing.

Figure 5-42. - Turbocharger (cutaway view).

As the gases pass through the turbine housing,

they strike the fins or blades on the turbine wheel.
When engine load is high enough, there is enough
exhaust gas flow to spin the turbine wheel rapidly.
Since the turbine wheel is connected to the impeller by the turbo shaft, the impeller rotates with
the turbine. Impeller rotation pulls air into the compressor housing. Centrifugal force throws the
spinning air outward. This causes air to flow out of the turbocharger and into the engine cylinder
under pressure.

A turbocharger is located on one side of the engine. An exhaust pipe connects the exhaust
manifold to the turbine housing. The exhaust system header pipe connects to the outlet of the
turbine housing.

Theoretically, the turbocharger should be located as close to the engine manifold as possible.
Then a maximum amount of exhaust heat will enter the turbine housing. When the hot gases
move past the spinning turbine wheel, they are still expanding and help rotate the turbine.

Turbocharger lubrication is required to protect the turbo shaft and bearings from damage. A
turbocharger can operate at speeds up to 100,000 rpm. For this reason, the engine lubrication
system forces oil into the turbo shaft bearings. Oil passages are provided in the turbo housing
and bearings and an oil supply line runs from the engine to the turbocharger. With the engine
running, oil enters the turbocharger under pressure. A drain passage and drain line allows oil to
return to the engine oil pan after passing through the turbo bearings.

Sealing rings (piston-type rings) are placed around the turbo shaft at each end of the turbo
housing, preventing oil leakage into the compressor and turbine housings.

Turbochargers require little maintenance between overhauls if the air cleaners are serviced
regularly according to the manufacturer's recommendations. The turbocharger turbine requires
periodic cleaning to remove carbon deposits that cause an unbalanced condition at the high
relative speeds at which the turbine must rotate.

Turbocharging system problems usually show up as inadequate boost pressure (lack of engine
power), leaking shaft seals (oil consumption), damaged turbine or impeller wheels (vibration and
noise), or excess boost (detonation).

NOTE
Refer to a factory service manual for a detailed troubleshooting chart. It will list the common
troubles for the particular turbocharging system.

There are several checks that can be made to determine turbocharging system conditions. These
checks include the following:

Check connection of all vacuum lines to the waste gate and oil lines to the turbocharger.
Use regulated, low-pressure air to check for waste gate diaphragm leakage and operation.
Use a dash gauge or a test gauge to measure boost pressure. If needed connect the pressure gauge
to the intake manifold fitting. Compare to the manufacturer's specifications.
Use a stethoscope to listen for bad turbocharger bearings.

Turbo Lag
Turbo lag refers to a short delay before the turbocharger develops sufficient boost (pressure
above atmospheric pressure).

As the accelerator pedal is pressed down for rapid acceleration, the engine may lack power for a
few seconds. This is caused by the impeller and turbine wheels not spinning fast enough. It takes
time for the exhaust gases to bring the turbocharger up to operating speed. To minimize turbo
lag, the turbine and impeller wheels are made very light so they can accelerate up to rpm quickly.

Turbocharger Intercooler

A turbocharger intercooler is an air-to-air heat exchanger that cools the air entering the engine. It
is a radiator-like device mounted at the pressure outlet of the turbocharger.
Outside air flows over and cools the fins and tubes of the intercooler. As the air flows through
the intercooler, heat is removed. By cooling the air entering the engine, engine power is
increased because the air is more dense (contains more oxygen by volume). Cooling also reduces
the tendency for engine detonation.

Waste Gate
A waste gate limits the maximum amount of boost pressure developed by the turbocharger. It is a
butterfly or poppet-type valve that allows exhaust to bypass the turbine wheel.

Without a waste gate, the turbocharger could produce too much pressure in the combustion
chambers. This could lead to detonation (spontaneous combustion) and engine damage.

A diaphragm assembly operates the waste gate. Intake manifold pressure acts on the diaphragm
to control waste gate valve action. The valve controls the opening and closing of a passage
around the turbine wheel.

Under partial load, the system routes all of the exhaust gases through the turbine housing. The
waste gate is closed by the diaphragm spring. This assures that there is adequate boost to
increase power.

Under a full load, boost may become high enough to overcome spring pressure. Manifold
pressure compresses the spring and opens the waste gate. This permits some of the exhaust gases
to flow through the waste gate passage and into the exhaust system. Less exhaust is left to spin
the turbine. Boost pressure is limited to a preset value.

Q27. What device is used between the supercharger outlet and the engine to cool the air?

Q28. In a turbocharger, what prevents oil from leaking into the compressor and turbine housing?

COLD WEATHERSTARTING
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the different types of cold weather starting aids.

Diesel fuel evaporates much slower than gasoline and requires more heat to cause combustion in
the cylinder of the engine. For this reason, preheating devices and starting aids are used on diesel
engines. These devices and starting aids either heat the air before it is drawn into the cylinder or
allow combustion at a lower temperature than during normal engine operation.

GLOW PLUGS
The purpose of a glow plug is to beat up the air that is drawn into the precombustion chamber to
assist starting, especially in cold weather. Glow plugs are common on precombustion chamber
engines, but not on direct injection diesels because they use shaped piston crowns that produce a
very effective turbulence to the air in the cylinder. Direct injection engines also have less
immediate heat loss to the surrounding cylinder area than in a precombustion engine and
generally have a higher injection spray-in pressure.

A glow plug is used for each cylinder located

just below the injection nozzle and threaded
into the cylinder head (fig. 5-43). The inner tip
of the glow plug extends into the
precombustion chamber. The glow plugs may
be turned on using the ignition switch with the
length of time being controlled from an
electronic module. On some older vehicles and
construction equipment, glow plugs are
operated by manually depressing a switch or
button for 15 to 30 seconds. During colder
weather, the system may have to be cycled
more than once to start the engine.

Figure 5-43. - Typcial diesel glow plug.

Glow plugs are not complicated and are easy to test. Disconnect the wire going to the glow plug
and use a multimeter to read the ohms resistance of the glow plug. Specifications for different
glow plugs vary according to the manufacturer. Be sure and check the manufacturer's service
manual for the correct ohms resistance value.

MANIFOLD FLAME HEATER

The manifold flame heater (fig. 5-44) is another type of cold starting system found on diesel
engines. This system is composed of a housing, spark plug, flow control nozzle, and two
solenoid control valves. This system operates as follows:

1. The flame heater ignition unit energizes the spark plug.

2. The nozzle sprays fuel under pressure into the intake manifold assembly.
3. The fuel vapor is ignited by the spark plug and burns in the intake manifold. The heat
from this fire warms the air before it enters the combustion chamber.

The flame fuel pump assembly is a rotary type, driven by an enclosed electric motor. The fuel
pump receives fuel from the vehicle fuel tank through the supply pump of the vehicle and
delivers it to the spray nozzle. The on/off switch, located on the instrument panel, energizes the
pump.

The intake manifold flame heater system has a filter to remove impurities from the fuel before it
reaches the nozzle. The two fuel solenoid valves are energized (open) whenever the flame heater
system is activated. The valves ensure that fuel is delivered only when the system is operating.
These valves stop the flow of fuel the instant that the engine or heater is shut down.
NOTE When troubleshooting or repairing these units, you should consult the manufacturer's
service manual.

Figure 5-44. - Manifold flame beater system.

ETHER
Ether is a highly volatile fluid that is injected into the intake manifold, as you crank the engine. It
is found in an aerosol or capsule type container. Since ether has a low ignition point, the heat
generated in the combustion chamber is able to ignite it. Heat from this ignition then ignites the
diesel fuel and normal combustion takes place. Once the diesel engine starts, no more fluid is
required.

Cold starting aids, such as ether, should be used only in extreme emergencies. Too much ether
may detonate in the cylinder too far before top dead center (BDTC) on the compression stroke.
This could cause serious damage, such as broken rings, ring lands, pistons, or even cracked
cylinder heads. If you must use ether, the engine has to be turning over before you spray it into
the intake manifold.

Q29. What cold weather starting system uses a spark plug to ignite fuel vapors in the
intakemanifold?

Q30. When should ether be used as a cold starting aid?

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the basic maintenance required for a diesel fuel system.

If all diesel engines had nearly identical fuel system trouble, diagnosis and maintenance
procedures could follow a general pattern. But, with the exception of similar fuel tanks and basic
piping system, diesel fuel systems differ considerably. Consequently, each engine manufacturer
recommends different specific maintenance procedures. However, the tune-up and maintenance
procedures described are representative of the job you will do. For all jobs, refer to the
manufacturer's service manual for the fuel system you are servicing, even if you fully understand
all procedures.

DIRT IN FUEL SYSTEM

Many diesel engine operating troubles result directly or indirectly from dirt in the fuel system.
That is why proper fuel storage and handling are so important. One of the most important aspects
of diesel fuel is cleanliness. The fuel should not contain more than a trace of foreign substance;
otherwise, fuel pump and injector troubles will occur. Diesel fuel, because it is more viscous than
gasoline, will hold dirt in suspension for longer periods. Therefore, every precaution should be
made to keep the fuel clean.

If the engine starts missing, running irregularly, rapping, or puffing black smoke from the
exhaust manifold, look for trouble at the spray nozzle valves. In this event, it is almost a sure bet
that dirt is responsible for improper fuel injection into the cylinder. A valve held open or
scratched by particles of dirt so that it cannot seat properly will allow fuel to pass into the
exhaust without being completely burned, causing black smoke. Too much fuel may cause a
cylinder to miss entirely. If dirt prevents the proper amount of fuel from entering the cylinders by
restricting spray nozzle holes, the engine may skip or stop entirely. In most cases, injector or
valve troubles are easily identified.

Improper injection pump operation, however, is not easily recognized It is more likely caused by
excessive wear than by an accumulation of dirt or carbon, such as the spray nozzle is subjected to
it in the cylinder combustion chambers. If considerable abrasive dirt gets by the filters to increase
(by wear) the small clearance between the injector pump plunger and barrel, fuel will leak by the
plunger instead of being forced into the injector nozzle in the cylinder. This gradual decrease in
fuel delivery at the spray nozzle may remain unnoticed for some time or until the operator
complains of sluggish engine performance.

Although worn injector pumps will result in loss of engine power and hard starting, worn piston
rings, cylinder liners, and valves (intake and exhaust) can be responsible for the same conditions.
However, with worn cylinder parts or valves, poor compression, a smoky exhaust, and excessive
blow-by will accompany the hard starting and loss of power from the crankcase breather.

WATER IN FUEL SYSTEM

It requires only a little WATER in a fuel system to cause an engine to miss, and if present in
large enough quantities, the engine will stop entirely. Many fuel filters are designed to clog
completely when exposed to water, thereby stopping all fuel flow. Water that enters a tank with
the fuel or that is formed by condensation in a partially empty tank or line usually settles to the
lowest part of the fuel system. This water should be drained off daily.

AIR IN FUEL SYSTEM

Air trapped in diesel fuel systems is one of the main reasons for a hard starting engine. Air can
enter the fuel system at loose joints in the piping or through a spray nozzle that does not close
properly. Letting the vehicle run out of fuel will also cause air to enter the system. Like water, air
can interfere with the unbroken flow of fuel from the tank to the cylinder. A great deal of air in a
system will prevent fuel pumps from picking up fuel and pushing it through the piping system.
Air can be removed by bleeding the system as set forth in the procedures described in the
manufacturer's maintenance manual.

CLEANING INJECTORS
Unless special servicing equipment and repair instructions are available, defective nozzles and
pumps are exchanged for new ones. However, in an emergency, and if spray valves or pumps are
not too badly worn, they may be returned to a serviceable condition, with minor adjustment, after
a thorough cleaning.

Injector spray nozzles or pumps should be disassembled in the field only when no other recourse
is available. Whenever possible, they should be removed from the equipment and brought to the
shop for repair. The first requirement for the cleaning job is a clean working area.

Use clean diesel fuel for washing the parts. Disassemble one nozzle at a time to prevent mixing
of mating parts. Exercise care to prevent damage to nozzle parts. Inspect and clean all parts as
they are disassembled. Carbon may be scraped from the outside of the nozzle, but be careful not
to mar the edges of the holes (orifices). When cleaning fluid is used to clean the nozzle parts, dip
the parts in diesel fuel immediately after cleaning. This will prevent moisture from the hands
from marring the highly polished surfaces.
Reaming tools and special drills are provided for cleaning spray nozzle holes. No drills other
than those recommended by the manufacturer
should be used. The drills are hand-operated,
using a cleaning needle that is held in place by a
small chuck, called a pin vise (fig. 5-45). In
performing reaming operations, remove only the
foreign matter; be particularly careful not to burr
the metal.

Figure 5-45. - Cleaning injector spray nozzle holes.

WARNING
Diesel fuel is a hazardous material. Avoid prolonged skin contact and wear goggles. Keep fire
and flame away. Dispose of waste material and cleaning rags as hazardous waste. For more
information, see OPNAVINST 4110.2, Hazardous Material Control and Management.

Q31. When should water be drained from the fuel system?

Q32. What is the first requirement when disassembling an injector for cleaning?

GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe general troubleshooting techniques used in the
maintenance of a diesel fuel system.

When troubleshooting a diesel engine, keep in mind that problems associated with one make and
type of engine (two-stroke versus four-stroke) may not occur exactly in the same way as in
another. Specifically, particular features of one four-stroke-cycle engine may not appear on
another due the type of fuel system used and optional features on that engine. Follow the basic
troubleshooting steps listed below before rolling up your sleeves and trying to pinpoint a
problem area.

1. Obtain as much information from the operator as possible concerning the complaint.
2. Analyze the problem in detail first, beginning with the smallest and simplest things.
3. Relate the problem symptoms to the basic engine systems and components.
4. Consider any recent maintenance or repair job that might tie into the problem.
5. Always double-check and think about the problem before disassembling anything.
6. Solve the problem by checking the easiest and simplest things first.
7. If possible, use the special tools and diagnostic equipment at your disposal to verify
acomplaint and pinpoint the general area.
8. Determine the cause(s) of the problem and carry out the repair.
9. Operate the engine and road test the vehicle to confirm that the problem is corrected.
EXHAUST SMOKE COLOR
One of the easiest methods to use when troubleshooting an engine for a performance complaint
is to monitor the color of the smoke coming from the exhaust stack visually. There are four basic
colors that may exit from the exhaust system at any time during engine operation - white, black,
gray, or blue. The color of the smoke tips you off to just what and where the problem might lie.

White smoke is generally most noticeable at engine start-up, particularly during cold conditions.
As the combustion and cylinder temperatures increase during the first few minutes of engine
operation the white smoke should start to disappear which indicates the engine is sound.

However, if the white smoke 5-52 takes longer than 3 to 5 minutes to disappear a problem exist.
The problems white smoke may indicate are as follows:
 Low cylinder compression from worn rings
 Scored piston or liner
 Valve seating problems
 Water leaking into the combustion chamber
 Faulty injectors
 Use of a low cetane diesel fuel.

Black or gray smoke generally is caused by the same conditions - the difference between the
colors being one of opacity or denseness of smoke. Black or gray smoke should be checked with
the engine at operating temperature of 160F. Abnormal amounts of exhaust smoke emission is an
indication that the engine is not operating correctly, resulting in a lack of power, as well as
decreased fuel economy.

Excessive black or gray exhaust smoke is caused by the following:

1. Improper grade of diesel fuel
2. Air starvation
3. High exhaust back pressure
4. Incorrect fuel injection timing
5. Faulty injection pump
6. Incorrect valve adjustment clearances
7. Faulty nozzles or injectors
8. Faulty automatic timing advance unit

Blue smoke is attributed to oil entering the combustion chamber and being burned or blown
through the cylinder and burned in the exhaust manifold or turbocharger. Remember always
check the simplest things first, such as too much oil in the crankcase or a plugged crankcase
ventilation breather. The more serious problems that can cause blue smoke are as follows:

 Worn valve guides

 Worn piston rings
 Worn cylinder walls
 Scored pistons or cylinder walls
 Broken rings
  Turbocharger seal leakage
 Glazed cylinder liner walls due to use of the wrong type of oil

NOTE; With the engine stopped, the condition of the pistons, rings, and liners on a two-stroke
cycle Detroit diesel engine can be checked visually by removing an air box inspection cover on
the side of the engine block and accessing the components through the cylinder liner ports.

QUICK INJECTOR MISFIRE CHECK

Listed below are several quick and acceptable checks that can be performed on a running engine
to determine if one or more injectors are at fault on any type of engine.

On four-stroke-cycle engines with a high-pressure in-line pump or distributor system, such as

Caterpillar and Roosa Master, you can loosen off one injector fuel line, one at a time, about one-
half turn as you hold a rag around it while noting if there is any change in the operating sound of
the engine. If the injector is firing properly, there should be a positive change to the sound and
rpm of the engine when you loosen the line, since it prevents the delivery of fuel to the cylinder.
On an engine with the PT fuel system, a cylinder misfire can be checked by running the engine
to a minimum of 160F, removing the rocker covers, then installing a rocker lever actuator over
an injector rocker lever. Hold the injector plunger down while the engine is running at low idle.
This will stop the fuel flow to that injector. If the engine speed decreases, the injector is good. If
the engine rpm does not decrease, replace the injector.

On the two-stroke-cycle nonelectronic Detroit diesel engines, you can remove the rocker cover,
then using a large screwdriver push and hold down the injector follower while the engine is
idling. This action is like shorting out a spark plug on a gasoline engine, since it prevents fuel
from being injected into the combustion chamber. If there is no change to the sound and speed of
the engine, the injector is not firing. There should be a definite change to indicate that the
injector was in fact firing.

Q33. After start-up of a cold diesel engine, white smoke dissipates in what number of minutes?

Q34. Oil entering the combustion chamber produces smoke of what color? Q35. When checking
a two-stroke nonelectronic Detroit diesel engine for proper operation, you follow what
procedure?
COOLING AND LUBRICATING SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the relationship of the cooling system to engine operation.
Identify design and functional features of individual cooling system components. Identify
maintenance procedures applicable to cooling systems. Identify types of lubrication systems and
explain their operational charactetistics and maintenance requirements.

All internal combustion engines are equipped with cooling and lubricating systems that work in
conjunction with each other to promote efficient engine operation and performance. The cooling
and lubricating systems discussed in this chapter, along with their respective components and
maintenance requirements, are representative of the types of systems you will be expected to
maintain.

Because of the variety of engines used, there are differences in the applications of features of
their cooling and lubricating systems. Keep in mind that maintenance procedures and operational
characteristics vary from engine to engine; therefore, always refer to the manufacturer's service
manuals for specific information

ENGINE COOLING SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the relationship of the cooling system to engine operation.
Identify, design and functional features of individual cooling system components. Identify
maintenance procedures applicable to cooling systems.

An internal combustion engine produces power by burning fuel within the cylinders; therefore, it
is often referred to as a "heat engine." However, only about 25% of the heat is converted to
useful power. What happens to the remaining 75 percent? Thirty to thirty five percent of the heat
produced in the combustion chambers by the burning fuel are dissipated by the cooling system
along with the lubrication and fuel systems. Forty to forty-five percent of the heat produced
passes out with the exhaust gases. If this heat were not removed quickly, overheating and
extensive damage would result. Valves would burn and warp, lubricating oil would break down,
pistons and bearing would overheat and seize, and the engine would soon stop.

The necessity for cooling may be emphasized by considering the total heat developed by an
ordinary six- cylinder engine. It is estimated that such an engine operating at ordinary speeds
generates enough heat to warm a six-room house in freezing weather. Also, peak combustion
temperatures in a gasoline engine may reach as high as 4500F, while that of a diesel engine may
approach 6000F. The valves, pistons, cylinder walls, and cylinder head, all of which must be
provided some means of cooling to avoid excessive temperatures, absorb some of this heat. Even
though heated gases may reach high temperatures, the cylinder wall temperatures must not be
allowed to rise above 400F to 500F. Temperatures above this result in serious damage as already
indicated. However, for the best thermal efficiency, it is desirable to operate the engine at
temperatures closely approximating the limits imposed by the lubricating oil properties.
The cooling system has four primary functions. These functions are as follows:

1. Remove excess heat from the engine.

2. Maintain a constant engine operating temperature.
3. Increase the temperature of a cold engine as quickly as possible.
4. Provide a means for heater operation (warming the passenger compartment).

Air is continually present in large enough quantities to cool a running engine; therefore, vehicle
engines are designed to dissipate their heat into the air through which a vehicle passes. This
action is accomplished either by direct air-cooling or indirectly by liquid cooling. In this chapter
we will be concerned with both types, and the discussion will include a description of the various
components of the systems and an explanation of their operation.

Figure 6-1. - Air-cooled system.

AIR-COOLED SYSTEM
The simplest type of cooling is the air-cooled, or direct, method in which the heat is drawn off by
moving air in direct contact with the engine (fig. 6-1). Several fundamental principles of cooling
are embodied in this type of engine cooling. The rate of the cooling is dependent upon the
following:

 The area exposed to the cooling medium

  The heat conductivity of the metal used & the volume of the metal or its size in cross
section
 The amount of air flowing over the heated surfaces
 The difference in temperature between the exposed metal surfaces and the cooling air

Some heat, of course, must be retained for efficient

operation. This is done by use of thermostatic
controls and mechanical linkage, which open and
close shutters to control the volume of cooling air.
You will find that air-cooled engines generally
operate at a higher temperature than liquid-cooled
engines whose operating temperature is largely
limited by the boiling point of the coolant used.
Consequently greater clearances must be provided
between the moving parts of air-cooled engines to
allow for increased expansion. Also, lubricating oil
of a higher viscosity is generally required.

Figure 6-2. - Air-cooled cylinder.

In air-cooled engines the cylinders are mounted

independently to the crankcase so an adequate volume of air can circulate directly around each
cylinder, absorbing heat and maintaining cylinder head temperatures within allowable limits for
satisfactory operation (fig. 6-2). In all cases, the cooling action is based on the simple principle
that the surrounding air is cooler than the engine. The main components of an air- cooled system
are the fan, shroud, baffles, and fins. A typical air-cooled engine is shown in figure 6-3.

Fan and Shroud

All stationary air-cooled engines must have a fan or blowers of some type to circulate a large
volume of cooling air over and around the cylinders. The fan for the air-cooled engine shown in
figure 6-3 is built into the flywheel. Notice that the shrouding, or cowling, when assembled will
form a compartment around the engine so the cooling air is properly directed for effective
cooling. Air-cooled engines, such as those used on motorcycles and outboard engines, do not
require the use of fans or shrouds because their movement through the air results in sufficient
airflow over the engine for adequate cooling.

Baffles and Fins

In addition to the fan and shroud, some engines use baffles or deflectors to direct the cooling air
from the fan to those parts of the engine not in the direct path of the airflow. Baffles are usually
made of light metal and are semicircular, with one edge in the air stream, to direct the air to the
back of the cylinders.

Most air-cooled engines use thin fins that are raised projections on the cylinder barrel and head
(fig. 6-3). The fins provide more cooling area or surface and aid in directing airflow. Heat,
resulting from combustion, passes by conduction from the cylinder walls and cylinder head to
the fins and is carried away by the passing air.

Maintaining the Air-cooled System

You may think that because the air-cooled system is so simple it requires no maintenance. Many
mechanics think this way and many air-cooled engine failures occur as a result. Maintenance of
an air-cooled system consists primarily of keeping cooling components clean. Clean components
permit rapid transfer of heat and ensure that nothing prevents the continuous flow and circulation
of air. To accomplish this, keep fans, shrouds, baffles, and fins free of dirt, bugs, grease, and
other foreign matter. The engine may look clean from the outside, but what is under the shroud?
An accumulation of dirt and debris here can cause real problems; therefore, keep this area
between the engine and shroud clean.

Paint can cause a problem. Sometimes a mechanic will reduce the efficiency of the cooling
system by the careless use of paint. The engine may look good but most paints act as an insulator
and hold in heat. In addition to keeping the cooling components clean, you must inspect them
each time the engine is serviced. Replace or repair any broken or bent parts. Check the fins for
cracks or breaks. When cracks extend into the combustion chamber area, the cylinder barrel must
be replaced.

Figure 6-3. - Air-cooled engine.

Now that we have studied the simplest method of cooling, let's look at the most common, but
also the most complex system.

LIQUID-COOLED SYSTEM
Nearly all multicylinder engines used in automotive, construction, and material-handling
equipment use a liquid-cooled system. Any liquid used in this type of system is called a
COOLANT.

A simple liquid-cooled system consists of a radiator, coolant pump, piping, fan, thermostat, and a
system of water jackets and passages in the cylinder head and block through which the coolant
circulates (fig. 6-4). Some vehicles are equipped with a coolant distribution tube inside the
cooling passages that directs additional coolant to the points where temperatures are highest.
Cooling of the engine parts is accomplished by keeping the coolant circulating and in contact
with the metal surfaces to be cooled. The operation of a liquid- cooled system is as follows:

Figure 6-4. - Liquid-cooled engine.

The pump draws the coolant from the bottom of the radiator, forcing the coolant through the
water jackets and passages, and ejects it into the upper radiator tank.
The coolant then passes through a set of tubes to the bottom of the radiator from which the
cooling cycle begins.
The radiator is situated in front of a fan that is driven either by the water pump or an electric
motor. The fan ensures an airflow through the radiator at times when there is no vehicle motion.
The downward flow of coolant through the radiator creates what is known as a thermosiphon
action. This simply means that as the coolant is heated in the jackets of the engine, it expands. As
it expands, it becomes less dense and therefore lighter. This causes it to flow out of the top outlet
of the engine and into the top tank of the radiator.
As the coolant is cooled in the radiator, it again becomes more dense and heavier. This causes
the coolant to settle to the bottom tank of the radiator.
The heating in the engine and the cooling in the radiator therefore create a natural circulation that
aids the water pump.

The amount of engine heat that must be removed by the cooling system is much greater than is
generally realized. To handle this heat load, it may be necessary for the cooling system in some
engine to circulate 4,000 to 10,000 gallons of coolant per hour. The water passages, the size of
the pump and radiator, and other details are so designed as to maintain the working parts of the
engine at the most efficient temperature within the limitation imposed by the coolant.

Radiator
In the cooling system, the radiator is a heat exchanger that removes the heat from the coolant
passing through it. The radiator holds a large volume of coolant in close contact with a large
volume of air so heat will transfer from the coolant to the air. The components of a radiator are
as follows:

1. CORE - The center section of the radiator made up of tubes and cooling fins.
2. TANKS - The metal or plastic ends that fit over core tube ends to provide storage for
coolant and fittings for the hoses.
3. FILLER NECK - The opening for adding coolant. It also holds the radiator cap and
overflow tube.
4. OIL COOLER - The inner tank for cooling automatic transmission or transaxle fluid.
5. PETCOCK - The fitting on the bottom tank for draining coolant.

A tube-and-fin radiator consists of a series of tubes extending from top to bottom or from side to
side (fig. 6-5). The tubes run from the inlet tank to the outlet tank. Fins are placed around the
outside of the tubes to improve heat transfer. Air passes between the fins. As the air passes by, it
absorbs heat from the coolant. In a typical radiator, there are five fins per inch Radiators used in
vehicles that have air conditioning have seven fins per inch. This design provides the additional
cooling surface required to handle the added heat load imposed by the air conditioner.

Radiators are classified according to the direction that the coolant flows through them. The two
types of radiators are the downflow and crossflow.
Figure 6-5. - Engine radiator construction.

The downflow radiator has the coolant tanks on the top and bottom and the core tubes run
vertically. Hot coolant from the engine enters the top tank. The coolant flows downward through
the core tubes. After cooling, coolant flows out the bottom tank and back into the engine.
The crossflow radiator is a design that has the tanks on the sides of the core. The core tubes are
arranged for horizontal coolant flow. The tank with the radiator cap is normally the outer tank. A
crossflow radiator can be shorter, allowing for a lower vehicle hood.

The operation of a radiator is as follows:

 The upper tank collects incoming coolant and, through the use of an internal baffle,
distributes it across the top of the core.
 The core is made up of numerous rows of small vertical tubes that connect the upper tank
and the lower tank. Sandwiched between the rows of tubes are thin sheet metal fins. As
the coolant passes through the tubes to the lower tank, the fins conduct the heat away
from it and dissipate this heat into the atmosphere. The dissipation of the heat from the
fins is aided by directing a constant air flow between the tube and over the fins.
 The lower tank collects the coolant from the core and discharges it to the engine through
the outlet pipe. The overflow tube provides an opening from the radiator for escape of
coolant if the pressure in the system exceeds the regulated maximum. This will prevent
rupture of cooling system components.
A transmission oil cooler is often placed in the radiator on vehicles with automatic transmissions.
It is a small tank enclosed in one of the main radiator tanks. Since the transmission fluid is hotter
than engine coolant, heat is removed from the fluid as it passes through the radiator and cooler.

In downflow radiators, the transmission oil cooler is located in the lower tank. In a crossflow
radiator, it is located in the tank having the radiator cap. Both tanks are coolant outlet tanks.

Line fittings from the cooler extend through the radiator tank to the outside. Metal lines from the
automatic transmission connect to these fittings. The transmission oil pump forces the fluid
through the lines and cooler.

Radiator Hoses
Radiator hoses carry coolant between the engine water jackets and the radiator. Being flexible,
hoses can withstand the vibration and rocking of the engine without breaking.

The upper radiator hose normally connects to the thermostat housing on the intake manifold or
cylinder head. The other end of the hose fits on the radiator. The lower hose connects the water
pump inlet and the radiator.

A molded hose is manufactured into a special shape with bends to clean the parts especially the
cooling fan. It must be purchased to fit the exact year and make of the vehicle.

A flexible hose has an accordion shape and can be bent to different angles. The pleated
construction allows the hose to bend without collapsing and blocking coolant flow. It is also
known as a universal type radiator hose.

A hose spring is used in the lower radiator hose to prevent its collapse. The lower hose is
exposed to suction from the water pump. The spring assures that the inner lining of the hose does
NOT tear away, close up, and stop circulation.

Radiator Pressure Cap

The radiator pressure cap (fig. 6-6) is used on nearly all of the modern engines. The radiator cap
locks onto the radiator tank filler neck Rubber or metal seals make the cap-to-neck joint airtight.
The functions of the pressure cap are as follows:

1. Seals the top of the radiator tiller neck to prevent leakage.

2. Pressurizes system to raise boiling point of coolant.
3. Relieves excess pressure to protect against system damage.
4. In a closed system, it allows coolant flow into and from the coolant reservoir.

The radiator cap pressure valve consists of a spring- loaded disc that contacts the filler neck. The
spring pushes the valve into the neck to form a seal. Under pressure, the boiling point of water
increases.
Figure 6-6. - Radiator pressure cap.

Normally water boils at 212F. However, for every pound of pressure increase, the boiling point
goes up 3F.

Typical radiator cap pressure is 12 to 16 psi. This raises the boiling point of the engine coolant to
about 250F to 260F. Many surfaces inside the water jackets can be above 212F.

If the engine overheats and the pressure exceeds the cap rating, the pressure valve opens. Excess
pressure forces coolant out of the overflow tube and into the reservoir or onto the ground. This
prevents high pressure from rupturing the radiator, gaskets, seals, or hoses.

The radiator cap vacuum valve opens to allow reverse flow back into the radiator when the
coolant temperature drops after engine operation. It is a smaller valve located in the center,
bottom of the cap.

The cooling and contraction of the coolant and air in the system could decrease coolant volume
and pressure. Outside atmospheric pressure could then crush inward on the hoses and radiator.
Without a cap vacuum or vent valve, the radiator hose and radiator could collapse.

CAUTION
Always remove the radiator cap slowly and carefully. Removing the radiator cap from a hot
pressurized system can cause serious burns from escaping steam and coolant.

Water Pump

The water pump is an impeller or centrifugal pump that forces coolant through the engine block,
cylinder head, intake manifold, hoses, and radiator (fig. 6-7). It is driven by a fan belt running off
the crankshaft pulley. The major parts of a typical water pump include the following:
Figure 6-7. - Water pump. Figure 6-8. - Water pump operation.

1. WATER PUMP IMPELLER - a disc with fanlike blades that spins and produces pressure
and flow.
2. WATER PUMP SHAFT - steel shaft that transfers turning force from the hub to impeller.
3. WATER PUMP SEAL - prevents coolant leakage between pump shaft and pump
housing.
4. WATER PUMP BEARING - plain or ball bearing that allows the pump shaft to spin
freely in the housing.
5. WATER PUMP HUB& - provides mounting place for the belt and fan.
6. WATER PUMP HOUSING - iron or aluminum casting that forms the main body of the
pump.

The water pump normally mounts on the front of the engine. With some transverse (sideways)
mounted engines, it may bolt to the side of the engine and extend towards the front.

A water pump gasket fits between the engine and the pump housing to prevent coolant leakage.
RTV sealer may be used instead of a gasket. Operation of the water pump is as follows

 The spinning crankshaft pulley causes the fan belt to turn the water pump pulley, pump
shaft, and impeller.
 Coolant trapped between the impeller blades is thrown outward, producing suction in the
central area of the pump housing.
  Since the pump inlet is near the center, coolant is pulled out of the radiator, through the
lower radiator hose.
 After being thrown outward and pressurized, the coolant flows into the engine. It
circulates through the block, around the cylinders, up through the cylinder heads, and
back into the radiator.

Fan and Shroud

The cooling system fan pulls a large volume of air through the radiator core that cools the hot
water circulating through the radiator. A fan belt or an electric motor drives the fan A fan driven
by a fan belt, is known as an engine-powered fan and is bolted to the water pump hub and pulley.
Sometimes a spacer fits between the fan and pulley to move the fan closer to the radiator.
Besides removing heat from the coolant in the radiator, the flow of air created by the fan causes
some direct cooling of the engine itself.

Fan blades are spaced at intervals around the fan hub to aid in controlling vibration and noise.
They are often curled at the tip to increase their ability to move air. Except for differences in
location around the hub, most blades have the same pitch and angularity.

Bent fan blades are very common and result in noise, vibration, and excess wear on the water
pump shaft. You should inspect the fan blades, pulleys, pump shaft end play, and drive belt at
every preventive maintenance inspection. A variable pitch (flex) fan has thin, flexible blades that
alter airflow with engine speed (fig. 6-9). These fan blades are made to change pitch as the speed
of the fan increases so that the fan will not create excessive noise or draw excessive engine
power at highway speeds. At low speeds, the fan blades remain curved and pull air through the
radiator. At higher speeds, the blades flex until they are almost straight. This reduces fan action
and saves engine power.

Figure 6-9. - Variable pitch fan.

The fluid coupling fan clutch is designed to slip at high speeds, performing the same function as
a flexible fan. The clutch is filled with silicone-based oil. Fan speed is controlled by the torque-
carrying capacity of the oil. The more oil in the coupling, the greater the fan speed; the less oil in
the coupling, the slower the fan speed.

The thermostatic fan clutch has a temperature sensitive, bimetallic spring that controls fan action.
The spring controls oil flow in the fan clutch when cold, the spring causes the clutch to slip,
speeding engine warm-up. After reaching operating temperature, the spring locks the clutch,
providing forced air circulation.

An electric engine fan uses an electric motor and a thermostatic switch to provide cooling action
(fig. 6-10). An electric fan is used on front-wheel drive vehicles having transverse mounted
engines. The water pump is normally located away from the radiator.

The fan motor is a small, direct current (dc) motor. It mounts on a bracket secured to the radiator.
A metal or plastic fan blade mounts on the end of the motor shaft.

A fan switch or temperature-sensing switch

controls fan motor operation. When the engine is
cold, the switch is open, keeping the fan from
spinning, and speeds engine warm-up. When
coolant temperature reaches approximately 210F,
the switch closes to operate the fan and provide
cooling.

An electric engine fan saves energy and increases

cooling system efficiency. It only functions when
needed. By speeding engine warm-up, it reduces
emissions and fuel consumption. In cold weather,
the electric fan may shut off at highway speeds.
There may be enough cool air rushing through the
grille of the vehicle to provide adequate cooling.
On some models a timed relay may be
incorporated that allows the fan to run for a short
time after engine shutdown. This, in conjunction
with thermosiphon action, helps to prevent
boilover after engine shutdown.

Figure 6-10. - Electrically motorized fan.

The radiator shroud ensures that the fan pulls air through the radiator. It fastens to the rear of the
radiator and surrounds the area around the fan. When the fan is spinning, the shroud keeps air
from circulating between the back of the radiator and the front of the fan. As a result, a large
volume of air flows through the radiator core.
Water Jacket
The water passages in the cylinder block and cylinder head form the engine waterjacket (fig. 64).
In the cylinder block, the water jacket completely surrounds all cylinders along their full length.
Within the jacket, narrow passages are provided between the cylinders for coolant circulation
around them. In addition, water passages are provided around the valve seats and other hot parts
of the cylinder block In the cylinder head, the water jacket covers the combustion chambers at
the top of the cylinders and contains passages around the valve seats when the valves are located
in the head.

The passages of the water jacket are designed to control circulation of coolant and provide
proper cooling throughout the engine. The pump forces coolant directly from the lower radiator
tank connection into the forward portion of the cylinder block. This type of circulation would,
obviously, cool the number one cylinder first; causing the rear cylinder to accept coolant
progressively heated by the cylinders ahead. To prevent this condition, the L-head block is
equipped with a coolant distribution tube that extends from front to rear of the block, having
holes adjacent to (and directed at) the hottest parts of each cylinder. I-head engines are equipped
with ferrule type coolant directors that direct a jet of coolant toward the exhaust valve seats.

Thermostats

Automatic control of the temperature of the engine is necessary for efficient engine performance
and economical operation. If the engine is allowed to operate at a low temperature, sludge
buildup and excessive fuel consumption will occur. On the other hand, overheating the engine or
operating it above normal temperature will result in burnt valves and faulty lubrication. The
latter causes early engine failure.

The thermostat senses engine temperature and controls coolant flow through the radiator. It
allows coolant to circulate freely only withinthe blockuntil the desired temperature is reached.
This action shortens the warm-up period. The thermostat normally fits under the thermostat
housing between the engine and the end of the upper radiator hose. The pellet-type thermostat
that is used in modern pressurized cooling systems incorporates the piston and spring principle
(fig. 6-11). The thermostat consists of a valve that is operated by a piston or a steel pin that fits
into a small case, containing a copper impregnated wax pellet. A spring holds the piston and
valve in a normally closed position. When the thermostat is heated, the pellet expands and
pushes the valve open. As the pellet and thermostat cools, spring tension overcomes pellet
expansion and the valve closes.

Thermostats are designed to open at specific temperatures. This is known as thermostat rating.
Normal ratings are between 180F and 195F for automotive applications and between 170F and
203F for heavy-duty applications. Thermostats will begin to open at their rated temperature and
are fully open about 20F higher, For example, a thermostat with a rating of 195F starts to open at
that temperature and is fully open at about 215F.

Most engines have a small coolant bypass passage that permits some coolant to circulate within
the cylinder block and head when the engine is cold and the thermostat is closed. This provides
equal warming of the cylinders and prevents hot spots. When the engine warms up, the bypass
must close or become restricted. Otherwise, the coolant would continue to circulate within the
engine and too little would return to the radiator for cooling.

The bypass passage may be an internal passage or an external bypass hose. The bypass hose
connects the cylinder block or head to the water pump. There are two internal bypass systems
that can be used on an engine.

One internal bypass system uses a small, spring- loaded valve located in the back of the water
pump. The valve is forced open by coolant pressure from the pump when the thermostat is
closed. As the thermostat opens, the coolant pressure drops within the engine and the bypass
valve closes.

Figure 6-11. - Pellet-type thermostat.

Another bypass system has a blocking-bypass thermostat (fig. 6-12). This thermostat operates as
previously described, but it also has a secondary, or bypass, valve. When the thermostat valve is
closed, the circulation to the radiator is shut off. However, when the bypass valve is open,
coolant is allowed to circulate through the bypass. As the thermostat valve opens, coolant flows
into the radiator and the bypass valve closes.

Figure 6-12. - Blocking-bypass thermostat.

Some stationary engines and large trucks are equipped with shutters that supplement the action
of the thermostat in providing a faster warm-up and in maintaining proper operating
temperatures. When the engine coolant is below a predetermined temperature, the shutters,
located in front of the radiator, remain closed and restrict the flow of air through the radiator.
Then as the coolant reaches proper temperature, the shutters start to open. Two methods are used
to controlthe shutter opening. A stationary engine uses a SHUTTERSTAT (long thermostatic
valve) connected to the engine cooling system with hoses or pipes that allow the coolant to
circulate through the valve. The temperature of the coolant, when it reaches a predetermined
temperature, causes the valve to expand extending a rod which through linkage forces the
shutters open. Trucks, equipped with an air brake, use a smaller thermostatic valve that actuates
an air valve. This air valve allows pressure from the air tank to enter the air cylinder attached to
the shutter operating mechanism, forcing the shutters open.

Expansion (Recovery) Tank

Many cooling systems have a separate coolant reservoir or expansion tank, also called the
recovery tank. It is partly filled with coolant and is connected to the overflow tube from the
radiator filler neck. The coolant in the engine expands, as the engine heats up. Instead of
dripping out of the overflow tube onto the ground and being lost out of the system completely,
the coolant flows into the expansion tank.

Figure 6-13. - Closed cooling system.

When the engine cools, a vacuum is created in the cooling system. The vacuum siphons some of
the coolant back into the radiator from the expansion tank. In effect, a cooling system with an
expansion tank is a closed cooling system (fig. 6-13). Coolant can flow back and forth between
the radiator and the expansion tank. This occurs as the coolant expands and contracts from the
heating and cooling. Under normal conditions, no coolant is lost. Coolant is added in this system
through the expansion tank that is marked for proper coolant level. NEVER remove the cap
located on the radiator unless you are positive the system is cold. If there is any pressure in the
radiator, it will spray you with hot steam and coolant. Use extreme caution whenever you work
around a closed cooling system.

An advantage to the use of an expansion tank is that it eliminates almost all air bubbles from the
cooling system. Coolant without bubbles absorbs heat better. Although the coolant level in the
expansion tank goes up and down, the radiator and cooling system are kept full. This results in
maximum cooling efficiency.

Temperature Gauge and Warning Light

The operator should be warned if the temperature of the coolant in the cooling system goes too
high. For this reason, a temperature gauge or warning light is installed in the instrument panel of
the vehicle. An abnormal heat rise is a warning of abnormal conditions in the engine. The
warning lights alert the operator to stop the vehicle before serious engine damage can occur.
Temperature gauges are of two general types - the balancing-coil (magnetic) type and the
bimetal- thermostat (thermal) type.

1. The balancing-coil consists of two coils and an armature to which a pointer is attached. An
engine-sending unit, that changes resistance with temperature, is placed in the engine so that the
end of the unit is in the coolant. When the engine is cold, only a small amount of current is
allowed to flow through the right coil; the left coil has more magnetism than the right coil. The
pointer, attached to the armature, moves left indicating that the engine is cold. As the engine
warms up, the sending unit passes more current. More current flows through the right coil,
creating a stronger magnetic field. Therefore, the pointer moves 'to the right to indicate a higher
coolant temperature.
2. The bimetal-thermostat is similar to the balancing-coil type except for the use of a bimetal
thermostat in the gauge. This thermostat is linked to the pointer. As the sending unit warms up
and passes more current, the thermostat heats up and bends. This causes the pointer to swing to
the right to indicate that the engine coolant temperature is rising.

A temperature warning light informs the operator when the vehicle is overheating. When the
engine coolant becomes too hot, a sending unit in the engine block closes, completing the circuit
and the dash indicating light comes ON. The indicating light warns of an overheating condition
about 5F to 10F below coolant boiling point.

In some construction equipment a "prove-out" circuit is incorporated in the system. When the
ignition switch is turned from OFF to RUN, the light comes on, proving that the system is
operating. If the light does not come on, either the bulb is burned out or the sending unit or
connecting wire is defective. The light will go out normally after the engine starts.
Coolants and Antifreeze
Since water is easily obtained, cheap, and has the ability to transfer heat readily, it has served as
a basic coolant for many years. Some properties of water, such as its boiling point, freezing
point, and natural corrosive action on metals, limit its usefulness as a coolant. To counteract this,
use an antifreeze.

Antifreeze, usually ethylene glycol, is mixed with water to produce the engine coolant.
Antifreeze has several functions.

Prevents winter freeze up, which can cause serious damage to the engine and cooling system.
Prevents rust and corrosion by providing a protective film on the metal surfaces.
Lubricates the water pump, which increases the service life of the pump and seals.
Cools the engine; prevents overheating in hot weather.

For ideal cooling and winter protection, a 50/50 mixture of antifreeze and water is recommended.
It will provide protection from ice formation to about -34F. Higher ratios of antifreeze produce
even lower freezing temperatures; for example, a 60/40 mixture will protect the cooling system
to about -62F. However, this much protection is not normally needed.

WARNING
Ethylene glycol is a toxic material- Avoid prolonged skin contact or accidental ingestion. Wear
protective gloves and goggles while handling antifreeze and coolants.

SERVICING THE LIQUID-COOLED SYSTEM

A cooling system is extremely important to the performance and service life of the engine. Major
engine damage could occur in a matter of minutes without proper cooling because combustion
heat collects in metal engine parts. This heat can melt pistons, crack or warp the cylinder head or
block, cause valves to burn, or the head gasket to "blow." To prevent these costly problems, keep
the cooling system in good condition.

As a mechanic, you must be able to locate and correct cooling system problems quickly and
accurately. It is equally important that you know how to service a cooling system.

Flushing the System

The original additives in antifreeze fight rust and corrosion breakdown and are ineffective after 1
to 2 years. This is because of the continual exposure to the heat in the cooling system. After the
additives break down, rust begins to form rapidly. Therefore, a rust- colored antifreeze is an
indication that the cooling- system service is required.

The cooling system should be cleaned periodically to remove rust, scale, grease, oil, and any
acids formed by exhaust-gas leakage into the coolant. Recommendations vary; for example,
Chevrolet recommends that the cooling system be drained and flushed every 2 years.
Flushing (cleaning) of a cooling system should be done based on the manufacturer's
recommendations or when rust and other contaminants are found in the system. Flushing
involves running water or a cleaning chemical through the cooling system to wash out
contaminants. Rust is very harmful to the cooling system because it causes premature water
pump wear and can collect and clog the radiator or heater core tubes. There are three methods of
flushing-fast flushing, reverse flushing, and chemical flushing.

Fast flushing is a common method of cleaning a cooling system because the thermostat does not
have to be removed from the engine. A water hose is connected to a heated hose fitting. The
radiator cap is removed and the petcock is opened. When the water hose is ON and water flows
through the system, loose rust and scale are removed.

Reverse flushing of a radiator requires a special

flushing gun device that is connected to the
radiator outlet tank by a piece of hose (fig. 6-14).
Another hose is attached to the inlet tank, so the
water and debris can be directed to the floor
drains. Compressed air, under low pressure, is
used to force water through the radiator core
backwards. The air pressure is used intermittently
to loosen scale and sediment. Excessive air
pressure should be avoided to prevent damage to
the radiator. Starting and stopping the water flow
produces a fluctuation in pressure and tends to
loosen all foreign matter clinging to the passages
in the radiator core.

Figure 6-14. - Reverse flushing of a radiator.

Reverse flushing can also be used on the engine

block and head (fig. 6-15). First, remove the
thermostat and disconnect the upper radiator
hose. Then disconnect the lower radiator hose at
the water pump. Insert the flushing equipment in
the upper radiator hose. Reverse flush the system
by sending water and air through the water
jackets and coolant passages. Following the
flushing, replace the thermostat and hoses so the
system can be refilled. When reverse flushing
equipment is not available, you can still reverse
flush the system with a garden hose. This is often
effective following the use of a chemical cleaner.

Figure 6-15. - Reverse flushing of water jackets.

Chemical flushing is needed when a scale buildup in the system is causing engine overheating.
Add the chemical cleaner to the coolant. Run the engine at fast idle for about 20 minutes. Wait
for the engine to cool. Then drain out the coolant and cleaner solution. Using a garden hose,
flush out the loosened rust and scale. Continue to flush until the water runs clear.

CAUTION Always follow manufacturer's instructions when using a cooling system cleaning
agent. Wear protective gloves and goggles when handling cleaning agents. Chemicals may cause
eye and skin burns.

Antifreeze Service
Antifreeze should be checked and changed at regular intervals. After prolonged use, antifreeze
will break down and become very corrosive. It can lose its rust preventative properties and the
cooling system can fill rapidly with rust.

A visual inspection of the antifreeze will help determine its condition. Rub your lingers inside
the radiator filler neck. Check for rust, oil (internal engine leak), scale, or transmission fluid
(leaking oil cooler). 6-16 Also check to find out how long the antifreeze has been in service. If
contaminated or too old, replace the antifreeze. If badly rusted, you may need to flush the
system. Antifreeze should be changed when contaminated or when 2 years old. Check the service
manual for exact change schedules.

Antifreeze strength is a measurement of the concentration of antifreeze compared to water. It

determines the freeze-up protection of the solution. There are two devices used to check
antifreeze strength - the antifreeze hydrometer and the refractometer.

The antifreeze hydrometer is used to measure the freezing point of the cooling system. A squeeze
and release bulb draws coolant into the tester, and a needle floats to show the freeze protection
point.
With the refractometer, you draw coolant into the tester. Then place a few drops of coolant on
the measuring window (surface). Aim the tester at a light and view through the tester sight. The
scale in the refractometer indicates the freeze protection point.

Minimum antifreeze strength should be several degrees lower than the lowest possible
temperature for the climate of the area. For example, if the lowest normal temperature for the
area is 10F, the antifreeze should test to -20F. A 50/50 mixture of antifreeze and water is
commonly used to provide protection for most weather conditions.

NOTE Vehicles, using an aluminum cooling system and engine parts, can be corroded by some
types of antifreeze. Use only antifreeze designed for aluminum components. Check the vehicles
service manual or antifreeze label for details.

COOLING SYSTEM TESTS

It is often necessary to check the cooling system for cooling system problems. Cooling system
problems can be grouped into three general categories:
 1. COOLANT LEAKS - crack or rupture, allowing pressure cap action to push coolant out
of the system.
2. OVERHEATING - engine operating temperature too high, warning light on, temperature
gauge shows hot, or coolant and steam is blowing out the overflow.
3. OVERCOOLING - engine fails to reach full operating temperature, engine performance
poor or sluggish.

To diagnose and repair cooling system problems, perform several tests. These tests include the
following - cooling system pressure test, combustion leak test, thermostat test, engine fan test,
and fan belt test.

Cooling System Pressure Test

A cooling system pressure test is used to locate leaks quickly. Low air pressure is forced into the
system, causing coolant to pour or drip from any leak in the system.

A pressure tester is a hand-operated air pump used to pressurize the system for leak detection.
Install the pressure tester on the radiator filler neck. Then pump the tester until the pressure
gauge reads radiator cap pressure.

CAUTION Do not pump to much pressure into the cooling system or part damage may result.

With pressure in the system, inspect all parts for coolant leakage. Check at all fittings, at gaskets,
under the water pump, around the radiator, and at engine freeze (core) plugs. Once the leak is
located, tighten, repair, or replace parts as needed

A pressure test can also be applied to the radiator cap. The radiator pressure test measures cap-
opening pressure and checks condition of the sealing washer. The cap is installed on the cooling
system pressure tester.

Pump the tester to pressurize the cap. Watch the pressure gauge. The cap should release pressure
at its rated pressure (pressure stamped on cap). It should also hold that pressure for a least 1
minute. If not, install a new cap.

Combustion Leak Test

A combustion leak test is designed to check for the presence of combustion gases in the engine
coolant. It should be performed when signs (overheating, bubbles in the coolant, rise in coolant
level upon starting) point to a blown head gasket, cracked block, or cracked cylinder head.

A block tester, often called a combustion leak tester, is placed in the radiator filler neck. The
engine is started and the test bulb is squeezed and then released. This will pull air from the
radiator through the test fluid.
The fluid in the block tester is normally blue. The chemicals in the exhaust gases cause a reaction
in the test fluid, changing its color. A combustion leak will turn the fluid yellow. If the fluid
remains blue, there is no combustion leak.

Combustion leakage into the cooling system is very damaging. Exhaust gases mix with the
coolant and form corrosive acids. The acids can cause holes in the radiator and corrode other
components.

An exhaust gas analyzer will also detect combustion pressure leakage into the coolant. By
placing the analyzer probe over the filler neck and accelerating the engine, the probe will pick up
any hydrocarbons (HC) leaking from the system, which indicates combustion leakage.

Thermostat Test
To check thermostat action, watch the coolant through the radiator neck. When the engine is
cold, coolant should not flow through the radiator. When the engine warms, the thermostat
should open. Coolant should begin to circulate through the radiator. If this action does not occur,
the thermostat may be defective.

There are several ways to test a thermostat. The most

common is to suspend the thermostat in a container of
water together with a high-temperature thermometer (fig.
6-16). Then by heating the container on a stove or hot
plate, the temperature at which the thermostat begins to
open, as well as when full open, can be determined. If
the thermostat fails to respond at specified temperatures,
it should be discarded. Specifications vary on different
thermostats. For example, a thermostat with an opening
temperature of 180F to 185F, full-open temperature is
200F to 202F. If the test is satisfactory, the thermostat
can be reinstalled.

A digital thermometer can also be used to check the

operating temperature of an engine and thermostat.
Simply touch the tester probe on the engine next to the
thermostat housing and note its reading. Figure 6-16. - Testing a thermostat.

If the thermostat does not open at the correct temperature, it is defective and should be replaced.

The use of a temperature stick is another way to test a thermostat quickly. The temperature stick
is a pencil- like device that contains a wax material containing certain chemicals that melt at a
given temperature. Using two sticks (one for opening temperature and the other for full-open
temperature), rub the sticks on the thermostat housing. As the coolant warms to operating
temperature, the wax-like marks will melt. If the marks do not melt, the thermostat is defective
and needs to be replaced.
Engine Fan Test
A faulty engine fan can cause overheating, overcooling, vibration, and water pump wear, or
damage. Testing the fan ensures that it is operating properly.

To test a thermostatic fan clutch, start the engine. The fan should slip when cold; as the engine
warms up, the clutch should engage. Air should begin to flow through the radiator and over the
engine. You will be able to hear and feel the air when the fan clutch locks up.

If the fan clutch is locked all the time (cold or hot), it is defective and must be replaced.
Excessive play or oil leakage also indicates fan clutch failure.

When testing an electric cooling fan, observe whether the fan turns ON when the engine is warm.
Make sure the fan motor is spinning at normal speed and forcing enough air through the radiator.

If the fan does not function, check the fuse, electrical connections, and supply voltage to the
motor. If the fan motor fails to operate with voltage applied, replace it.

If the engine is warm and no voltage is supplied to the fan motor, check the action of the fan
switch. Use either a voltmeter or test light. The switch should have almost zero resistance (pass
current and voltage) when the engine is warm. Resistance should be infinite (stop current and
voltage) when the engine is cold.

If these tests do not locate the trouble with the electric cooling fan, refer to the manufacturer's
service manual for instructions. There may be a defective relay, connection, or other problem.

SERVICE AND REPAIR OF COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The individual components of the cooling system which require servicing and repair include the
water pump, thermostat, hoses, fan and fan belt, and the radiator and pressure cap. Proper service
of the components ensures an efficient cooling system and extends the life of the vehicle.

Water Pump
A bad water pump may leak coolant, fail to circulate coolant, or it may produce a grinding
sound. Rust in the cooling system or lack of antifreeze is the most common causes for pump
failure.

These conditions can accelerate seal, shaft, and bearing wear. An over-tightened fan belt will
also cause water pump failure.

To check for a worn water pump seal, pressure test the system and watch for coolant leakage.
Coolant will leak out of the small drain hole at the bottom of the pump or at the end of the pump
shaft.
Worn water pump bearings are checked by wiggling the fan or pump pulley up and down. If the
pump shaft is loose in its housing, the pump bearings are badly worn. A stethoscope can also be
used to listen for worn, noisy water pump bearings.

Water pump action can be checked with a warm engine. Squeeze the top radiator hose while
someone starts the engine. You should feel a pressure surge (hose swelling) if the pump is
working. If not, pump shaft or impeller problems are indicated. You can also watch for coolant
circulation in the radiator with the engine at operating temperature. Whether a defective pump is
replaced or rebuilt depends on parts supply and cost. A water pump rebuild involves
disassembly, cleaning, part inspection, worn part replacement, and reassembly. Few mechanics
rebuild water pumps because rebuilding takes too much time and is not cost effective.

The removal and installation of the water pump varies with different vehicles. Therefore, the
applicable shop manual must be consulted for the step-by-step procedures.

When you replace a pump, install a new gasket. Make sure the mating surfaces are clean and
smooth. The application of a gasket sealer to both sides of the gasket is recommended. Then after
refilling the cooling system, the pump should be checked for leaks, noise, and proper operation.

Thermostat
There are no repairs or adjustments to be made on the thermostat. The unit must be replaced
when it fails to operate properly. A stuck thermostat can either cause engine overheating or
overcooling.

If a thermostat is stuck closed, coolant will not circulate through the radiator. As a result,
overheating could make the coolant boil.

When a thermostat is stuck open, too much coolant may circulate through the radiator and the
engine may not reach proper operating temperature. The engine may run poorly for extended
periods in cold weather. Engine efficiency (power, fuel mileage, and driveability) will be
reduced.

The procedure for thermostat replacement is as follows:

 To remove the thermostat, drain the coolant and remove the upper radiator hose from the
engine.
 Remove the retaining cap screws holding the thermostat housing to the engine. Tap the
housing free with a rubber hammer. Lift off the housing and thermostat.
 Scrape all of the old gasket material off the thermostat housing and sealing surface of the
engine. Make sure that the housing is not warped. Place it on a flat surface and check the
gaps between the housing and the surface. If warped, file the surface flat. This action will
prevent coolant leakage.
 Make sure the temperature rating is correct. Then place the thermostat into the engine.
Normally, the pointed end on the thermostat should face the radiator hose. The pellet
chamber should face the inside of the engine.
  Position the new gasket with approved sealer. Start the cap screws by hand. Then torque
them to the manufacturer's specifications in an alternating pattern DO NOT overtighten
the housing bolts or warpage and or breakage may result. Most housings are made of soft
aluminum or "pot metal."

Hoses

Old radiator hoses and heater hoses are frequent causes of cooling system problems. Hoses
should be checked periodically for leakage and general condition. The leakage may often be
corrected by tightening or replacing hose clamps. After a few years of use, hoses deteriorate.
They may become soft and mushy, or hard and brittle. Deteriorated hoses should be replaced to
preclude future troubles. Cooling system pressure can rupture the hoses and result in coolant
loss.

Inspect the radiator and heater hoses for cracks, bulges, cuts, or any other sign of deterioration.
Squeeze the hoses to check whether they are hardened or softened and faulty. Flex or bend heater
hoses and watch for signs of surface cracks. If any problem is detected, the affected hose should
be replaced. However, where spiral spring stiffeners are used to control the tendency to collapse,
such test will not work and the hose must be removed for inspection.

Fan and Belt

One of the easiest and quickest checks to the cooling system is the fan and fan belt. Check the
fan for bent blades, cracks, and other problems. A bent or distorted fan on one with a loose blade
should be replaced. Where the fan is just loose on its mounting, tightening is in order.

Fan belts, or drive belts, should be checked for wear and tension. Most wear occurs on the
underside of the belt. To check a V-belt, twist the belt with your fingers. Check for small cracks,
grease, glazing, and tears or splits. Small cracks will enlarge as the belt is flexed. Grease rots the
rubber and makes the side slick so that the belt slips easily. A high-pitched squeal results from
slippage. Large tears or splits in a belt allow it to be tossed from the pulley. On vehicles with a
set of two belts, replace both if one is worn and requires replacement.

Use a belt tension gauge to check and adjust the fan belt tension. When you do not have a gauge
or if space does not allow use of a gauge, you can make a quick check of belt tension. Press
down on the free span of the belt, a point midway between the alternator or generator pulley and
the fan pulley. Measure the amount of deflection. When free span is less than 12 inches between
pulleys, belt deflection should be 1/8 to 1/4 inch. When free span is longer than 12 inches, belt
deflection should be 1/4 to 1/2 inch.

A slipping belt can cause overheating and a run- down battery. These troubles result because a
slipping belt cannot drive the water pump and alternator fast enough for normal operation.
Sometimes a belt will slip and make noise even after it is adjusted to the proper tension. Several
types of belt dressing are available which can be applied to both sides of the belt to prevent this
problem. Belt dressing helps to eliminate noise and increase belt friction.
The fan belt should be checked every time a vehicle comes in for preventive maintenance (PM)
to make sure it is in good condition. A fan belt that has become frayed, or has separated plies,
should be replaced.

Replacement of a defective belt is usually made by loosening the alternator or generator

mounting bolts. With the mounting bolts loose, push the alternator or generator closer to the
engine. This action provides enough slack in the belt so it can be removed and a new one
installed. After installing a new belt, adjust it to the proper tension and tighten the mounting
bolts.

Radiator and Pressure Cap

When overheating problems occur and the system is not leaking, check the radiator and pressure
cap. They are common sources of overheating. The pressure cap could have bad seals, allowing
pressure loss. The radiator may be clogged and not permitting adequate air flow or coolant flow.

Bent fins should he straightened and the radiator core checked for any obstructions tending to
restrict the airflow. Radiator air passages can be cleaned by blowing them out with an air hose in
the direction opposite to the ordinary flow of air. Water can also be used to soften obstructions
before applying the air blast. In any event, the cleaning gets rid of dirt, bugs, leaves, straw, and
other debris which otherwise would clog the radiator and reduce its cooling efficiency.
Sometimes screens are used in front of the radiator core to reduce this type of clogging.

The radiator can be checked for internal clogging by removing the hose connections and draining
the coolant. Use a garden hose to introduce a stream of water into the top of the radiator. If the
flow is sluggish, the radiator is partially clogged. Another way to check for this condition is to
feel the radiator with your hand. The radiator should be warm at the bottom and hot at the top,
with the temperature uniformly increasing from bottom to top. Any clogged sections will feel
cool.

CAUTION
Be sure the engine is not running when making this test to avoid injury from the fan.

When the use of cleaning compounds and reverse flushing fails to relieve a clogged core, the
radiator must be removed for mechanical cleaning. This requires the removal of upper and lower
radiator tanks and rodding out the accumulated rust and scale from the water passages of the
core.

The radiator pressure cap should also be checked for condition and proper operation. If it is dirty,
the cap can be cleaned with soap and water, then rinsed. The seating surface of the vacuum and
pressure valves should be smooth and undamaged The valves should operate freely when pressed
against their spring pressure and should seal properly when closed.

During the vehicles preventive maintenance (PM) inspection, the radiator should be checked for
leaks, particularly where the tanks are soldered to the core, since vibration and pulsation from
pressure can cause fatigue of soldered joints or seams. Neglect of small leaks may result in
complete radiator failure, excessive leakage, rust clogging, and overheating. Thus it is extremely
important to keep the radiator mounting properly adjusted and tight at all times and to detect and
correct even the smallest leaks.

A leak usually reveals its presence by scale marks or watermarks below the leak on the outside
of the core. Permanent antifreeze does not leak through spaces where water cannot pass. The
antifreeze leak is more noticeable, since it does not evaporate as quickly as water.

Stop-leak compounds can be effective to stop small leaks at least temporarily. Stop-leak
compounds harden upon contact with the air, thus sealing off any small openings. The main
problem is that they give the mechanic a sense of false security. For example, stop leak may
prevent seepage at a hose connection through the inner lining, but finally the hose will rot and
burst, losing coolant and overheating the engine.

Stop-leak compounds can lead to radiator clogging if water tubes already contain deposits that
act as a strainer. If coolant level gets too low, some stop-leak ingredients may harden in the
upper radiator and block it.

NOTE
Before using stop leak, check your service manual. The compound must be compatible with the
antifreeze and the inhibitors and must be installed correctly and in the right quantity.

When large leaks or considerable damage is present, removal of the radiator for extensive repair
or replacement is usually required.

Q1. What type of cooling system is the simplest?

Q2. In a liquid-cooled system, what component acts as a heat exchanger?

Q3. What are the two types of radiators?

Q4. Where is the vacuum valve located in the radiator cap?

Q5. What type of fan clutch uses a bimetal spring to control fan action?

Q6. What component of a liquid-cooled system senses engine temperature and controls coolant
flow through the radiator?

Q7. When replacing antifreeze, what is the ideal mixture you recommend?

Q8. What are the three methods of flushing a liquid- cooled system?

Q9. What two devices am used to check antifreeze strength?

Q10. What device is used to perform a cooling system pressure test?

ENGINE LUBRICATING SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify types of lubricating (oil) systems. Point out their operational
characteristics and maintenance requirements.

All internal combustion engines are equipped with an internal lubricating system (fig. 6-17).
Without lubrication, an engine quickly overheats and its working parts seize due to excessive
friction. All moving parts must be adequately lubricated to assure maximum wear and long
engine life.

Figure 6-17. - Typical engine lubrication system.

PURPOSES OF LUBRICATION
The functions of an engine lubrication system are as follows:

1. Reduces friction and wear between moving parts (fig. 6-18).

2. Helps transfer heat and cool engine parts.
3. Cleans the inside of the engine by removing contaminants (metal, dirt, plastic, rubber,
and other particles) (fig. 6-19).
4. Absorbs shocks between moving parts to quiet engine operation and increase engine life.

The properties of engine oil and the design of modern engines allow the lubrication system to
accomplish these functions.

ENGINE OIL

Engine oil, also called motor oil, is used to produce a lubricating film on the moving parts in an
engine. The military specification for this type of oil prescribes that the oil shall be a petroleum
or synthetic petroleum product or a combination thereof. This oil is intended for lubrication of
internal-combustion engines other than aircraft engines or for general-purpose lubrication.

Oil Viscosity and Measurements

Oil viscosity, also called oil weight, is the thickness or fluidity (flow ability) of the oil. A high
viscosity oil is very thick and resists flow. A low viscosity oil is very thin and flows easily. Oils
are graded according to their viscosity by a series of Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
numbers. The viscosity of the oil increases progressively with the SAE number. An SAE 4 oil
would be very light (low viscosity) and SAE 90 oil would be very heavy (high viscosity). The
viscosity of the oil used in internal-combustion engines ranges from SAE 5 (arctic use) to SAE
60 (desert use). It should be noted that the SAE number of the oil has nothing to do with the
quality of the oil.

The viscosity number of the oil is determined by heating the oil to a predetermined temperature
and allowing it to flow through a precisely sized orifice while measuring the rate of flow. The
faster an oil flows, the lower the viscosity. The testing device is called a viscosimeter. The
viscosity of the oil is printed on top of the oil can. Oil viscosity is written SAE 10, SAE 20, SAE
30, and so on. The letter W will follow any oil that meets SAE low-temperature requirements.
An example would be SAE 10W.

Multi-viscosity oil or multi-weight oil has the operating characteristics of a thin, light oil when
cold and a thicker, heavy oil when hot. A multi-weight oil is numbered SAE 10W-30, 10W-40,
20W-50, and so on. For example, a 10W-30 oil will flow easily (like 10W oil) when starting a
cold engine. It will then act as a thicker oil (like 30 weight) when the engine warms to operating
temperature. This will make the engine start more easily in cold weather. It will also provide
adequate film strength (thickness) when the engine is at full operating temperature.
Figure 6-18. - How oil lubricates.

Normally, you should use the oil viscosity recommended by the manufacturer, However, in a
very cold, high mileage, worn engine, higher viscosity may be beneficial. Thicker oil will tend to
seal the rings and provide better bearing protection. It may also help cut engine oil consumption
and smoking.

Oil Service Rating The oil service rating is a set of letters printed on the oil can to denote how
well the oil will perform under operating conditions. The American Petroleum Institute (API)
sets this performance standard.
Figure 6-19. - Sources of oil contamination.

The API system for rating oil classifies oil according to its performance characteristics. The
higher rated oils contain additives that provide maximum protection against rust, wear, oil
oxidation, and thickening at high temperatures. The oil service ratings are as follows:

1. SA - adequate for utility engines subjected to light loads, moderate speeds, and clean
conditions. Contains no additives.
2. SB - adequate for automotive use under favorable conditions (light loads, low speeds, and
moderate temperatures) with relatively short oil change intervals. Generally offers only
minimal protection to the engine against bearing scuffing, corrosion, and oil oxidation.
3. SC - meets oil warranty requirements for 1964 through 1967 automotive gasoline
engines.
4. SD - meets oil warranty requirements for 1968 through 1970 automotive gasoline
engines. Offers additional protection over SC oils that are necessary with the introduction
of emission controls.
5. SE - meets oil warranty requirements for 1972 through 1979 automotive gasoline
engines. Stricter emission requirements created the need for this detergent oil.
 6. SF - meets oil warranty requirements for 1980 through 1988 automotive gasoline
engines. The SF oil is designed to meet the demands of small, high-revving engines. A
SF oil can be used in all automotive vehicles requiring detergent oil.
7. SG - meets oil warranty requirements for 1989 through present automotive gasoline
engines. Contains more additives than SF oils. Can be used as CC or diesel type oils. It is
a detergent oil.
8. CA - meets all requirements for naturally aspirated diesel engines operated on low sulfur
fuel.
9. CB - meets all requirements for naturally aspirated diesel engines operated on high sulfur
fuel.
10. CC - meets all requirements for lightly supercharged diesel engines.
11. CD - meets all requirements for moderately supercharged diesel engines.

The operator's manual provides the service rating recommended for a specific vehicle. You can
use a better service rating than recommended, but NEVER a lower service rating. A high service
rating (SG, for example) can withstand higher temperatures and loads while still maintaining a
lubricating film. It will have more oil additives to prevent oil oxidation, engine deposits,
breakdown, foaming, and other problems.

LUBRICATING (OIL) SYSTEM COMPONENTS

It must be remembered that the lubricating system is actually an integral part of the engine and
the operation of one depends upon the operation of the other. Thus the lubricating system, in
actual practice, cannot be considered as a separate and independent system; it is part of the
engine. The lubricating system basically consists of the following:

1. Oil Pan - reservoir or storage area for engine oil.

2. Oil Level Gauge - checks the amount of oil in the oil pan.
3. Oil Pump - forces oil throughout the system.
4. Oil Pickup and Strainers - carries oil to the pump and removes large particles.
5. Oil Filters - strains out impurities in the oil.
6. Oil Galleries - oil passages through the engine.
7. Oil Pressure Indicator - warns the operator of low oil pressure.
8. Oil Pressure Gauge - registers actual oil pressure in the engine.
9. Oil Temperature Regulator - controls engine oil temperature on diesel engines.

Oil Pan

The oil pan, normally made of thin sheet metal or aluminum, bolts to the bottom of the engine
block. It holds a supply of oil for the lubrication system. The oil pan is fitted with a screw-in
drain plug for oil changes. Baffles may be used to keep the oil from splashing around in the pan.

The sump is the lowest area in the oil pan where oil collects. As oil drains from the engine, it fills
the sump. Then the oil pump can pull oil out of the pan for recirculation.
Oil Level Gauge
The oil level gauge, also known as a dipstick, is
usually of the bayonet type (fig. 6-20). It consists
of a long rod or blade that extends into the oil pan.
It is marked to show the level of oil within the oil
pan. Readings are taken by pulling the rod out from
its normal place in the crankcase, wiping it clean,
replacing it, and again removing and noting the
height of the oil on the lower or marked end. This
should be done with the engine stopped unless the
manufacturer recommends otherwise. It is
important that the oil level not drop below the
LOW mark or rise above the FULL mark.
Figure 6-20. - Oil level gauge.

Oil Pump
The oil pump is the heart of the lubricating system; it forces oil out of the oil pan, through the oil
filter, galleries, and to the engine bearings. Normally, a gear on the engine camshaft drives the
oil pump; however, a cogged belt or a direct connection with the end of the camshaft or
crankshaft drives the pump in some cases.

Figure 6-21. - Rotor-type oil pump.

There are two basic types of oil pumps - rotary and gear.

The ROTARY pump (fig. 6-21) has an inner rotor with lobes that match similar shaped
depressions in the outer rotor. The inner rotor is off center from the outer rotor.

As the oil pump shaft turns, the inner rotor causes the outer rotor to spin. The eccentric action of
the two rotors forms pockets that change size. A large pocket is formed on the inlet side of the
pump. As the rotors turn, the oil-filled pocket becomes smaller, as it nears the outlet of the pump.
This action squeezes the oil and makes it spurt out under pressure. As the pump spins, this action
is repeated over and over to produce a relatively smooth flow of oil.

The GEAR pump (fig. 6-22) consists of two pump gears mounted within a close-fitting housing.
A shaft, usually turned by the distributor, crankshaft, or accessory shaft, rotates one of the pump
gears. The gear turns the other pump gear that is supported on a short shaft inside the pump
housing.

Oil on the inlet side of the pump is caught in the gear teeth and carried around the outer wall
inside the pump housing. When oil reaches the outlet side of the pump, the gear teeth mesh and
seal. Oil caught in each gear tooth is forced into the pocket at the pump outlet and pressure is
formed. Oil squirts out of the pump and to the engine bearings.

As a safety factor to assure sufficient oil delivery under extreme operating conditions, the oil
pump (gear or rotary) is designed to supply a greater amount of oil than is normally required for
adequate lubrication. This requires that an oil pressure relief valve be incorporated in the pump
to limit maximum oil pressure.

The pressure relief valve is a spring-loaded bypass valve in the oil pump, engine block, or oil
filter housing. The valve consists of a small piston, spring, and cylinder. Under normal pressure
conditions, the spring holds the relief valve closed. All the oil from the oil pump flows into the
oil galleries and to the bearings.

However, under abnormally high oil pressure conditions (cold, thick oil, for example), the
pressure relief valve opens. Oil pressure pushes the small piston back in its cylinder by
overcoming spring tension. This allows some oil to bypass the main oil galleries and pour back
into the oil pan. Most of the oil still flows to the bearings and a preset pressure is maintained.
Some pressure relief valves are adjustable. By turning a bolt or screw or by changing spring shim
thickness, the pressure setting can be altered.
Figure 6-22. - Gear-type oil pump.

Oil Pickup and Strainer

The oil pickup is a tube that extends from the oil pump to the bottom of the oil pan. One end of
the pickup tube bolts or screws into the oil pump or to the engine block. The other end holds the
strainer.

The strainer has a mesh screen suitable for straining large particles from the oil and yet passes a
sufficient quantity of oil to the inlet side of the oil pump. The strainer is located so all oil
entering the pump from the oil pan must flow through it. Some assemblies also incorporate a
safety valve that opens in the event the strainers become clogged, thus bypassing oil to the pump.
Strainer assemblies may be either the floating or the fixed type.

The floating strainer has a sealed air chamber, is hinged to the oil pump inlet, and floats just
below the top of the oil. As the oil level changes, the floating intake will rise or fall accordingly.
This action allows all oil taken into the pump to come from the surface This design prevents the
pump from drawing oil from the bottom of the oil pan where dirt, water, and sludge are likely to
collect. The strainer screen is held to the float by a holding clip. The up and down movement of
the float is limited by stops.

The fixed strainer (fig. 6-23) is simply an inverted funnel-like device, placed about 1/2 inch to 1
inch from the bottom of the oil pan. This device prevents any sludge or dirt that has accumulated
from entering and circulating through the system. The assembly is attached solidly to the oil
pump in a fixed position.
Oil Filter
The oil filter removes most of the impurities that have been picked up by the oil, as it circulates
through the engine. Designed to be replaced readily, the filter is mounted in an accessible
location outside the engine. There are two basic filter element configurations - the cartridge type
and spin-on type.

Figure 6-23. - Oil pickup and strainer.

1. The cartridge-type element (fig. 6-24) fits into a permanent metal container. Oil is pumped
under pressure into the container where it passes from the outside of the filter element to the
center. From here, the oil exits the container. The element is changed easily by removing the
cover from the container.

2. The spin-on filter (fig. 6-24) is completely self- contained, consisting of an integral metal
container and filter element. Oil is pumped into the container on the outside of the filter element.
The oil then passes through the filter medium to the center of the element where it exits the
container. This type of filter is screwed onto its base and is removed by spinning it off.

The elements themselves may be either metallic or nonmetallic. Cotton waste or resin-treated
paper is the most popular filter mediums. They are held in place by sandwiching them between
two perforated metal sheets. Some heavy-duty applications use layers of metal that are thinly
spaced apart. Foreign matter is strained out, as the oil passes between the metal layers.
Figure 6-24. - Oil filters.

There are two filter configurations. These are the full-flow system and the bypass system.
Operations of each system is as follows:

1. The full-flow system (fig. 6-25) is the most oil filter to allow the oil to circulate through
common. All oil in a full-flow system is the system without passing through the element
circulated through the filter before it reaches the in the event that it becomes clogged. This
engine. When a full-flow system is used, it is prevents the oil supply from being cut off to the
necessary to incorporate a bypass valve in the engine.
Figure 6-25. - Filter system configurations.
2. The bypass system (fig. 6-25) diverts only a small quantity of oil each time it is circulated
and returns it directly to the oil pan after it is filtered. This type of system does not filter the oil
before it is sent to the engine. The oil from the main oil gallery enters the filter and flows through
the filter element. It then passes into the collector in the center of the filter. The filtered oil then
flows out a restricted outlet preventing the loss of pressure. The oil then returns directly to the oil
pan.

Oil Galleries
Oil galleries are small passages through the cylinder block and head for lubricating oil. They are
cast or machined passages that allow oil to flow to the engine bearing and other moving parts.

The main oil galleries are large passages through the center of the block They feed oil to the
crankshaft bearings, camshaft bearings, and lifters. The main oil galleries also feed oil to smaller
passages running up to the cylinder heads.

Oil Pressure Warning Light

The oil pressure warning light (fig. 6-26) is used in place of a gauge on many vehicles. The
warning light, although not as accurate, is valuable because of its high visibility in the event of a
low oil pressure condition. Because the engine can fail or be damaged in less than a minute of
operation without oil pressure, the warning light is used as a backup for a gauge to attract instant
attention to a malfunction.

The warning light receives battery power through the ignition switch. The circuit to ground is
completed through the oil pressure-sending unit that screws into the engine and is exposed to one
of the oil galleries. The sending unit consists of a pressure-sensitive diaphragm that operates a set
of contact points. The contact points are calibrated to turn on the warning light anytime oil
pressure drops below approximately 15 psi in most vehicles.

When oil pressure is low, the spring in the sending unit holds a pair of contacts closed. This
action completes the circuit and the indicator light glows. When oil pressure is normal, oil
pressure acts on a diaphragm in the sending unit. Diaphragm deflection opens the contact points
to break the circuit. This action causes the warning light to go out, informing the operator of
good pressure.

Oil Pressure Gauge

The oil pressure gauge is mounted on the instrument panel of a vehicle. Marked off on a dial in
pounds per square inch (psi), the gauge indicates how regularly and evenly the oil is being
delivered to all vital parts of the engine and warns of any stoppages in this delivery. Pressure
gauges may be electrical or mechanical.

In the mechanical type, the gauge on the instrument panel is connected to an oil line tapped into
an oil gallery leading from the pump. The pressure of the oil in the system acts on a diaphragm
within the gauge, causing the needle to register on the dial. In the electrical type, oil pressure
operates a rheostat connected to the engine that signals electrically to the pressure gauge
indicating oil pressure within the system.

Figure 6-26. - Oil pressure warning light.

Oil Temperature Regulator

The oil temperature regulator (fig. 6-27) must be used
in diesel engine lubricating systems, prevents oil
temperature from rising too high in hot weather, and
assists in raising the temperature during cold starts in
winter weather. It provides a more positive means of
controlling oil temperature than does cooling by
radiation of heat from the oil pan wells.

The regulator uses engine coolant in the cooling

system to regulate the temperature of the oil and is
made up of a core and housing. The core, through
which the oil circulates, is of cellular or bellows
construction and is built to expose as much oil as
possible to the coolant that circulates through the
housing. The regulator is attached to the engine so that
the oil will flow through the regulator after passing
through the pump. Figure 6-27. - Oil temperature regulator.

As the oil passes through the regulator, it is either cooled or heated, depending on the
temperature of the coolant and then is circulated through the engine.
Some military vehicles use an oil cooler (fig. 6-28) that consists of a radiator through which air is
circulated by movement of the vehicle or by a cooling fan. Oil from the engine is circulated
through this radiator and back to the sump or supply tank. The radiator acts to cool the oil only in
this system. It will not heat oil in a cold engine.

Figure 6-28. - Oil cooler.

TYPES OF LUBRICATING (OIL) SYSTEMS

Now that you are familiar with the lubricating system components, you are ready to study the
different systems that circulate oil through the engine. The
systems used to circulate oil are known as splash, combination
splash force feed, force feed, and full force-feed.

Splash

The splash system is no longer used in automotive engines. It is

widely used in small four-cycle engines for lawn mowers,
outboard marine operation, and so on. In
the splash lubricating system (fig. 6-29), oil is splashed up from
the oil pan or oil trays in the lower part of the crankcase. The oil
is thrown upward as droplets or fine mist and provides adequate
lubrication to valve mechanisms, piston pins, cylinder walls, and
piston rings.
Figure 6-29. - Splash-type lubrication system.
In the engine, dippers on the connecting-rod bearing caps enter the oil pan with each crankshaft
revolution to produce the oil splash. A passage is drilled in each connecting rod from the dipper
to the bearing to ensure lubrication.

This system is too uncertain for automotive applications. One reason is that the level of oil in the
crankcase will vary greatly the amount of lubrication received by the engine. A high level results
in excess lubrication and oil consumption and a slightly low level results in inadequate
lubrication and failure of the engine.

Combination Splash and Force Feed

In a combination splash and force feed (fig. 6-30), oil is delivered to some parts by means of
splashing and other parts through oil passages under pressure from the oil pump.

Figure 6-30. - Combination splash and force-feed lubrication system.

The oil from the pump enters the oil galleries. From the oil galleries, it flows to the main
bearings and camshaft bearings. The main bearings have oil-feed holes or grooves that feed oil
into drilled passages in the crankshaft. The oil flows through these passages to the connecting
rod bearings. From there, on some engines, it flows through holes drilled in the connecting rods
to the piston-pin bearings.

Cylinder walls are lubricated by splashing oil thrown off from the connecting-rod bearings.
Some engines use small troughs under each connecting rod that are kept full by small nozzles
which deliver oil under pressure from the oil pump. These oil nozzles deliver an increasingly
heavy stream as speed increases. At very high speeds these oil streams are powerful enough to
strike the dippers directly. This causes a much heavier splash so that adequate lubrication of the
pistons and the connecting-rod bearings is provided at higher speeds.

If a combination system is used on an overhead valve engine, the upper valve train is lubricated
by pressure from the pump.

Force Feed
A somewhat more complete pressurization of lubrication is achieved in the force-feed lubrication
system (fig. 6-31). Oil is forced by the oil pump from the crankcase to the main bearings and the
camshaft bearings. Unlike the combination system the connecting-rod bearings are also fed oil
under pressure from the pump.

Oil passages are drilled in the crankshaft to lead oil to the connecting-rodbearings. The passages
deliver oil from the main bearing journals to the rod bearing journals. In some engines, these
opening are holes that line up once for every crankshaft revolution. In other engines, there are
annular grooves in the main bearings through which oil can feed constantly into the hole in the
crankshaft.

The pressurized oil that lubricates the connecting- rod bearings goes on to lubricate the pistons
and walls by squirting out through strategically drilled holes. This lubrication system is used in
virtually all engines that are equipped with semifloating piston pins.

Full Force Feed

In a full force-feed lubrication system (fig. 6-32), the main bearings, rod bearings, camshaft
bearings, and the complete valve mechanism are lubricated by oil under pressure. In addition, the
full force-feed lubrication system provides lubrication under pressure to the pistons and the
piston pins.

Figure 6-31. - Force-feed lubrication system.

Figure 6-32. - Full force-feed lubrication system.

This is accomplished by holes drilled the length of the connecting rod, creating an oil passage
from the connecting rod bearing to the piston pin bearing. This passage not only feeds the piston
pin bearings but also provides lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls. This system is used
in virtually all engines that are equipped with full-floating piston pins.

LUBRICATING SYSTEM PROBLEM DIAGNOSIS

To troubleshoot an engine lubricating system, begin by gathering information on the problem.

Ask the operator questions. Analyze the symptoms using your understanding of system
operation. You should arrive at a logical deduction about the cause of the problem.

The four problems most often occur in the lubrication system are as follows:

1. High oil consumption (oil must be added frequently)

2. Low oil pressure (gauge reads low, indicator light glows, or abnormal engine noises)
3. High oil pressure (gauge reads high, oil filter swelled) 4. Defective indicator or gauge
circuit (inaccurate operation or readings)

When diagnosing these troubles, make a visual inspection of the engine for obvious problems.
Check for oil leakage, disconnected sending unit wire, low oil level, damaged oil pan, or other
troubles that relate to the symptoms.
High Oil Consumption
If the operator must add oil frequently to the engine, this is a symptom of high oil consumption.
External oil leakage out of the engine or internal leakage of oil into the combustion chambers
causes high oil consumption. A description of each of these problems is as follows:

 External oil leakage - detected as darkened oil wet areas on or around the engine. Oil may
also be found in small puddles under the vehicle. Leaking gaskets or seals are usually the
source of external engine oil leakage.
 Internal oil leakage - shows up as blue smoke exiting the exhaust system of the vehicle.
For example, if the engine piston rings and cylinders are badly worn, oil can enter the
combustion chambers and will be burned during combustion
NOTE
Do not confuse black smoke (excess fuel in the cylinder) and white smoke (water leakage into
the engine cylinder) with blue smoke caused by engine oil.

Low Oil Pressure

Low oil pressure is indicated when the oil indicator light glows, oil gauge reads low, or when the
engine lifters or bearings rattle. The most common causes of low oil pressure are as follows:

1. Low oil level (oil not high enough in pan to cover oil pickup)
2. Worn connecting rod or main bearings (pump cannot provide enough oil volume)
3. Thin or diluted oil (low viscosity or fuel in the oil)
4. Weak or broken pressure relief valve spring (valve opening too easily)
5. Cracked or loose pump pickup tube (air being pulled into the oil pump)
6. Worn oil pump (excess clearance between rotor or gears and housing)
7. Clogged oil pickup screen (reduce amount of oil entering pump)
A low oil level is a common cause of low oil pressure. Always check the oil level first when
troubleshooting a low oil pressure problem.

High Oil Pressure

High oil pressure is seldom a problem. When it occurs, the oil pressure gauge will read high. The
most frequent causes of high oil pressure are as follows:

1. Pressure relief valve struckopen (not opening at specified pressure)

2. High relief valve spring tension (strong spring or spring has been improperly shimmed)
3. High oil viscosity (excessively thick oil or use of oil additive that increases viscosity)
4. Restricted oil gallery (defective block casting or debris in oil passage)

Indicator or Gauge Problems

A bad oil pressure indicator or gauge may scare the operator into believing there are major
problems. The indicator light may stay on or flicker, pointing to a low oil pressure problem. The
gauge may read low or high, also indicating a lubrication system problem.
Inspect the indicator or gauge circuit for problems. The wire going to the sending unit may have
fallen off. The sending unit wire may also be shorted to ground (light stays on or gauge always
reads high).

To check the action of the indicator or gauge, remove the wire from the sending unit. Touch it on
a metal part of the engine. This should make the indicator light glow or the oil pressure gauge
read maximum. If it does, the sending unit may be defective. If it does not, then the circuit,
indicator, or gauge may be faulty.

NOTE Always check the service manual before testing an indicator or gauge circuit. Some
manufacturers recommend a special gauge tester. This is especially important with some
computer-controlled systems.

LUBRICATING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

There are certain lubricating system service jobs that are more or less done automatically when
an engine is repaired. For example, the oil pan is removed and cleaned during such engine
overhaul jobs as replacing bearing or rings. When the crankshaft is removed, it is usual
procedure to clean out the oil passages in the crankshaft. Also, the oil passages in the cylinder
block should be cleaned out as part of the overhaul.

As a Construction Mechanic, you will be required to maintain the lubrication system. This
maintenance normally consists of changing the oil and filter(s). Occasionally you will be
required to perform such maintenance tasks as replacing lines and fittings, servicing or replacing
the oil pump and relief valve, and flushing the system. The following discussion provides
information that will aid you in carrying out these duties.

Oil and Filter Change

It is extremely important that the oil and filter(s) of the engine are serviced regularly. Lack of oil
and filter maintenance will greatly shorten engine service life.

Manufacturers give a maximum number of miles or hours a vehicle can be operated between oil
changes. Newer automotive vehicles can be operated 5,000 miles between changes. Older
automotive vehicles should have their oil changed about every 3,000 miles. Most construction
equipment average between 200 and 250 hours of operation between oil changes. However,
depending on the climate and working conditions the miles and hours between oil changes can
be greatly reduced. Refer to the service manual for exact intervals.

To change the engine oil, warm the engine to full operating temperature. This will help suspend
debris in the oil and make the oil drain more thoroughly. Unscrew the drain plug and allow the
oil to flow into a catchment pan Be careful of hot oil; it can cause painful burns.

Usually the filter elements are replaced at the same time the oil is changed. The most common
filters are the spin-on filter or replaceable element type oil filter.
Spin-on, throwaway oil filter - replaced as a complete unit. Unscrew the filter from the base by
hand or a filter wrench and throw the filter away. When replacing, wipe the base clean with a
cloth and place a small amount of oil or grease on the gasket to ensure a good seal. Screw on a
new filter, tightening at least a half a turn after the gasket contacts the base. Do not use a filter
wrench because the filter canister could distort and leak.
Replaceable element oil filter - removed from the filter housing and replaced. Place a pan
underneath the filter to catch oil from the filter. Remove the fastening bolt and lift off the cover
or filter housing. Remove the gasket from the cover or housing and throw it away. Take out the
old element and throw it away. Clean the inside of the filter housing and cover it. Install a new
element and insert a new cover or housing gasket (ensure the gasket is completely seated in the
recess). Replace the cover or housing and fasten it to the center bolt securely.

After the oil has been completely drained and the drain plug replaced, fill the crankcase to the
full mark on the dipstick with the proper grade and weight of oil. Start and idle the engine. Check
the oil pressure immediately. Inspect the filter or filter housing for leaks. Stop the engine and
check the crankcase oil level and add to the full mark.

Oil Pump Service

Service on oil pumps is limited since they are relatively trouble-free. An oil pump will often still
be operating trouble-free when the vehicle is ready for salvage.

A bad oil pump will cause low or no oil pressure and possibly severe engine damage. When
inner parts wear, the pump may leak and have a reduced output. The pump shaft can also strip in
the pump or distributor, preventing pump operation

To replace the oil pump, it is first necessary to determine its location. Some pumps are located
inside the engine oil pan Others are on the front of the engine under a front cover or on the side
of the engine. Since removal procedures vary, refer to the manufacturer's service manual for
instructions.

Most mechanics install a new or factory rebuilt pump when needed. It is usually too costly to
completely rebuild an oil pump in the shop. Before installation, prime (fill) the pump with engine
oil. This will assure proper initial operation upon engine starting.

Install the pump in reverse order of removal. Anew gasket should be used and the retaining bolts
torqued as specified by the service manual.

Pressure Relief Valve Service

A faulty pressure relief valve can produce oil pressure problems. The valve may be located in the
oil pump, filter housing, or engine block.

If symptoms point to the pressure relief valve, it should be disassembled and serviced. Cleaning
and adjusting is all that is usually required. Remove the cup or cap, holding the pressure relief
valve. Then, slide the spring and piston out of their bore.
Measure the free length of the spring (length of extended spring) and compare it to the
specifications. If the spring is too short or long, install a new spring. Some manufacturers
recommend checking spring tension.

Use a micrometer and a small hole gauge to check the valve and valve bore wear. Also, check
the sides of the valve for scratches or scoring. Replace the parts if any problems are found.

Assemble the pressure relief valve. Make sure that the valve is facing correctly in its bore. Slide
the spring into place. Install any shims and the cover plug or cap. Refer to the service manual for
details.

The pressure relief valve may be adjusted in one of two ways. One way is by an adjusting screw
(having a jam or locknut) which adds or relives pressure on the spring. The other way is by
adjusting shims that are added or removed to adjust opening pressure of the relief valve.

REVISION QUESTIONS

Q11. What device is used to determine the viscosity of oil?

Q12. How is oil that meets SAE low temperature requirements designated?

Q13. Who sets the oil service rating?

Q14. What oil service rating is required for today's automotive gasoline engines?

Q15. What are the two oil filter configurations?

Q16. Name the four types of lubricating systems?

Q17. What type of lubricating system is used on small four-cycle engines?

Q18. What lubricating system is used on engines equipped with full-floating piston pins?

Q19. When servicing the pressure relief valve, you can use what tools to check the valve and
valve bore?