Chapter 1

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

Er. Bharosh Kumar Yadav

Institute of Engineering(IOE),
Purwanchal Campus, Dharan-08
Tribhuvan University(TU).
 Contents

1. Fluid Flow over Wings and Bodies

2. Aerodynamic Forces and Aerodynamic Coefficients
3. Lift and Drag of Bodies
4. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wing Sections
5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
6. Flow of Compressible Fluids
7. Application of CFD

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
von Kármán Vortex Sheet

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder

Landsat 7 image of clouds off the Chilean coast

near the Juan Fernandez Islands (also known as the
Robinson Crusoe Islands) on September 15, 1999.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Pool Vortex

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Stream Function and VelocityPotential

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
First Elementary Flow: UniformFlow
The incompressible stream functionψ.
Incompressible Flow

Irrotational Flow

Velocity Potential

The stream function for an incompressible

uniform flow oriented in the positivex direction.

Note: In practical aerodynamic problem, the actual value of φ is not significant;

rather, φ is always used to obtain the velocity by differentiation; that is, ∇ φ = V.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Second Elementary Flow: Source Flow

Velocity potential Stream function

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Source Sink

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Combination of a Uniform flow with a Source Flow

Velocity Field

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Combination of a Uniform flow with a Source and Sink

• Sink has same strength as source.

• Complete closed bluntbody
• The flow is over an ellipse.
• Radial and Tangential velocity around
the eclipse can be calculated with the
definition of given stream function.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Nonlifting flow : Superposition of a Uniform flow and a Doublet
➢Defined by the combination of a uniform flow with a doublet (which is in turn a combination of a source
and a sink, leading to the formation of a singularity.)

Nonlifting flow over a circular cylinder

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Nonlifting flow : Superposition of a Uniform flow and a Doublet

Stream Function Velocity Field

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Nonlifting flow
➢The entire flow field is symmetrical about both the horizontal
and vertical axes through the center of the cylinder.
➢Hence, the pressure distribution is also symmetrical about both
axes.
➢As a result of the pressure balance, there is no net lift and no net
drag over the cylinder.
➢In real life, the result of zero lift is easy to accept, but the result
of zero drag makes no sense.
➢This paradox between the theoretical result of zero drag, and the
knowledge that in real life the drag is finite, has been known as
d'Alembert's paradox (1733, Jean Le Rond d'Akembert).
➢Today we know that the drag that exists in real flows is due to
viscous effects.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Nonlifting flow
The maximum velocity is equal to twice the free-stream velocity and occurs at the
maximum-thickness point.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Nonlifting flow
➢The maximum velocity is equal to twice the free-
stream velocity and occurs at the maximum-thickness
point.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Fourth Elementary Flow: VortexFlow

Γ is called the strength of the vortex flow

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Lifting flow (Asymmetrical velocity distribution)
➢Lifting flow over a circular cylinder is defined by a combination
between a nonlifting flow and a vortex. [C_d is still zero.]

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Lifting flow
➢Lifting flow over a circular cylinder is defined by a
combination between a non-lifting flow and a vortex. [C_d
is still zero.]

• Lift per unit span is directly proportional to circulation.

• Faster velocity at the top surface is due to the rotation of cylinder.
• This can be applied to any incompressible, invisid flow over 2D
object.
• The theorem is called Kutta-Joukowski Theorem

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Lifting flow

➢The finite lift is created due to the pressure

imbalance added due to the 'rotation' of the
cylinder.
For a rotating sphere moving in a viscous flow, an aerodynamic force
acts normal to the direction of rotation- called the MagnusEffect.
Basic Aerodynamic Principles
 1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
Four Elementary Flows

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Forces
➢ Aerodynamic forces are defined as the sum of pressure and viscous forces over a body.
➢ The net aerodynamic force acting on a unit length of a body is taken as the integration
of the pressure and viscous shear values acting on the surface of the body.
➢ Therefore, the aerodynamic forces and moments on a body are due to only two basic
sources:
➢ Pressure distribution over the body surface
➢ Shear stress distribution over the body surface
➢ No matter how complex the body shape may be, the aerodynamic forces and
moments are entirely due to the above two sources.
➢ What about shock waves (wave drag)...???

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Forces
➢The net effect of pressure and shear stress distributions integrated over the complete body
surface is the resultant aerodynamic force R and the moment M on the body.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Forces
➢ sl and su are distances measured along the lower and upper body surfaces. P and 'tau' and both function of sl
and su on respective surfaces.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Forces
➢ sl and su are distances measured along the lower and upper body surfaces. P and 'tau' and both function of sl
and su on respective surfaces.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Forces
➢The total normal and axial forces
per unit span are obtained by
integrating the elemental normal
and axial forces acting on the
upper and lower body surfaces. ('
represents 2D sections)
➢Similarly, the moment about
leading edge of the body is
obtained as (by convention, pitch-
up moment are considered
positive):

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Center
➢The location of CP moves along the chordline when the AOA changes. As AOA increases, the CP
moves forward and vice versa.
➢The airfoils can have a pitching moment even at zero-lift condition, i.e. when the upper and lower
surface contributions cancel each other but act on different locations along the chord.
➢This means at zero lift the CP location is at infinity, which, of course, is impossible. Therefore, the
concept of CP is seldom used today.
➢There is, however, a point on an airfoil where the pitching moment is a constant, if velocity is
constant. And unlike CP, AC does not move with the change in AOA, thus simplifying the
calculations.
➢It is convenient to consider lift and drag forces as acting at AC.
➢Its location varies slightly, depending on airfoil shape.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Center
In general, the semispan
aerodynamic center of a wing is not
located along either the centroidal
chord or the mean aerodynamic
chord

Reference

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Center
➢ Subsonically, it is located between 23% - 27% of chord.
➢ Supersonically, it shifts 50% of chord point.
➢ In summary:
➢ Pitching Moment is constant at AC (constant velocity)
➢ All changes in lift effectively occur at AC.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Moments
➢Xcp is defined as the center of pressure. It is the location
where the resultant of a distributed load acts on a body.
➢If moment were taken about the center of pressure, the
integrated effect of the distributed load would be zero.

➢Positive N' creates a negative (nose-down) moment

about the leading edge. The actual moment about the
leading edge is negative, hence opposite the direction
of the curled arrow shown in the figure. If sin α ≈ 0 and cos α ≈ 1; hence, L’ ≈ N’
➢ So, this is consistent with the equation for Xcp.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Moments
➢ The value of this aerodynamically induced moment depends on the point about which we choose to take
moments.
➢ If we take moments about the LE, the aerodynamic moment is designated MLE. It is more common in the
case of subsonic airfoils to take moments about a point on the chord at a distance c/4 from the leading edge,
i.e. at the quarter-chord point. This moment about the quarter chord is designated Mc/4. In general,
MLE ≠ Mc/4.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Moments
➢However, we point out that although MLE and Mc/4
are both functions of α, there exists a certain point on
the airfoil about which moments essentially do not
vary with α.
➢This point is defined as the aerodynamic center,
and the moment about the aerodynamic center is
designated Mac.
➢By definition, Mac= constant, independent of the
angle of attack.
➢The location of the aerodynamic center for real
aerodynamic shapes can be found from experiment. Simple Pitching Moment Model
➢For low-speed subsonic airfoils, the aerodynamic
center is generally very close to the quarter-chord
point.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Aerodynamic Forces andCoefficients
Aerodynamic Coefficients
• The most fundamental form of aerodynamic parameters are the aerodynamic coefficients, that are
aerodynamic forces and moments non-dimesionalized with respect to dynamic pressure, reference area
and reference length(for moments).

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 2. Numerical

Solution:

Note: For a thin, symmetrical airfoil, the center of pressure is at the quarter-chord location. However, for the
NACA 4412 airfoil, which is not symmetric, the center of pressure location is behind the quarter-chord point

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 3. Lift and Drag of Bodies
➢Lift, drag and the resulting moments.
➢ Sub-divided into pressure forces and molecular forces.
➢Lift is entirely due to difference in integral pressure values over the
upper and lower surfaces.
➢Drag is a result of inertial molecular forces acting on the body’s surfaces
(skin friction) and the pressure forces (pressure/form drag) acting on it.
➢The two drags are a result of the exact profile/shape of the body, hence
called profile drag in combination.
➢Obviously, both these forces make sense only when the body is moving.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 3. Lift and Drag of Bodies
➢Additionally, Interference drag is created as a result of ‘interference’
between flows passing through different parts of a body, in order to occupy
the same space over a body. Hence the displacement of flow from one part
of the body by that from another results in this form of drag.
➢All the above types of drags are combined and categorized under the term
‘parasitic drag’.
➢Induced and wave drags are additional two kinds of drags that act at
specific phases and/or flight conditions. However, they require careful
considerations during design of a flight body, since, when they act, their
effects can be significant and sometimes even severe.
➢ What about weight and thrust?

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 [Link] characteristics of wing sections
Behavior of L, D and M depend on α, but also on velocity and altitude
V ∞ , 𝜌∞ , Wing Area (S), Wing Shape, 𝜇∞ , compressibility

Lift coefficient Drag coefficient Moment coefficient

Note on Notation: We use lower case, cl , cd , and cm for infinite wings (airfoils).
We use upper case, CL , CD , and CM for finite wings.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

[Link] characteristics of wing sections
➢The component of the force perpendicular to the free stream direction is called the lift,
and that along the free stream direction is called drag.
➢The point along the chord line where the resultant force acts is called the center of
pressure.
➢If the moment reference point coincides with the center of pressure, the pitching
moment is zero.
➢Therefore, to specify forces acting on the airfoil, one has to specify the lift, drag and
pitching moments and the location of moment reference point on the chord.
➢Because these values vary with lift, it's usual to specify them in terms of non-
dimensional terms.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
The Infinite Wing Finite Wing

➢ The distance between the two wing tips is defined as the wingspan ‘b’.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
Finite Wing

LE

.25 c

cr

ct

➢ Taper ratio= ctip/croot

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
A finite wing is a three-dimensional body, and consequently the flow over the finite wing is three-dimensional; that
is, there is a component of flow in the spanwise direction.

• A trailing vortex is created at each

wing tip.
• These wing-tip vortices downstream
of the wing induce a small downward
component of air velocity in the Downwash
neighborhood of the wing itself.
TOP SURFACE
• These downward component is called (relative low pressure)
downwash, denoted by the symbol w.
• In turn, the downwash combines with
(relative high pressure)
the freestream velocity V∞ to
produce a local relative wind which is BOTTOM SURFACE
canted downward in the vicinity of
each airfoil section of the wing
Basic Aerodynamic Principles
5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings

Trailing vortices

“For large airliners such as the B747, the trailing

vortices can be powerful enough to cause light
Wing-Tip Vortices airplanes following too closely to go out of
control. Such accidents have occurred, and this is
one reason for the large spacing between aircraft
landing or take-off consecutively at airports.”

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
• A trailing vortex is created at each
wing tip.
• These wing-tip vortices downstream
of the wing induce a small downward
component of air velocity inthe
neighborhood of the wing itself.
• These downward component is called
downwash, denoted by the symbol w.
• In turn, the downwash combines with
the freestream velocity V∞ to
produce a local relative wind which is
canted downward in the vicinity of
each airfoil section of the wing
Effect of downwash on the local flow over a local airfoil section of a finite wing.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
➢Theories for calculating the lift and
Wing-Tip Vortices moment characteristics of finite wings at
subsonic speeds fall mainly into two
categories:
➢Lifting line theory: only spanwise lift
distribution is considered; chordwise lift
distribution is not considered. Hence it is
more suitable for high-aspect ratiowings.
➢Lifting surface theory also considers the
chordwise variation of lift distribution and
hence gives more accurate result for lift
and pitching-moment curve slopes of finite
wings.
➢In general, lifting surface theories are
more difficult to apply than lifting line
theories and hence they are typically used
Effect of wake vortices. for low-aspect ratio wings.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
Lifting line theory

The figure shows the velocity (dV) induced at a point

P by an element of vortex filament (dL) of strength Γ.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings

Velocity induced at point P by a semi-infinite Velocity induced at point P by an infinite,

straight vortex filament straight vortex filament.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
The velocity induced at P by the entire vortex filament

The velocity induced at a given point P by an infinite, straight vortex filament

at a perpendicular distance h from P is simply

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
Lifting line theory

➢In lifting line theory, the lifting wing is Sketch of the lift distribution along
the span of a wing.
modeled as a horseshoe vortex. The part of the
vortex sheet attached to the wing surface is called
the bound vortex.
Basic Aerodynamic Principles
 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
Lifting line theory
➢The bound vortex continues beyond the wing tips in the downstream direction, and these
parts of the horseshoe vortex are called the trailing vortices or tip vortices.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
Lifting line theory
➢Helmholtz’s theorems:
➢ Helmholtz’s first theorem: The strength of a
vortex filament is constant along its length.
➢ Helmholtz’s second theorem: A vortex filament
cannot end in a fluid; it must extend to the
boundaries of the fluid or form a closed path.
➢ Helmholtz’s third theorem: In the absence of
rotational external forces, a fluid that is initially
irrotational remains irrotational.
➢Thus, (from second theorem) the system of
bound vortex and trailing vortices must be closed
in some manner. This closure is provided by the
so-called ‘startingvortex’.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
Lifting line theory
➢ Starting vortex:
➢The first batch of fluid particles goes around the
wing section smoothly, forming the front and rear
stagnation points.
➢ Pressure gradients come into existence.
➢Flow separates on the upper surface, upstream of
the trailing edge and the flow coming from the
lower surface cannot go around the sharp trailing
edge as it did at first.
➢Consequently, the curved flow that was initially
formed is swept away in the downstream direction,
acting as the starting vortex.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
Lifting line theory
➢As a result, the bound vortices induce upwash in front of the wing and downwash behind.
While, the trailing vortices induce downwash everywhere, including the wingspan. A
combined upwash/downwash effect acts along the chord.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
➢This gives rise to an effective angle of attack variation along the wing span. The
induced angle of attack variation can be used to determine the lift and drag coefficients.
➢From lifting linetheory,

Hence,

Hence,

➢ Lift-curve slope is obtained as,

Hence,

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
Wing torsional divergence (two-dimensional case)
Wing Divergence
Moment Equilibrium

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings
Lift-Curve Slope

Divergence occurs when (𝜃becomesinfinite)

The divergence speed Vd isthen

Vd increases either by increasing K or by reducing

distance ec between aerodynamic and flexural centers.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 5. Numerical
Example:

The minimum required torsional stiffness will occur when the wing divergence speed is equal to the design diving speed

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite Wings

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 6. Compressible Flow
Critical Mach number

➢When the local Mach number at the point of

maximum velocity on the airfoil section reaches
the value of unity, the corresponding freestream
Mach number is called critical Mach number.
➢Elsewhere on the surface of the airfoil, the
local Mach number is below unity, and the flow
is subsonic.
➢Typical values at zero-lift lie in the range of
0.6~0.85.
➢Further increase in Mach number results in
drag divergence.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 6. Compressible Flow
Methods of postponing adverse effects of compressibility

➢Thin Airfoils: the thinner the airfoil, the higher the critical Mach number. Low
speed characteristics, especially the stalling characteristics, are poor.
➢Low-aspect ratio wings: lower the aspect ratio, the more pronounced the induced
flow effects and lower the peak velocities on the wing surface will be. However, they
suffer from high induced drag and lower lift-curve slope.
➢Supercritical airfoil: For a supercritical airfoil the curvature of the middle region of
the upper surface is substantially reduced with a resulting decrease in the strength and
extent of the extent of the shock wave. It gives considerable increase in the critical
Mach number and the drag divergence Mach number.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 6. Compressible Flow
Methods of postponing adverse effects of compressibility
➢Wing Sweep: only the component of the freestream velocity normal to the wing leading
edge affects the pressure distribution. The freestream Mach number at which the critical
condition occurs on the wing is increased by a factor 1/cosᴧ compared to a straight unswept
wing. This is true whether the wing is swept-back or swept-forward.
➢Area rule: it’s a systematic method of minimizing the transonic/supersonic wave drag of
airplane configurations. Fundamental to this method is the assumption that, at Mach
numbers close to unity and at large distances from the body, disturbances and shock waves
are independent of the arrangement of the components and are only functions of the
longitudinal variation of the cross-sectional area. Thus, the wave drags of a given wing-
body and an equivalent body having an identical longitudinal crosssection area variation are
essentially the same.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
General applications

➢CFD has widespread industrial, environmental and physiological applications.

➢In design and development, CFD programs are now considered to be standard
numerical tools which predict not only fluid flow behavior, but also wide range of other
phenomena including:
➢ Transfer of heat, mass (such as in perspiration or dissolution)
➢Phase change (such as in freezing, melting or boiling)
➢Chemical reaction (such as combustion or rusting)
➢Mechanical movement (such as an impeller turning, pistons, fans or rudders)
➢Stress or deformation of related solid structures (such as a mast bending in the wind).
➢Furthermore, CFD has been applied to deal with problems in architecture as well.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
General applications
➢Some common research and industrial applications are, but not limited to, the
following fields (as summarized by CFD-Online):
➢ Aerospace
➢ Architecture
➢ Automotive
➢Civil engineering
➢Movies and computer graphics
➢Nuclear Thermal Hydraulics
➢Process industry
➢Semiconductor industry
➢Steel industry
➢Turbomachinery
➢Glass industry
➢Water and Wastewater

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
General applications
➢Example: Assessment of changes in airways (trachea, bronchi and bronchioles) volume and resistance
through functional imaging using CFD. (Source::ANSYS)

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
Requirement
➢Cases such as the inviscid, incompressible flows over a circular cylinder can be solved
analytical, as seen in the lifting and nonlifting examples discussed above.
➢However, there are higher-order problems that cannot be solved analytically, hence
requiring numerical techniques for solution.
l There are three techniques in computational physics for finding numerical solutions of
partial (as well as ordinary) differential equations:
➢Finite Volume Method (FVM)- widely used in engineering and majority of CFD tools.
➢Finite Difference Method (FDM)- discretization methods based on forwards-,
backwards- and central- time and space techniques.
➢Finite Element Method (FEM)- widely used for problems in structural engineering.
➢ The problems are mostly mixed boundary- and initial-value.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
Examples in aerospace engineering
➢ In-flight airflow simulation through an engine using OpenFOAM.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
Examples in aerospace engineering
➢The actual use of CFD by Aerospace companies is a consequence of the
trade-off between perceived benefits and costs. While the benefits are
widely recognized, computational costs can not be allowed to swamp the
design process. The need for rapid turnaround, including the setup time, is
also crucial.
➢In current industrial practice, the design process can generally be divided
into three phases:
➢Conceptual design
➢Preliminary design
➢Detail (Final) design

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
Overall Preliminary Design

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
Examples in aerospace engineering
➢The aerodynamic design is embedded in the overall preliminary design.
➢The starting point is an initial CAD definition resulting from the conceptual design. The
inner loop of aerodynamic analysis is contained in an outer multi-disciplinary loop, which is
in turn contained in a major design cycle involving wind tunnel testing.
➢Improvements in CFD, might allow the elimination of a major cycle, would significantly
shorten the overall design process and reduce costs.
➢Moreover, the improvements in the performance of the final design, which might be
realized through the systematic use of CFD, could have a crucial impact.
➢An improvement of 5 percent in lift to drag (L/D) ratio directly translates to a similar
reduction in fuel consumption.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

 7. Application ofCFD
Airfoil aerodynamics

➢A goal of theoretical aerodynamics is to predict values of cl, cd, and cm from the basic
equations and concepts of physical science.
➢However, simplifying assumptions are usually necessary to make the mathematics
tractable. Therefore, when theoretical results are obtained, they are generally not “exact.”
➢The use of high-speed digital computers to solve the governing flow equations is now
bringing us much closer to the accurate calculation of aerodynamic characteristics
➢However, there are still limitations imposed by the numerical methods themselves, and the
storage and speed capacity of current computers are still not sufficient to solve many
complex aerodynamic flows.

Basic Aerodynamic Principles