What is Human Development?

The study of development offers much insight into human nature. Development refers to

systematic changes in the individual that occur between the moment of conception and death.

The development changes are somehow orderly or patterned. Human development also refers

to the study of how individuals develop and change throughout their lives.

Domains of development

There are three domains of human development namely

Physical development.

This refers to biological growth or maturation which is developmental changes in the body

that result from the aging process, Physical development includes changes in the body size,

the brain, sense organs, muscles, bones, etc. It also includes the ways a person uses his or her

body such as motor skills and sexual development.

Cognitive development

This has to do with changes in intellectual-related abilities i.e., reasoning and thinking.

language acquisition, and how individuals gain and store knowledge of their physical and

social environments, it includes learning i.e. the process through which our experiences

produce relatively permanent changes in our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

Psychosocial development

This focuses on changes in feelings or emotions as well as changes in how individuals relate

to other people. It includes relationships with family members and peers.

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Why do we study human development?

Knowing about humans can help you in the following ways: -

▪ It can give you appropriate expectations for children and adolescents. Developmental

psychology tells you, for example, when infants usually begin talking and it suggests

when school children tend to begin reasoning abstractly.

▪ - Knowledge of developmental psychology can help you to respond appropriately to

children's actual behavior

▪ Knowledge of human development can help you recognize when departures from

normal development are truly significant and help may be sought.

▪ Researchers and practitioners may apply what they have learned and may help human

beings develop in positive directions.

▪ It can also help individuals understand how to cope with changes that occur during

old age, as individuals grow old, they face many challenges that they need to adjust to

as part of their lifespan.

Note: Questions and controversies about Human Growth and Development

How does development come about? What courses does it follow?

1. The Nature-Nurture controversy

It put forward a disagreement among theorists about whether genetic or

environmental factors are the most important determinants of development and

behavior. Nature means inborn biological characteristics i.e., the hereditary

information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception that signals the

body to grow and affects all our characteristics and skills.

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 Nurture means the complex forces of the physical and social world that children

encounter in their homes, neighborhoods, schools, and communities. One popular idea

is that psychological development must be preceded by an increment in biological

maturation i.e. genetic influences are first and environmental influences second. Some

psychologists believe that genetic factors are important in the process of development.

2. The Activity-Passivity controversy

This is another area of theoretical debate. It is a debate among developmental theorists

about whether children are active contributors to their own development or rather,

passive recipients of environmental influence.

3. The continuity-discontinuity controversy

There is a debate among theorists about whether developmental changes are

quantitative and continuous, or rather, qualitative and discontinuous. The continuity

theorists view human development as an additive process that occurs gradually and

continuously without sudden changes. By contrast, discontinuity theories describe the

road to maturity as a series of abrupt changes, each of which elevates the child to a

new and more advanced level of functioning.

Note: Continuity theorists hold that developmental changes are gradual and

quantitative, whereas discontinuity theories view these changes as abrupt and

qualitative.

4. The Universality-Particularity controversy

It is a disagreement among theorists about whether the most noteworthy aspects of

development are universal ie. normative outcomes that everyone is said to display or

particularistic i.e., outcomes that vary from person to person.

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Stage theorists believe that developmental sequences apply to all normal people in all

cultures and are therefore universal. For instance, all normal humans begin to use language at

11-14 months of age, reach sexual maturity during the pre-teen or teenage period, and show

signs of aging by mid-life. Other theorists believe that paths of development followed in one

culture may be very different (unique) from those followed in another culture. The

particularistic theorists argue that human development can proceed in many directions and is

much less universal than stage theorists argue.

Theoretical Perspectives of Human Development

Developmental Psychologists have adopted various theoretical perspectives on

development. The theoretical perspectives provide frameworks within which

(Descriptive information) about development can be organized.

Five major psychological perspectives focus on human development and behavior. The

different psychological perspectives focus on different aspects of development. These

perspectives also help us to achieve a more complete understanding of lifespan development.

1. The Biological perspective

The biological perspective emphasizes the relationship of biological systems to behavior and

mental processes. Within developmental psychology, this perspective began with Darwin's

influence in the mid-1800s. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution stressed the role of

biogenetic factors in determining the development of individuals and the evolution of species.

Darwin's ideas had an enormous impact on later developmentalists. They believed that

development was a result of genetic inheritance that directed the development of the

individual's anatomy and physiology. Maturation i.e., the unfolding of the individual's genetic

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characteristics was thought to occur with little influence from the environment. A common

argument among various theories within the biological perspective is that development is the

function of biological factors determined by one’s genetic inheritance. In general, the

biological perspective emphasizes understanding human biogenetics to understand

human development.

2. Behavioural Learning Perspective

This perspective emphasizes environmental factors in explaining development. It views

development as largely determined by one's physical and social environment. Genetic

factors/hereditary factors are believed to provide a blueprint for development with the

environment providing the actual materials. To adopt this perspective, developmental

psychologists focus on the role of learning and experience in shaping development. The first

proponent of this perspective was John B. Watson (1878-1958) who focused the attention of

psychologists on the importance of studying observable, overt behaviors, the process of

learning, and the influences of the environment on an individual's behavior.

3. The Cognitive perspective

The perspective emphasizes the individual's active role in influencing his/her development in

relationship with intellectual abilities i.e., the perspective focuses on the development of

thinking, reasoning, and related intellectual abilities. From the cognitive viewpoint, humans

actively select and process information from their knowledge. A leading theorist in the area is

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) who proposed a cognitive development theory. He maintained that

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from birth onwards, cognitive or mental development is a result of an active construction

process by the individual. He maintained that from birth onwards cognitive or mental

development is a result of an active construction process by the individual. He proposed that

cognitive development proceeds through the same stage for all people from infancy, through

childhood up to adulthood.

4. Psychodynamic perspective

This perspective stresses that development is the result of dynamic inner forces of which

individuals are normally unaware e.g., sexual energy, aggressive energy. Given this

perspective, developmental psychologists maintain that humans are born with an innate set

of forces that shape and determine later development. Freud's psychoanalytic theory provides

the historical basis for many of the perspective's key ideas. A common idea among all

psychodynamic views is that people are always in a state of conflict between their internal

urges (innate force) and society's constraints on their behavior

5. Humanistic - Existential Perspective

This perspective emphasizes individuals' active roles in their ongoing development vis-a-vis

social and personality development. An underlying belief from this perspective is that we

make conscious choices that directly affect how we develop i.e., development results from

striving to fulfill our growth potential. The humanistic existential perspective focuses on the

idea that each of us has the capacity development to make our choices and to change those

choices if we so choose in the process of development.

Developmental principles

1. Cephalocaudal principle

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According to this principle development proceeds from head to toe. Development occurs first

and strongest in the head region and proceeds down the body trunk. The infant's head

illustrates this principle at birth in relationship to the rest of the body.

2. Proximodistal principle

According to this principle, development occurs from the center of the body outward i.e.,

body size. It is more pronounced during adolescence.

3. Differentiation principle

According to this principle, different parts of the body become increasingly distinct in their

patterns and functions. They do not develop at the same rate. Additionally, it is also important

to recognize that individual differences in rates of development occur and are normal.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Theories differ in how they explain the processes and mechanisms of developmental change.

Some place emphasis on biologically determined sources of change called maturation/ Others

emphasize experience and learning as sources of developmental change.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Psychodynamic theorists believe that development is an active dynamic process that is

strongly influenced by an individual's social and emotional experiences. A child's

development is thought to occur in a series of stages. At each stage, the child experiences

conflicts that he or she must to some degree resolve to go to the next stage. Psychodynamic

theories that have been most influential in developmental psychology are those of Sigmund

Freud and Erik Erikson.

SIGMUND FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

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In Freud's view, human development is motivated by energy or "libido". Libido refers to all

how human beings seek to increase pleasure and avoid discomfort by fulfilling their physical

and emotional needs. This approach assumes that children move through a series of stages in

which they confront conflict between biological drives or forces and social expectations.

Conflicts experienced shape behavior and personality development. The ways these conflicts

are resolved determine development. From infancy through adolescence, changes are caused

by the conflicts a child experiences in trying to satisfy the libido. As a child develops the

libido is eventually divided among three components of personality namely; the id, ego,

and superego. Therefore, the theory argues that human development is the result of

interactions among the three components. The id is the first part of our personality (between

birth years) because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that

the id is based on the pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants whatever feels good at

the time, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. When a

child is hungry, the id wants food, and therefore the child cries. When the child is

uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or

her needs are met. The id does not care about reality, about the needs of anyone else, only its

satisfaction.

At the age of 3 years, the child interacts more and more with the world and the second part of

the personality that is the ego begins to develop. The ego is based on the reality principle.

The ego understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes being

impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run. It is the ego's job to meet the needs of the id

while taking into consideration the reality of the situation.

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By the age of 5 years the third component, the superego develops. The superego is the moral

part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our caregivers.

The superego has two components namely the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience

is the part that dictates our belief in right and wrong. The ego ideal is that part that makes us

feel proud for whatever good thing we do in our society.

Freud's Psychosexual Development

According to the theory, parts of personality develop as we move through a series of

psychosexual stages. Freud thought that personality develops in a fixed series of stages,

which he called psychosexual, and focused on certain erogenous areas. Each stage is

characterized by different demands for sexual gratification and different ways of achieving

that gratification. He believed that psychological development depends on the changing

expression of sexual energy in different parts of the body as the child matures. According to

Freud, psychosexual energy was described as the driving force behind behavior and

development. Freud also believed that psychological pleasure begins long before the

individual achieves sexual maturity. He used the term psychosexual pleasure in a broad sense

to include the good feelings arising from the stimulation from different parts of the body

namely; the mouth, anus, genitals, and other body zones. These body areas become a focus of

psychosexual interest at different developmental stages. He believed that human beings go

through five (5) stages of psychosexual development based on erogenous zones. If

individuals do not receive an appropriate amount of gratification i.e., receiving either too

or too much, they may become fixated in a particular stage and can experience sexual

and emotional problems in adulthood. Freud noted that if normal psychosexual development

is blocked or frustrated, fixation can occur i.e., the inability to develop psychosexually

beyond a certain stage. As a result of fixation, behaviors from the fixated stage may persist in

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an individual's adult personality. If the psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the

result is a healthy personality.

The five stages include: -

Oral stage (Birth -1 year)

It marks the first year of life. During the oral stage, the mouth is the focus of stimulation and

interaction. Feeding and weaning are central activities. Infants who receive either too little or

too much opportunity to suck can be fixated. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning

process that is, the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at

this stage, the consequences of oral fixation are that much libido and pleasure remain

attached to the mouth. Throughout life a person may continue to receive pleasure from

overeating, over

drinking, gum chewing, nail biting, smoking, kissing excessive talking, etc. Difficulties at

the oral stage also result in personality traits such as excessive dependence, extreme

pessimism and optimism, sarcasm, hostility, and aggression.

Anal Stage (1-3 Years)

The focus of stimulation is the anus. Pleasure is obtained from expelling or retaining fecal

material. Toilet training is a central activity. Children must endure the demands of toilet

training given usually by parents. However, not all parents provide the support and

encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule, or

shame a child for errors they make. The emotional climate parents create during toilet

training can leave a mark on one's personality i.e., fixation results if toilet training is either

too lenient or too strict. If toilet training is too lenient fixation results in the development of

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an anal-expulsive personality character i.e., they become wasteful, irresponsible,

disorderedly, messy, disorganized, careless, dirty, destructive, and rebellious.

On the other hand, if toilet training is too strict fixation results in a development of an anal-

retentive personality character. It is characterized by an individual being neat and orderly.

systematic, careful, organized, rigid, clean, and obedient.

Phallic Stage (3-6 Years)

The focus of stimulation is the genitals i.e., children at this stage frequently observe their

genitals

and ask questions about birth and sex. Children derive pleasure from stroking and fondling

their genitals. They become aware of the anatomical differences in males and females.

Young children feel a sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex. Freud called this

situation Oedipus complex in boys and Electra complex in girls. The boys fear the father as

the dominant rival and this fear becomes castration anxiety i.e. the boy develops the fear of

losing his sex organs. On the other hand, the young girl discovers that her sexual organs differ

from those of the boys, i.e., do not possess a penis. This develops in what Freud termed as

Penis envy which is a counterpart of castration anxiety. During this time emotional conflicts

are resolved by eventually identifying with the same-sex parent. A fixation at this stage could

result in sexual deviance (both overindulging and avoidance) and confused sexual identity. It

may be characterized by engaging in behaviors such as promiscuity, homosexuality,

lesbianism, incest, and other immoral behaviors.

Latency Stage (6-12 Years)

It is characterized by the apparent absence of sexual feelings and interests.

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Children suppress their psychosexual interests. They enter a latent period and available

sexual energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities i.e. sexual energies are re-

directed into socially useful physical and intellectual activities.

Sexual urges remain repressed as children become more independent of their parents and

learn, through developing peer relationships, to interact with other people and respond to

their needs. Children at this stage play and interact mostly with peers of the same sex, make

friends, develop self-confidence, and learn social rules for appropriate male and female

behavior. It is during this stage children interact and play mostly with same-sex peers.

According to Freud, no one becomes fixated at this stage. 5.

Genital Stage (12 Years on Wards)

The genitals are the focus of stimulation. Puberty and adolescence mark the beginning of mat

sexual relationships. Individuals settle into the task of establishing mature relationships that

may last throughout their adult years. However, adolescents face conflicts in learning how to

manage these new sexual urges in socially acceptable ways. Throughout adolescence and

young adulthood, energy is invested in such activities as forming friendships, preparing for a

career, courting, and getting married. Fixation may result in behaviors such as promiscuity,

homosexuality, lesbianism, and other immoral behaviors.

Note

Freud's theory, however, was criticized by Alan Katcher (1955). He found that the majority of

4–5-year-olds were unable to assemble a doll so that its genitals matched with other parts of

the body. The theory has also been criticized in part because of Freud's only focus on

sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.

Psychology Notes -Prepared by Peace Amanya Nantaba