Language contact·is the social and linguistic phenomenon· by which

speakers of different languages (or different dialects of the same

language) interact· with one another , leading to a transfer· of linguistic
features.

History
"Language contact· is a major factor· in language· change·, " notes
Stephan Gramley , author· or multiple books on the English language·
. "Contact with other languages and other dialectal varieties of one
language· is a source· of alternative· pronunciations , grammatical
structures, and vocabulary·. " Prolonged language· contact· generally
leads to bilingualism or multilingualism .

Uriel Weinreich ("Languages in Contact , " 1953 ) and Einar Haugen

("The Norwegian Language in America , " 1953 ) are commonly
regarded as the pioneers of language-contact studies . Weinreich was
the first· to note· that those who learn· second· languages see·
linguistic forms from their first· and second· languages as equal .

Influences
Language contact· often occurs along borders or as a result· of
migration . The transfer· of words· of phrases can be· one-way or two-
way . Chinese has influenced Japanese , for instance· , though the
reverse has not largely been true· . Two-way influence· is less
common· and is typically restricted to specific regions .

Pidgins are often developed for trade· purposes . These are a few
hundred words· that can be· spoken between people· of different
languages .

Creoles , on the other hand· , are full-fledged languages that result·

from the blending of more than one language· and are often the first·
language· of a person· .
In recent decades the internet has brought many languages in contact·
, thus influencing one another .

Still , only a few languages dominate· the web , influencing the others ,
notes the website Translate Media . English by far predominates ,
along with Russian , Korean and German . Even languages spoken by
multiple millions , such as Spanish and Arabic , have· , by comparison·
, little· representation· on the internet . As a result· , English words· are
influencing other languages worldwide· at a far greater rate· as a
direct· result· of internet use· .

In France , the English term· “cloud computing” has come· into

common· use· despite efforts to get· French speakers to adopt· “
informatique en nuage.”
 Different Types of Language-Contact Situations
"Language contact· is not , of course· , a homogeneous phenomenon· . Contact may
occur· between languages which are genetically related or unrelated , speakers may
have· similar or vastly different social structures , and patterns of multilingualism may also
vary· greatly . In some cases the entire· community· speaks more than one variety· , while
in other cases only a subset of the population is multilingual . Lingualism and lectalism
may vary· by age· , by ethnicity , by gender , by social class· , by education· level· , or by
one or more of a number· of other factors . In some communities there are few constraints
on the situations in which more than one language· can be· used , while in others there is
heavy· diglossia , and each language· is confined to a particular· type· of social
interaction . . . .
"While there a great· number· of different language· contact· situations , a few come· up
frequently in areas where linguists do· fieldwork . One is dialect· contact· , for example·
between standard· varieties of a language· and regional varieties (e . g . , in France or the
Arab world) . . . .
"A further type· of language· contact· involves exogamous communities where more than
one language· might be· used within the community· because its members come· from
different areas . . . . The converse of such communities where exogamy leads to
multilingualism is an endoterogenous community· which maintains its own language· for
the purpose· of excluding outsiders . . . .
"Finally , fieldworkers particularly often work· in endangered language· communities
where language· shift· is in progress· . "
—Claire Bowern, "Fieldwork in Contact Situations." "The Handbook of Language
Contact," ed. by Raymond Hickey. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013
The Study of Language Contact
"Manifestations of language· contact· are found in a great· variety· of domains , including
language· acquisition·, language· processing and production· , conversation· and
discourse·, social functions of language· and language· policy , typology and language·
change· , and more . . . .
"[T]he study· of language· contact· is of value· toward an understanding of the inner·
functions and the inner· structure· of ' grammar ' and the language· faculty· itself . "
—Yaron Matras, "Language Contact." Cambridge University Press, 2009
"A very naive view· of language· contact· would probably hold· that speakers take·
bundles of formal· and functional properties , semiotic signs so to speak· , from the
relevant contact· language· and insert· them into their own language· . To be· sure· , this
view· is much too simplistic and not seriously maintained any longer . A probably more
realistic view· held in language· contact· research· is that whatever kind· of material· is
transferred in a situation· of language· contact· , this material· necessarily experiences
some sort· of modification· through contact· . "
—Peter Siemund, "Language Contact: Constraints and Common Paths of Contact-
Induced Language Change." "Language Contact and Contact Languages," ed. by Peter
Siemund and Noemi Kintana. John Benjamins, 2008
 Bilingualism, Ability to speak· two· languages . It may be· acquired
early by children in regions where most adults speak· two·
languages (e . g . , French and dialectal German in Alsace) .
Children may also become· bilingual by learning languages in two·
different social settings; for example· , British children in British India
learned an Indian language·from their nurses and family servants . A
second· language· can also be· acquired in school· . Bilingualism
can also refer· to the use· of two· languages in teaching , especially
to foster· learning in students trying to learn· a new language· .

Advocates of bilingual education· in the U . S . argue· that it

speeds learning in all subjects for children who speak· a foreign·
language· at home· and prevents them from being marginalized
in English-language schools . Detractors counter· that it hinders
such children from mastering the language· of the larger
society· and limits their opportunities for employment· and
higher education·.
 Bilingualism is an easy· word· to understand· if you break· it down
into its constituent· parts:

Bi - refers to two·
Lingualism - refers to languages
Put them together and you end· up with:

Bilingualism - the ability· to use· or speak· two· languages

Bilingualism refers to the coexistence of two· language· systems in a

person· or community's communication· .

Monolingualismrefers to the ability· to speak· only one language· .

Is it that simple ? Essentially yes , although there are a couple· more

things worth noting .

Bilingualism falls under the wider label of 'Multilingualism', which is

the use· ofmore than one language·. For that reason· , someone· who
is bilingual could also be· referred to as being multilingual .

Bilingualism is a term· that can also be· used to refer· to the use·
ofmore than two· languages(for example· 3 , 4 , or more languages) ,
however , it primarily refers totwo·languages (as the name· implies) .

Fun Fact: It is estimated that over half the world's population is

bilingual! How cool is that?
 Types of bilingualism
Now that we know· for sure· what bilingualism is , let's dive· into the different types !
There are several criteria linguists use· to define· bilingualism , so we'll look· at these in
turn· .

When looking at bilingualism in the context of 'who it is that's able to speak· more than
one language· ? 'there are different definitions to refer· to one bilingual person· versus a
bilingual community:

Individual Bilingualism - refers to one individual being able to use· two· languages
proficiently .

Societal Bilingualism - refers to a whole· community· or country·being able to use· two·

languages proficiently .

In terms of how people·develop· bilingualism, there are three· key· types of bilingualism:

Compound Bilingualism- when an individual develops an understanding of and

proficiency in two· languagessimultaneously in a single context. For example· , a child·
that has been brought up learning and speaking two· different languages from infancy will
have· acquired these two· languages simultaneously . They would therefore use· both
languages for everyday· interaction with their parents .

Coordinate Bilingualism- when an individual learns two· different languages indistinctly

different contexts, often by different means . For example· , if an English speaking child·
begins learning French at a young· age· in school· and goes on to become· quite
proficient· in it , this child· would be· considered a coordinate bilingual , as they have·
learned English from their parents , and French through lessons at school· (two distinctly
different contexts) .

Sub-coordinate Bilingualism- when an individual learns a second· language· byfiltering

information through their native· language·. For example· , when a Spanish person·
hears the English word· 'book' , they will begin· to associate it with the equivalent· word·
in Spanish , 'libro' . This process· of association· requires the Spanish speaker· to filter
the English word· through their knowledge· of Spanish in order· to understand· the
meaning of the word· 'book' .
 Benefits of being bilingual
As we said in the beginning of this article· , being bilingual is like a superpower ! There are
so many benefits to being bilingual , so let's take· a closer look:

wider communicative ability·- the most obvious advantage· to being bilingual is the
increased ability· to communicate· with more people· and in more countries . Speaking
two· or more languages opens up many opportunities for people· , whether those
opportunities be· professional , educational , creative , or explorative .

privacy·- people· who are bilingual have· the ability· to code-switch . If two· bilingual
friends found themselves in a situation· where they didn't want· the people· around them
to understand· what they were talking about , they could code-switch from one language·
to the other in order· to keep· their conversation· private .

Code-switching is the ability· to switch· between different languages or language· varieties

within a single speech· exchange· .

increased cultural· awareness·- because culture· and language· are often so closely
linked , being able to speak· more than one language· could give· the speaker· greater
cultural· insight and understanding . For example· , if a child· is born to Spanish parents ,
has grown up in England , but speaks both Spanish and English fluently , their
understanding and awareness· of their Spanish heritage· may be· a lot· stronger than if
they only spoke English . This child· would likely have· solid· cultural· awareness· of both
their Spanish roots and British culture· , as a result· of being bilingual .

competitiveness in the job· market- as we've now seen , languages play· an important·
role· in business· and professional settings . Being bilingual presents people· with an
advantage· over their monolingual competitors and sets them apart· as being able to
reach· more colleagues and clients .

ease· of learning a third language·- as with anything , practice· makes perfect· . If you
already have· a firm grasp· of two· languages , learning a third is made much easier .

creative expression·- bilingual people· have· the unique· ability· to mix the best parts of
the languages they speak· . With a bit· of creative code-switching , bilingual people· are
able to pack· more punch· into their discourse· by adding impactful words· in different
languages . Sometimes idiomatic language· and other kinds of phrases in one language·
do· not translate· well into others . Being bilingual enables the speaker· to still use· these
evocative· words· and phrases without having to dilute· their meaning by translating .
 Common bilingualism features
Bilingual people· most commonlybelong to two· different culturesor have· roots in
two· different nationalities .

Bilingual people· mayuse· their different languages in different aspects of their

lives(for example· , an individual might speak· English at school· or work· but
Spanish at home) .

Bilingualism does not always mean· the speaker· speaks both languages to the
same proficiency. This is often assumed but is not always the case· .

Being bilingual doesn't automatically mean· the speaker· will be· able to translate·
between languages instantaneously; sometimes some extra· thought will be·
required to translate· things , especially if the speaker· has varying proficiencies of
each language· .

Bilingual people· who speak· the same languages as each other willoften mix
languages and code-switch in conversation·.

It is common· for bilingual people· to sometimesstruggle· to find· a word· in one

language·, so they might explain· what they mean· in another way· .

Bilingualism - Key Takeaways

Bilingualism is the ability· to speak· two· (or more) languages .
People become· bilingual for many reasons including: being born to parents who
speak· different languages , learning a second· language· for education· or
business· , moving to a new country· , or wanting to integrate· .
A lingua franca is a common· language· adopted by people· who speak· different
languages to each other . English is a very prolific· lingua franca and is an official·
language· in many countries all over the world .
There are many benefits to being bilingual including: wider communicative ability· ,
competitive· edge· in education· and business· , added privacy· when conversing
with someone· , more creative expression· , increased cultural· awareness· , and
ease· of learning a third language· .
Common features of bilingualism include: belonging to two· different cultures ,
code-switching , having differing levels of proficiency in each language· , and using
different languages in different aspects of life· .
 Multilingualism

Multilingualism is the ability· of an individual speaker·or a community· of speakers

to communicate· effectively in three· or more languages . Contrast with
monolingualism , the ability· to use· only one language· .

A person· who can speak· multiple languages is known as a polyglot or a

multilingual .

The original language· a person· grows up speaking is known as their first·

language· or mother tongue· . Someone who is raised speaking two· first·
languages or mother tongues is called a simultaneous· bilingual . If they learn· a
second· language· later , they are called a sequential bilingual .

Bilingualism and Multilingualism

"Current research· . . . begins by emphasizing the quantitative
distinction betweenmultilingualism and bilingualism and the greater
complexity· and diversity of the factors involved in acquisition· and
use· where more than two· languages are involved (Cenoz 2000 ;
Hoffmann 2001 a; Herdina and Jessner 2002 ) . Thus , it is pointed
out that not only do· multilinguals have· larger overall linguistic
repertoires , but the range· of the language· situations in which
multilinguals can participate , making appropriate· language· choices
, is more extensive . Herdina & Jessner ( 2000 b: 93 ) refer· to this
capacity· as 'the multilingual art· of balancing communicative
requirements with language· resources . ' This wider ability·
associated with the acquisition· of more than two· languages has
also been argued to distinguish· multilinguals in qualitative terms .
One . . . qualitative distinction seems to lie· in the area· of strategies
. Kemp ( 2007 ) , for example· , reports that multilingual learners'
learning strategies differ· from those of monolingual students
learning their first· foreign· language· . " — Larissa Aronin and David
Singleton
 Code-Switching
Alternating between two· or more languages or language·
varieties/dialects in the context of a single conversation· . Using
elements of more than one language· when conversing in a
manner· that is consistent with the syntax , morphology , and
phonology of each language· or dialect· .

Code-Mixing
Truth be· told , many people· use· the terms Code-Switching
and Code-Mixing interchangeably . Some linguists , however ,
make· a distinction in which Code Mixing refers to the
hybridization· of two· languages (e . g . parkear , which uses an
English root· word· and Spanish morphology) and Code-
Switching refers to the movement· from one language· to
another .

Many pairs of languages have· a hybrid name· . Some

languages hybridized with English include· Spanglish for
Spanish , Hindlish for Hindi , and Frenglish for French .

there are many other reasons people· use· code-

switching and code-mixing .
These include quoting other people· , clarifying or
explaining a point· a point· , adding personality to a
comment· , emphasizing a point· , reflecting your
mood· , and so on .
 What is an example· of code· switching ?
First , we should note· that there are rules to code-switching . Segments in
each language· or dialect· follow· the rules of that language· or dialect· .
There are also rules about where in an utterance· code· switching can occur·
(such as phrase· boundaries) . These rules vary· somewhat by language·
because they are guided by the languages used in code-switching . We’ve
included links and references to some great· resources at the end· of this
post· so you can explore· your languages of interest· .

Below are some examples of code-switching from evaluations I have· done of

students who were not diagnosed with a language· disorder· .

Single Word Code-Switching

Here’s an example· of single word· code-switching from a 6 -year-old Spanish
speaker· who has been in the process· of learning English for 2 - 3 years· .
Single word· code-switching can be· done for specificity in vocabulary· or
when a child· does not know· a label in both languages .

The venado (deer) run· and he go· off a cliff· .

Phrasal and Intersentential Code-Switching

The following is the Capi Story from the PLS-5-Spanish told by a child· who
was 4 ; 6 and has grown up speaking both languages at home· . He is in a
dual language· classroom for pre-Kindergarten . Notice that he switches from
one sentence· to another , sometimes from one phrase· to another , and in
dialogue· .

Capi was dormido aquí. (Capi was asleep here)

The girl· say· , “¿Qué podemos hacer ? ” to the boy . (The girl· say· , “What
can we do· ? ” to the boy)
Hacen una casa . (They make· a house)
He was making the house· and he cut· out a door .
Y él tiene su cobija y está happy· . (And he had his blanket· and he was
happy) .
Code-switching in dialogue·
Next is a brilliant· example· of code-switching by a 6 -year-old girl· who
speaks Standardized American English dialect· and African American English
dialect· . The excerpts are from her retelling of the Mercer Mayer wordless
picture· book· Frog Goes to Dinner.