CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between
computer literacy and use of technology, as well as if a relationship exists between
teachers’ access to technology and their use of technology in education classrooms.
Computer Literacy
Mason and McMorrow (2006) suggested there are two distinct components to
computer literacy, awareness and competence. Awareness “requires an individual to have
knowledge of how computers affect his/her daily life or society as a whole”, and
competence “requires an individual to demonstrate hands-on proficiency with a software
application”. Some of the most basic computer literacy skills include using a word
processor, email, mailing lists, and the World Wide Web (Evans, 1999; Manley, Sweaney,
& Valente, 2000). Computer literacy is even thought to be as important as writing, reading,
and math in the school setting (Mehlhoff, 1985; cited in Croxall & Cummings, 2000), as
children in today’s society have never experienced schools without computers (Robyler,
Castine, & King, 1993). These skills are essential in today’s school systems as more tasks
are completed using computer technologies. After conducting a study related to technology
integration in Career and Technical Education classrooms, Redmann and Kotrlik (2004)
had several recommendations as to how teachers can be proactive in their quest to
becomemore computer literate. These included attending workshops and conferences, taking
college classes that deal with technology and by engaging “in self-directed learning to stay
current with the use of technology in the teaching-learning process”. Self-directed learning
might include experimenting with equipment, planning lessons using the computer, and
exploring various types of software available on the computer and on the internet (Croxall
& Cummings, 2000).
Russell (1995) conducted a study that looked at adult students’ use of email and
developed a six-stage process (p.175) they must go through in order to be email
[Link] stages are awareness, learning the process, understanding and application of
the proces, familiarity and confidence, adaptation to other contexts, creative application to
new contexts. Once the email users moved through these six stages, the processes needed
to use email become invisible to them. These six stages can be used to help teachers
develop computer literacy related to different aspects of technology applications. Eisenberg
and Johnson (1996) state that computer literacy needs to include more than just the “how”
of using computers; it also needs to focus on the “when” and “why.”
Through their research, Eisenberg and Johnson developed some suggestions as to
what computer literacy should be covered. Some of their basic suggestions included being
able to identify parts of the computer, creating drafts/final projects using a word processor,
and using the internet to search for information. The more advanced suggestions included
knowing computer terminology, being able to operate and maintain a computer, having the
knowledge to use instructional technology, having the skills to do various programming
activities, and having a working knowledge on the impact of technology on society and all
that society encompasses.
Research shows that computer literacy is an important component in having the
ability to successfully and confidently use technology (Croxall & Cummings, 2000;
Eisenberg & Johnson, 1996) within the classroom. Acquiring the skills to use instructional
technology in the classroom is a necessity in today’s society (Robyler, Castine, & King,
1993). Russell’s (1995) six-stage process can be used to help teachers develop a better
understanding of technological applications, as can attending workshops or taking classes
that deal with using technology in the classroom (Redmann and Kotrlik, 2004).
Technology used in the Classroom
Instructional technology is a vital part of Career and Technical Education and
“encompasses not only the computer but also other technologies and delivery systems” (Lu
& Miller, 2002) that may be used in the classroom. In recent years, there has been an
increased emphasis on the integration of technology into curriculum, especially at the high
school level (Peake, Briers, & Murphy, 2005). Lu and Miller (2002) described the
technology used in the classroom to be in various forms including computers, DVD/VCR
players, digital and video cameras, televisions, cooking equipment, and welding equipment.
They also describe how classroom technology can help the teacher to use,
assess, alter, and present information in a variety of ways.
The positive attitudes about computer/technology use have led teachers to more
readily incorporate technology into the classroom in order to enhance student interest and
involvement (Schofield, 1995; Croxall & Cummings, 2000; Way & Montgomery, 1995).
For teachers to enhance the learning experiences of their classrooms, they will need to use
up-to-date and interactive technologies. The internet also serves as a valuable teaching tool,
helping to enhance the curriculum through free downloads, interactive websites, and email
(McFadden, Croxall, & Wright, 2001). The internet is an ever-changing entity and it is
important that teachers stay current on what is available to them. According to Manley,
Sweaney, and Valente (2000) there are three main reasons why this is important. First, the
internet is a very useful tool and can be used to provide hands-on learning experiences for
the students. It provides quick and easy access to a wealth of information from around the
world. Second, as our culture has become more technologically- oriented, so must our
students if they are to live and work in today’s society. By incorporating the internet into
the classroom, the teacher is helping students learn how to find information and
successfully use technology. The teachers are constantly getting new technology and it is
up to them to expose their students to it in order for them to be successful in the workforce.
There are certain phases teachers go through when incorporating technology into the
classroom. Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer (1997) created a model describing five phases
educators go through when increasing their use of technology. These five phases are:
entryteachers adapt to changes in physical environment created by technology,
adoptionteachers use technology to support text based instruction, adaptation-teachers
integrate the
use of word processing and databases into the teaching process, appropriation-teachers
change their personal attitudes toward technology, invention-teachers have mastered the
technology and create novel learning environments As teachers progress through each of
these five phases, they develop a better understanding as to how to use technology in the
classroom.
Technology used in the classroom can be increased by improving the preparation
of new teachers in the use of technology, ensuring that every teacher has the opportunity
to take online learning courses, improving the quality and consistency of teacher education
through measurement, accountability and increased technology resources, ensuring that
every teacher knows how to use data to personalize instruction. This is marked by the
ability to interpret data to understand student progress and challenges, drive daily decisions
and design instructional interventions to customize instruction for every student’s unique
needs.
Various types of technology are more accessible now than ever before. While
teachers are trying to implement new types of technology into their classrooms, many of
them are faced with barriers that hinder their attempts to advance (Redmann & Kotrlik, 2004;
U.S Department of Education, 2000; Keane, 2002; McFadden, Croxall, & Wright,
2001; Croxall, Cummings, 2000; Budin, 1999; Redmann & Kotrlik, 2004). If the barriers
teachers face are addressed, they will be able to fully integrate more technology into the
classroom, thus helping students to be more “technologically prepared for the future”
(Manley, Sweaney, & Valente, 2000).
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study works by the “diffusion of innovations theory”
and is defined as the “the spread of a new idea from its source of invention or creation to
its ultimate users or adopters” (Rogers, 1962). There are five categories into which adopters
fall based upon their innovativeness: laggards, late majority, early majority, early adopters,
and innovators according to Rogers and shoemaker (1971) arranged by a bell curve and the
adoption process of the diffusion of innovations theory is considered to be a type of
decision-making.
The person must begin using a new idea and allow it to replace the previous idea they were
using. The diffusion of innovations theory can be linked back to teacher’s computer
literacy, access to and use of technology. Research related to technology, certain indicators
are present that indicate a shift between the five categories of adoption: laggards, late
majority, early majority, early adopters, and innovators (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971).
Daulton (1997) found that family and Consumer Sciences Education teachers’ adoption
rate for technology increased from 5 percent in 1983 to 83 percent in 1993. This increase
shows that as technology became more common in the school setting, teachers moved from
the late majority category to the early adopter category.
According to a report published by the National Association of State Boards of Education
(NASBE), 63 percent of schools surveyed reported that the majority of teachers used the
internet and computers for instruction, but almost one quarter of those schools classified
their teachers as “beginners” when using technology. This shows that teachers have the
desire to incorporate technology into the classroom (early adopter), but face challenges in
acquiring the knowledge to do so. When trying to determine computer literacy, access to
technology and use of technology in classrooms, it is important to look at relative
advantage and compatibility of adoptions.
Rogers (1995) identifies relative advantage to be “one of the best predictors of an
innovation’s rate of adoption” because when an innovation is adopted the physical benefits
(gains in social status, or savings in time, money or effort) are easily acknowledged
(Tornatzky & Klein, 1982).
Rogers (1995) also identifies compatibility to be “the degree to which an innovation is
perceived as consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential
adopters” and states that it is positively related to adoption. If the innovation is not
compatible with the needs, values, or beliefs of the adopter, then they will not see its
relative advantage.
Conceptual Framework
The theory was developed by E.M. Rogers, a communication theorist at the
University of New Mexico, in 1962. Integrating previous sociological theories of
behavioral change, it explains the passage of an idea through stages of adoption by different
actors.
The diffusion of innovations theory is a hypothesis defining how new technological
and other advancements spread throughout societies and cultures, from introduction to
widespread adoption and seeks to explain how and why new ideas and practices are
adopted, with timelines potentially spread out over long periods.
In addition, it also explains how innovations are being communicated to different
parts of society and the subjective opinions associated with the innovations are important
factors in how quickly diffusion or spreading occurs.
In summary, it describes the pattern and speed at which new ideas, practices, or
products spread through a population and the main players in the theory are innovators,
early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards as mentioned.
Statement of the Problem
We carried out a study, controlled intervention study that aimed to examine the
causal relationship between computer use and measures of physical well-being, social
well-being, emotional well-being, development and activity, and autonomy.
1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 Age
1.2 Sex
1.3 Grade Level
1.4 Strand
2. What are the common websites does Senior High School students usually use?
2.1 Brainly
2.2 Wikipedia
2.3 Dictionary
2.4 Mirriam Webster
3. How often do high school students use any websites?
4. What is the level of computer literacy of the respondents?
5. Is there a significant relationship between online websites and computer literacy?
Significance of the Study
Though the comprehensive exploration of this study on computer literacy, the
influence of computer websites will be scrutinized. Moreover, this research will elucidate
the knowledge and ability of a student in utilizing computers with some range of skills
covering levels efficiently.
In this regard, this study will give awareness to every students about their computer
literacy skills and the possible effects that can help them figure out whether if it is good or
bad already. In addition to this, the overview presented in this research will push for new
paradigms which will be useful for future discussion related to computer literacy and may
lead to a more in-depth analysis of it.
Scope and Delimitation
The aim of the study was to provide an answer for the following question: “Are
there statistically significant differences in computer self-efficacy for pre-service teacher
education students that are attributed to their prior computer experience?” By answering
this question, the study attempted to examine the effect of an Internet-based computer
literacy course on preservice teacher education students’ computer self-efficacy in light of
their prior computer experience.
Definition of Terms
For a better understanding of this study, the following terms are defined in the context of
this research, while others were taken from other sources:
Computer. It is an electronic device that processes a given problem producing an output.
Computer Literacy. It refers to the proficiency in operating and manipulating a computer.
Download. It refers to the method to transferring a file or document from a remote terminal
or computer to your own.
Internet. A worldwide collection of separate, but interconnected, networks that are used
daily by millions of people to obtain information,disseminate information, access
entertainment, or communicate with others.
Online. This refers to communications via a modem or network to a host system. The
availability or access of data or information located within a database system.
Website. A website is a set of data and information about a particular subject which is
available on the internet.
