1.

01 MIDTERM REVIEWER
Professor Editha Strawberry Pe Benito LPT || January 2023 GROUP DYNAMICS
Transcribers: Cancino, Christene S.

MIDTERM REVIEWER IN GROUP DYNAMICS individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role
relationships to one another and which possesses a set of
values or norms of its own regulating the behavior of
Legend:
Remember Previous
individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the
Lecturer Book Trans Comm group”
(Exams) Trans
Systems: “An intact social system, complete with boundaries,
     interdependence for some shared purpose, and differentiated
member roles”
Chapter 1: Defining Groups
A. Group
 two or more individuals who are connected by and within social
relationships.
 Who are connected: emphasis on social relations that link
members to one another.
 Social Relationships - it links members to one another.
 By and Within Social Relations: The relations that link the
members of groups are not of one type.
o Two or more individuals.

1. What is Group? 2. Varieties of Group

 No one definition can capture the many nuances of the word group.  Primary Groups
Some definers stress the importance of communication or mutual Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1909) labeled the
dependence. Still others suggest that a shared purpose or goal is small, intimate clusters of close associates, such as
what turns a mere aggregate of individuals into a bona fide group. families, good friends, or cliques of peers, groups
Even the minimal number of members needed for a true group is profoundly influence the behavior, feelings, and
debated, with some definitions requiring three members but others judgments of their members, for members spend
only two (Moreland, 2010; Williams, 2010). much of their time interacting with one another
Categorization: “Two or more individuals … [who] perceive  Social (Secondary) Groups
themselves to be members of the same social larger and more formally organized than primary
category” groups, and memberships tend to be shorter in
Communication: “Three or more people … who duration and less emotionally involving.
(a) think of themselves as a group, Ex. work groups, clubs, and congregations, military
(b) are interdependent (e.g., with regard to shared squads, governing boards, construction workers,
goals or behaviors that affect one another), and teams, crews, fraternities, sororities, dance troupes,
(c) communicate (interact) with one another (via orchestras, bands, ensembles, classes,
face-to-face or technological means)”  Collectives
Influence: “Two or more persons who are interacting with A relatively large aggregation or group of individuals
one another in such a manner that each person who display similarities in actions and outlook
influences and is influenced by each other  the relations joining the members are so
person” transitory that they dissolve as soon as the
Interdependence: “A dynamic whole based on members separate.
interdependence rather than similarity” Ex: street crowds watching a building burn,
Interrelations: “An aggregation of two or more people who audiences seated in a movie theater, line (queues) of
are to some degree in dynamic interrelation with people waiting to purchase tickets, gatherings of
one another” college students protesting a government policy, and
Psychological significance: “A psychological group is any panicked mobs fleeing from danger
number of people who interact with each other,  Categories
are psychologically aware of each other, and social category is a collection of individuals who are
perceive themselves to be in a group” similar to one another in some way.
Relations: “Individuals who stand in certain relations to each other, Social Category: A perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to
for example, as sharing a common purpose or be similar to one another in some ways but different in one or more ways,
having a common intentionality, or acting such as all women, the elderly, college students, or all the citizens of a
together, or at least having a common interest” specific country.
Shared identity: “Two or more people possessing a  If a category has no social implications, then it only describes
common social identification and whose existence as a group individuals who share a feature in common. If, however, these
is recognized by a third party” categories set in motion personal or interpersonal processes.
Shared tasks and goals: “Three or more people who work Ex: citizens of Ireland are Irish, Americans whose ancestors were from
together interdependently on an agreed-upon activity or goal” Africa are African Americans, and men who are sexually attracted to other
Size: “Two or more people” men are gay.
Social unit: “Persons who recognize that they constitute a
meaningful social unit, interact on that basis, and are Social Capital: The degree to which individuals, groups, or larger
committed to that social unity” aggregates of people are linked in social relationships that yield positive,
Structure: “A social unit which consists of a number of
Page 1 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
productive benefits; analogous to economic capital (fiscal prosperity), but
determined by extensiveness of social connectedness. Four Basic Group Goals
■ Generating: Groups concoct the strategies they will use to
Social Identity: is “that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives accomplish their goals (Type 1: planning tasks) or create altogether
from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups) new ideas and approaches to their problems (Type 2: creativity
together tasks)
 An individual’s sense of self derived from relationships and ■ Choosing: Groups make decisions about issues that have correct
memberships in groups; also, those aspects of the self that are solutions (Type 3: intellective tasks) or questions that can be
assumed to be common to most or all of the members of the answered in many ways (Type 4: decision-making tasks)
same group or social category ■ Negotiating: Groups resolve differences of opinion among
members regarding their goals or decisions (Type 5: cognitive
Stereotypes they have about the members of that social category to conflict tasks) or settle competitive disputes among members (Type
formulate an impression of the person. 6: mixed-motive tasks)
 A socially shared set of qualities, characteristics, and behavioral ■ Executing: Groups do things, including taking part in competitions
expectations ascribed to a particular group or category of people (Type 7: contests/battles/ competitive tasks) or creating some
product or carrying out collective actions (Type 8:
3. Characteristics of Groups performances/psychomotor tasks)

Composition: Who Belongs to the Group? Origin: Founded or Formed?

Composition: the qualities of the individuals who are members of Groups tend to fall naturally into two categories:
the group. Planned Groups: which are deliberately formed by its members or
 The individuals who constitute a group. an external authority for some purpose,
 planned groups; they tend to be organized, task-focused, and
 The qualities of the individuals who are members of the group.
formal
Boundaries: Who Does NOT Belong?  Ex. Arbitration boards, civil rights groups, commissions
A group is boundaried in a psychological sense; those who are committees, expeditions, juries, legislative bodies, military units,
included in the group are recognized as members and those who musical groups, research teams, self-help groups, social
are not part of the group are excluded outsiders. agencies, sports teams, study groups, task forces, therapy
groups, trade associations, veterans organizations, work
Size: How Large Is the Group? groups, and the Adventure Expedition
The number of people who are under or involve in the group. Emergent Groups which come into existence spontaneously when
individuals join together in the same physical location or gradually
 A group’s size also determines how many social ties—links,
over time as individuals find themselves repeatedly interacting with
relationships, connections, edges—are needed to join members
the same subset of individuals.
to each other and to the group.
 These groups are not explicitly organized, but they often
Interaction: What Do Members Do? develop elements of structure as members determine what
Groups are the setting for an infinite variety of interpersonal kinds of behaviors are expected of members.
actions.  allow members to come and go rather than requiring them to
Task interaction includes all group behavior that is focused join in a formal way. They have no written rules, but they likely
principally on the group’s work, projects, task, plans, and goals. develop unwritten norms that define what behaviors are
relationship interaction (socioemotional interaction): The appropriate and what behaviors are inappropriate.
conjointly adjusted actions of group members that relate to or  such as audiences at events, bystanders at a crime scene,
influence the nature and strength of the emotional and interpersonal crowds, customers at a club, gangs, families, friendship
bonds within the group, including both sustaining (social support, networks in work settings, mobs, people waiting to board an
consideration) and undermining actions (criticism, conflict). airplane, and all manner of queues and lines, arise over time
and through repeated association of the eventual members.
Interdependence: Do the Members Depend on Each Other?
means that members depend on one another; their outcomes, Unity: How Cohesive Is the Group?
actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are partially determined Group cohesion: is the integrity, solidarity, social integration, unity,
by others in the group. and groupiness of a group.
 The solidarity or unity of a group resulting from the development
Structure: How Is the Group Organized? of strong and mutual interpersonal bonds among members and
group structure: The organization of a group, including the group-level forces that unify the group, such as shared
members, their interrelations, and their interactions. commitment to group goals and esprit de corps.
Roles specify the general behaviors expected of people who A group’s cohesiveness, however, is often based on commitment to
occupy different positions within the group. the group’s purposes, rather than on social bonds between
Ex: roles of leader and follower members.
Norms that describe what behaviors should and should not be
performed in a given context. Entitativity: Does the Group Look Like a Group?
 If they cannot meet the role’s demand, they might not remain a Entitativity to describe the extent to which a group seems to be a
member for long. Norms within a group are defined and single, unified entity—a real group.
renegotiated over time, and conflicts often emerge as members ■ Groups that are high in entitativity are assumed to have a basic
violate norms. essence that defines the nature of their members (essentialism)
4. What are Group Dynamics?
Goals: What Is the Group’s Purpose? Thomas theorem
A third model, proposed by social psychologist Joseph E. The theoretical premise, put forward by W. I. Thomas, which
McGrath: maintains that people’s conception of a social situation, even if
Page 2 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
incorrect, will determine their reactions in the situation; “If men define
situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” Stages of group development
Dynamic Group Processes
Dynamic comes from the Greek dynamikós, which means to be
strong, powerful, and energetic.
 Dynamic implies the influence of forces that combine,
sometimes smoothly but sometimes in opposition, to create
continual motion and change.
Group dynamics: Interpersonal processes that occur within and
between groups; also, the scientific study of those processes.
 are the influential interpersonal processes that occur in and
between groups over time. Including the following:
■ Formative processes, such as the need to belong to and
affiliate in groups, contextual factors that promote the formation of
groups, and the development of group cohesion (Chapters 3–5)
■ Influence processes, including aspects of group structure
(norms, roles, relationships), conformity and dissent, social power,
obedience to group authority, and leadership (Chapters 6–9)
■ Performance processes, such as group productivity, social
motivation, working in teams, and collaborative decision making
(Chapters 10–12)
■ Conflict processes within groups— intragroup conflict—and
between groups—intergroup conflict (Chapters 13 and 14)
■ Contextual processes that are dependent on the group’s
physical setting and specific purpose, including change-promoting
groups and large collectives (Chapters 15–17)

5. Why study Groups?

 Kurt Lewin (1951), recognized by many as the founder of the
field, chose the word dynamic. Groups tend to be powerful
rather than weak, active rather than passive, and fluid rather
than static.
 Later, psychologists Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander 5. The Value of Groups
supplied a formal definition, advancing knowledge about the
 Despite the many problems caused by groups (competition, conflict,
nature of groups, the laws of their development, and their
poor decisions), humans could not survive without groups.
interrelations with individuals, other groups, and larger
institutions”
Chapter 2: Studying Groups
Understanding People  Researchers must measure as precisely as possible group
processes, collect evidence to test the adequacy of their
 Group researchers, however, are convinced that if one wishes predictions and assumptions, and develop theories that provide
to understand individuals, one must understand groups. coherent explanations for the group phenomenon they study.
 Fundamental Attribution Error - The tendency to over-estimate  Group dynamics is more than a set of facts and information
about groups. It is also the means of accumulating information
the causal influence of dispositional factors while about group processes through scientific research. This chapter
underemphasizing the causal influence of situational factors. briefly reviews the emergence of the scientific study of groups
before examining three key components of the scientific method
Understanding the Social World —measurement, hypothesis testing, and theorizing—used by
 Groups are the interpersonal microstructures that link researchers to study, explore, and understand groups.
individuals to society A. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF GROUPS
■ Groups mediate the connection between individuals and
 Group dynamics—the scientific field devoted to the study of
society at large (Fine, 2012) groups and their dynamics—was not established by a single
theorist or researcher who laid down a set of clear-cut
Applications to Practical Problems assumptions and principles. Rather, group dynamics resulted
 Groups are now the makers, the builders, and producers of from group processes.
 Initially, researchers were uncertain how to investigate their
nearly everything the world needs and consumes. Groups, too,
ideas empirically, but through collaboration and, more often,
are the world’s deciders. spirited competition, researchers developed new methods for
 Applied studies of groups and their dynamics yield solutions to studying groups.
a number of practical problems making the study of groups Paradigm: The philosopher of science, Thomas S. Kuhn
(1970), used that term to describe scientists’ shared
relevant to many professional and scientific fields of study.
assumptions about the phenomena they study.
 a set of research procedures.
 The paradigm determines the questions they consider
worth studying, using the methods that are most
appropriate.

Page 3 of 16
 [GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
The Individual and the Group  researchers observe people in public places, and the things
Levels of Analysis: The focus of study when examining a multilevel people are doing in those places do not expose them to “risk of
process or phenomenon, such as the individual-level or the group-level of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the subjects’ financial
analysis standing, employability, or reputation,” then such research is
 Some favored a group-level analysis, for they recognized that considered ethically permissible.
humans are the constitutive elements of groups and that groups Participant Observation: Watching and recording group activities as a
and their processes have a profound impact on their members. member of the group or participant in the social process.
Others advocated for an individual-level analysis that focused
on the person in the group. Reactivity and the Hawthorne Effect
Group fallacy: Explaining social phenomena in terms of the group as a Hawthorne effect: A change in behavior that occurs when individuals
whole instead of basing the explanation on the individual-level processes know they are being observed or studied
within the group; ascribing psychological qualities, such as will,  after research conducted by psychologist Elton Mayo and his
intentionality, and mind, to a group rather than to the individuals within the associates at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric
group. Company.
 “An individual can be said to ‘think’ or ‘feel’; but to say that a Online group (or e-group): Two or more individuals who interact with
group does these things has no ascertainable meaning beyond each other solely or primarily through computer-based information
saying that so many individuals do them” ( technologies (e.g., email, instant messaging, and social networking sites)
Group mind (or collective consciousness): A hypothetical unifying mental rather than through face-to-face interactions.
force linking group members together; the fusion of individual
consciousness or mind into a transcendent consciousness. Structuring Observations
Qualitative Study: A research procedure that collects and analyzes
nonnumeric, unquantified types of data, such as verbal descriptions, text,
The Reality of Groups
images, or objects.
Lewin and Interactionism Structured Observational Methods: Research procedures that create a
 premised on the principle of interactionism, which assumes that systematic record of group interaction and activities by classifying
the actions, processes, and responses of people in groups (coding) each overt expression or action into a defined category.
(“behavior”) are determined by the interaction of the person and Quantitative study: A research procedure that collects and analyzes
the environment. numeric data, such as frequencies, proportions, or amounts. Interaction
 Lewin believed that a group is a unified system with emergent Process Analysis (IPA): A structured coding system used to measure
properties that cannot be fully understood by piecemeal group activity by classifying each observed behavior into one of 12
examination. categories, such as “shows solidarity” or “asks for orientation” (developed
 B=f(P,E) The law of interactionism that states each person’s by Robert F. Bales).
behavioral, cognitive, and emotional reactions (B) are a function (f
) of the interaction of their personal characteristics (P) with Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG).
environmental factors (E), which include features of the group, the SYMLOG coders use 26 different categories instead of only 12, with these
group members, and the situation. categories signaling members’ dominance–submissiveness, friendliness–
unfriendliness, and accepting–opposing the task orientation of established
The Multilevel Perspective authority (Hare, 2005)
Multilevel Perspective The view that recognizes that a complete
explanation of group processes and phenomena requires multiple Reliability and Validity of Observations
levels of analysis, including individual (micro), group (meso), and Reliability: a measure’s consistency across time, components, and
organizational or societal (macro) level. raters.
Micro-level factors include the qualities, characteristics, and  The degree to which a measurement technique consistently yields
actions of the individual members. the same conclusion at different times. For measurement
Meso-level factors are group-level qualities of the groups techniques with two or more components, reliability is also the
themselves, such as their cohesiveness, their size, their degree to which these components yield similar conclusions.
composition, and their structure. For example, if a rater, when she hears the statement, “This group is a
Macro-level factors are the qualities and processes of the boring waste of time,” always classifies it as a Category 12 behavior, then
larger collectives that enfold the groups, such as communities, the rating is reliable.
organizations, or societies. Interrater reliability: The degree to which two or more raters agree.
 consistency across raters. For example, if different raters, working
B. MEASUREMENT independently, all code the statement similarly, the rating has
interrater reliability.
 the science of groups could not progress until researchers
Validity: The degree to which a measurement method assesses what it
developed methods for measuring more precisely the qualities
was designed to measure
of individuals who were in groups, but also the characteristics of
 the extent to which the technique measures what it is supposed to
groups and the processes that occurred within them.
measure. The IPA, for example, is valid only if observers’ ratings
actually measure the amount of relationship and task interaction in
1. Observation the group. If the observers are incorrect in their coding, or if the
Researchers who study groups often begin with observation. categories are not accurate indicators of relationship and task
Observation: watching and recording a group’s activities and interaction, the scores are not valid.
interactions. Groups are complicated, multifaceted, and dynamic, but they
are observable. 2. Self-Report
 A measurement method that involves watching and recording the
Self-report measures: Assessment methods, such as questionnaires,
activities of individuals and groups
tests, or interviews, that ask respondents to describe their feelings,
Overt and Covert Observation
attitudes, or beliefs.
Overt Observation: make no attempt to hide what they are doing from
Sociometry: A method for measuring the relationships among members
the people they are studying.
of a group and summarizing those relationships graphically (developed by
 Openly watching and recording information with no attempt to Psychiatrist Jacob Moreno)
conceal one’s research purposes.
 used self-report methods to study the social organization of groups
Ex. Openly discussed his identity and interests with the groups
of young women living in adjacent cottages at an institution.
in the neighborhood he studied.
Sociogram: A graphic representation of the patterns of intermember
Covert Observation: whereby they record the group’s activities without
relations created through sociometry.
the group’s knowledge.
 In most cases, each member of the group is depicted by a symbol,
 Watching and recording information on the activities of
such as a lettered circle or square, and relations among members
individuals and groups without their knowledge.
(e.g., communication links and friendship pairings) are indicated by
lines from one member to another.
Page 4 of 16
 [GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
Social network analysis (SNA): A set of procedures for studying the  The IRB, using federal guidelines that define what types of
relational structure of groups and networks mathematically and procedures should be used to minimize risk to participants, reviews
graphically. each study’s procedures before permitting researchers to proceed.
 Using information about the relationships (ties, edges) linking
members (nodes, vertexes), the method yields member-level D. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
indexes (e.g., centrality and betweenness), group-level indexes 1. Motivational Perspectives
(e.g., density and cohesiveness), and a graphic representation of Motivations are psychological mechanisms that give purpose and
the unit. direction to behavior. These inner mechanisms can be called many things
— habits, beliefs, feelings, wants, instincts, compulsions, drives—but no
C. RESEARCH METHODS IN GROUP DYNAMICS matter what their label prompt people to take action.
1. Case Study: A research technique that draws on multiple sources of  Wants, needs, and other psychological processes that energize
information to examine, in depth, the activities and dynamics of a group behavior and thereby determine its form, intensity, and duration
or groups. Hierarchy of needs: An ordering of needs from the most basic
Advantages and Disadvantages and biologically necessary to the more social and psychological
Groupthink: A set of negative group-level processes, including illusions needs, such as aesthetic and actualization needs (developed
of vulnerability, self-censorship, and pressures to conform, that occur by Abraham Maslow).
when highly cohesive groups seek concurrence rather than objective Emotions: A subjective state of positive or negative affect often
analysis when making a decision (identified by Irving Janis). accompanied by a degree of arousal or activation.
 His analyses led him to conclude that these groups suffered from  often accompany these needs and desires; feelings of happiness,
the same problem. Over time, they had become so unified that sadness, satisfaction, and sorrow are just a few of the emotions that
members felt as though they could not disagree with the group’s can influence how people act in group situations. The words
decisions, and so they failed to examine their assumptions carefully. motivation and emotion both come from the Latin word movere,
Janis labeled this loss of rationality caused by strong pressures to meaning “to move.”
conform groupthink.
Bona fide groups: Naturally occurring groups, such as audiences, 2. Behavioral Perspectives
boards of directors, clubs, or teams, compared to ad hoc groups created Behaviorism: A theoretical explanation of the way organisms acquire
for research purposes. new responses to environmental stimuli through conditioning (learning).
 Case studies also tend to focus on bona fide groups that are found Based on two key assumptions:
in everyday, natural contexts. First, Skinner believed that psychological processes, such as motives and
 By focusing on a limited number of cases, researchers often provide drives, may shape people’s reactions in groups, but he also believed that
richly detailed qualitative descriptions of naturally occurring groups. such psychological processes are too difficult to index accurately. He
therefore recommended measuring and analyzing how people actually
2. Correlational Studies: Researchers who conduct correlational studies behave in a specific context rather than speculating about the
(or nonexperimental studies) do more than just describe groups and their psychological or interpersonal processes that may have instigated their
dynamics: they also test the strength of the relationship between the actions.
variables that they measure. Second, Skinner believed that most behavior was consistent with the law
Reference group, which is a group that provides individuals with of effect—that is, behaviors that are followed by positive consequences,
guidelines or standards for evaluating themselves, their attitudes, and such as rewards, will occur more frequently, whereas behaviors that are
their beliefs. followed by negative consequences will become rarer.
includes groups that individuals identify with and admire and categories of Social exchange theory: An economic model of interpersonal
noninteracting individuals. relationships that assumes individuals seek out relationships that offer
Correlation coefficient: A standardized statistic that measures the them many rewards while exacting few costs.
strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Often  suggesting that members contribute their time and personal
symbolized by r, correlations can range from –1 to +1. resources to their groups in exchange for direct, concrete rewards,
Thus, a correlation is a handy way of summarizing a great deal of such as pay, goods, and services, as well as indirect socioemotional
information about the relationship between two variables. rewards, such as status and admiration.
Ex: The sign of the correlation (- or +) indicates the direction of the
relationship. If, for example, the correlation between popularity and liberal 3. Systems Perspectives
attitudes was +.68, this positive correlation would indicate that both Systems theory approach assumes groups are complex, adaptive,
variables increased or decreased together: The more popular the student, dynamic systems of interacting individuals. The members are the units of
the more liberal his or her attitude. A negative correlation, such as –.57, the system who are coupled one to another by relationships.
would indicate that the variables were inversely related: More popular Input–process–output (I–P–O) model Any one of a number of general
students would tend to have less liberal attitudes. conceptual analyses of groups that assumes raw materials (inputs) are
transformed by internal system processes to generate results (output).
3. Experimental Studies: A research design in which the investigator (1) For example, an I–P–O model of group performance assumes that group-
manipulates at least one variable by randomly assigning participants to level processes mediate the relationship between individual, group, and
two or more different conditions, (2) measures at least one other variable, situational input variables and resulting performance outcomes.
and (3) controls the influence of other variables on the outcome.
Psychologists Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph White examined the 4. Cognitive Perspectives: cognitive processes Mental processes that
effectiveness of differing styles of leadership in one of the first acquire, organize, and integrate information including memory systems
experimental studies of groups. that store data and the psychological mechanisms that process this
Independent variable: Something that the researcher changes in an information.
experimental study while holding other variables constant and measuring  determine how members gather and make sense of information.
the dependent variable; the causal mechanism in a cause–effect Self-reference effect: The tendency for people to have better memories
relationship. for actions and events that they are personally connected to in some
Dependent variable: The resultant outcomes measured by the way.
researcher; the effect variable in a cause–effect relationship. Ex. example, by asking people to answer a question about each word in
Ex. Lewin, Lippitt, and White hypothesized that group leadership style a long list of words. If the question is a superficial one, such as “Does the
would influence productivity and aggressiveness, so they tested this word start with a vowel?” then people remember very few of the words
hypothesis by manipulating the independent variable (leadership style) and when their memory is later tested. But, if they were asked “Does the
measuring the dependent variables (productivity and aggressiveness) word describe you?” their memories are significantly improved. The self,
however, is not the only source of improved memory.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): A group, usually located at a Group-reference effect: The tendency for group members to have
university or other research institution, that reviews research procedures better memories for actions and events that are related, in some way, to
to make certain that they are consistent with ethical guidelines for their group.
protecting human participants.  These findings suggest that “groups have the potential of providing
an organizational framework to aid memory”.
Page 5 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
 word ostracism dates to the Greeks, who voted to punish members
 For example, the self-reference effect improves memory for of the community with banishment by inscribing their names on
information that is relevant to the self-concept, but the group- potshards called ostraca
reference effect improves memories for group-related
information.

4. Biological Perspectives
Group members can solve complex problems, communicate with one
another using spoken and written language, build and operate massive Reactions to Exclusion
machines, and plan their group’s future. But group members are also
living creatures whose responses are often shaped by physiological,
genetic, and neurological characteristics.
 study the relationship between physiological mechanisms and
group behavior.

Chapter 3: Inclusion and Identity

 Once the members join in a group, they can seek their own goals
(individualism), and they must also contribute to the collective
(collectivism).
 This chapter examines three essential processes that combine to Figure: The temporal need-threat model of ostracism.
transform lone individuals into group members: inclusion,
collectivism, and identity. Through inclusion, individuals change Williams’s (2007, 2009) temporal need-threat model of ostracism,
from outsiders into insiders by joining a group. Through collectivism, summarized in Figure 3.2, calls this initial response to ostracism the
members begin to think about the good of the group as a whole reflexive stage. It is characterized by a flood of negative feelings— pain,
rather than what the group provides them. Through the disappointment, and distress—that all serve to signal that something is
transformation of identity, individuals change their conception of wrong. This period of negative emotions and confusion is followed by the
who they are to include their group’s qualities as well as their own deliberative, reflective stage. Patrick, when first rejected by Peak,
individual qualities. probably reviewed the experience, searching for an explanation for the
way he was treated, and, depending on this analysis, he likely would
A. FROM ISOLATION TO INCLUSION have adopted a specific behavioral strategy to minimize the negative
effects of exclusion. If, however, Patrick was never able to gain
1. The Need to Belong acceptance in this group or another group, then he would reach the
Need to belong: The generalized desire to seek out and join with other resignation stage: alienation, helplessness, loss of self-worth, and
people, which, when unsatisfied, causes a state of tension and want. depression.
 “a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity
of lasting, positive, and impactful interpersonal relationships.” 1. Fight-or-flight response: A physiological and psychological
response to stressful events characterized by the activation of the
Solitude and Social Isolation sympathetic nervous system (increased heart rate, pupil dilation)
Prolonged social isolation has been identified as a risk factor for the that readies the individual to counter the threat (fight) or to escape
onset of a number of psychological disorders, including depression, the threat (flight).
paranoia, and the disordered thought characteristic of schizophrenia (de fight response may confront group members directly, attempt to
Sousa et al., 2015) force their way into the group, insist that the group exclude
someone else, or derogate those who have excluded them. They
■ Solitude is sometimes rewarding, but prolonged isolation is highly are also more likely to engage in a number of self-defeating
stressful. behaviors, such as taking unnecessary risks and procrastinating.
They also become less helpful toward others and more competitive
Social and Emotional Loneliness overall.
Loneliness: Cognitive and affective malaise, which can include sadness, flight response, in contrast, attempt to withdraw physically or
dejection, self-deprecation, and boredom, experienced when one’s psychologically from the situation. Rather than tolerate the
personal relationships are perceived to be too few or too unsatisfying inattention, those who withdraw inhibit their relational tendencies,
 is not the same as being alone, for in some situations, people are keep to themselves, or seek acceptance by some other group (
not troubled by isolation or a relative paucity of relations with others.  men are more likely to display a fight-or-flight response,
Loneliness, instead, is an aversive psychological reaction to a whereas women are more likely to tend-and-befriend
perceived lack of personal or social relations. 2. Tend-and-befriend response: A physiological, psychological, and
Emotional loneliness occurs when the problem is a lack of a long- interpersonal response to stressful events characterized by
term, meaningful, intimate relationship with another person; increased nurturing, protective and supportive behaviors (tending),
Social loneliness, in contrast, occurs when people feel cut off from and initiating and strengthening relationships with other people
their network of friends, acquaintances, and group members. (befriending)
People who have moved to a new city, children who are rejected by  Those who tend-and-befriend rather than fight-and-flee seek
their peers, and new employees of large companies often social reconnection: They are more sensitive to social cues,
experience social loneliness, because they are no longer embedded more willing to work hard for the group, and even tend to
in a network of friends and acquaintances. unconsciously mimic the actions of those around them
 Those who have recently been excluded or who feel lonely are
 The relationships that groups create and sustain can become so far more attentive to and more likely to remember accurately
intimate and involving that they serve as a buffer against feelings of the details of a group’s interaction: They are searching for
isolation and loneliness. social cues that will help them find a way to gain acceptance in
2. Inclusion and Exclusion the group.
Degrees of Separation: In social network analysis, the number of steps 3. Cyberostracism: Excluding one or more individuals from a
or relationships needed to link one person in the network to another technologically mediated group interaction, such as a computer-
specific person in the network. based discussion group, by reducing or eliminating communication
Ostracism: Excluding one or more individuals from a group by reducing with the person.
or eliminating contact with the person, usually by ignoring, shunning, or  Women who had been ostracized, however, worked harder on
explicitly banishing them a subsequent collective task, apparently to regain acceptance
 is particularly distressing by the rest of the group. Women were also more likely to blame
themselves for their ostracism (e.g., “I have trouble making a
good impression with others”). Men, in contrast, did not
Page 6 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
compensate by working harder nor did they take the blame for be free to act and think in ways that they prefer rather than submit
their rejection to the demands of the group.
3. Inclusion and Human Nature Collectivism: A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that
The Herd Instinct: The idea that humans are instinctively drawn to gather emphasizes the primacy of the group or community rather than each
with other humans is not a new one. Over a century ago, psychologist individual person.
William McDougall (1908) argued that humans are inexorably drawn to  recognizes that human groups are not mere aggregations of
“the vast human herd,” which “exerts a baneful attraction on those outside independent individuals, but complex sets of interdependent
it”. members who must constantly adjust to the actions and reactions of
Sociometer theory: A conceptual analysis of self-evaluation processes others around them.
that theorizes self-esteem functions to psychologically monitor of one’s When do people put the group’s needs before their own?
degree of inclusion and exclusion in social groups (proposed by Mark 1. Individualism and collectivism are distinguishable in their relative
Leary) emphasis on individuals and groups. Triandis (2009) identifies four
distinct differences between these two orientations:
The Biology of Ostracism and Inclusion ■ Social relations: Collectivism endorses communal relationships,
 Researchers have also explored the close connection between whereas individualism supports exchange relationships and allocations
the experience of physical pain and interpersonal pain. People based on the norm of reciprocity. Sharing with others is more likely in a
often claim that exclusion is a painful experience—that their collectivistic culture, as suggested by responses to the ultimatum game.
feelings are hurt or they feel wounded when someone slights ■ Social obligations: Groups with collectivistic group cultures stress
them—because the pain of exclusion is neurologically similar to loyalty, hierarchy, and conformity more so than individualistic groups.
pain caused by physical injury ■ Social goals: When members gain rewards through cooperative goal-
seeking, the allocation of those rewards can be based on the equality
 Neuroimaging research confirms the close association between
norm (collectivistic) or the equity norm (individualistic).
social and physical pain
■ Self-concepts: personal identity includes qualities that distinguish
individuals from one another, whereas social identity includes all those
qualities shared in common with others. Individualists’ identities
emphasize their personal qualities, whereas collectivists’ identities
emphasize connections to other people.

Exchange relationship A reciprocal interdependency that emphasizes

the trading of gratifying experiences and rewards among members.
Communal relationship A reciprocal interdependency that emphasizes
meeting the needs and interests of others rather than maximizing one’s
own personal outcomes.
Norm of reciprocity A social standard that enjoins individuals to pay
back in kind what they receive from others.
Group culture The distinct ways that members of a group represent
Figure: The brain regions involved in the experience of pain their experiences, including consensually accepted knowledge, beliefs,
during social exclusion. rituals, customs, rules, language, norms, and practices
 Eisenberger and her colleagues, for example, used a functional Equity norm A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and
magnetic resonance imaging scanner (fMRI) to track neural resources to members in proportion to their inputs.
responses to exclusion. Such scanners indicate what portions Equality norm A social standard that encourages distributing rewards
of the brain are more active than others by measuring cranial and resources equally among all members.
temperature and blood flow. When people were left out of a
group activity, two specific areas of the brain—the dorsal ■ Cultures vary in their relative emphasis on individualism and
anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the anterior insula—were collectivism. People who live in collectivistic cultures (e.g., Asian, Eastern
particularly active (see Figure 3.4). European, African, and Middle Eastern countries) think of themselves as
 These areas of the brain are associated with the experience of group members first and individuals second, whereas people who live in
physical pain sensations and other negative social experiences. individualistic cultures (Western countries) are self-centered rather than
group-centered (Triandis, 2009).
B. FROM INDIVIDUALISM TO COLLECTIVISM
2. The Social Self
Personal identity: An individual’s perception of those aspects of his or
her self-concept that derive from individualistic, personal qualities such as
traits, beliefs, and skills.
Social identity (or collective self): An individual’s perception of those
aspects of his or her self-concept that derive from his or her relationships
with other people, groups, and society.
Individualists (or independents or idiocentrics) Individuals predisposed to
put their own personal interests and motivations above the group’s
interests and goals
Collectivists (or interdependents or allocentrics): Individuals predisposed
to put the group’s interests and goals above their personal interests and
motivations.
Optimal distinctiveness theory: A conceptual analysis that assumes
individuals strive to maintain a balance between three basic needs: the
need to be assimilated by the group, the need to be connected to friends
and loved ones, and the need for autonomy and differentiation (proposed
Table: Core Features of Individualism and Collectivism (Triandis & by Marilyn Brewer).
Gelfand, 2012)  Brewer (2012) distinguishes between two group-level selves: the
relational self and the collective self. Her optimal distinctiveness
1. Creating Cooperation theory suggests that individuals strive to maintain an optimal
Individualism: A tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes balance between their personal and collective identities.
the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, independence, and
relationships with other individuals
 is based on the independence and uniqueness of each individual.
This perspective assumes that people are autonomous; they must

Page 7 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
C. FROM PERSONAL IDENTITY TO SOCIAL IDENTITY 4.1 Joining Groups
1. Social Identity Theory: The Basics  Not everyone who joins a group is a “joiner,” and people who
Social identity theory A theoretical analysis of group processes and prefer independence over association are not necessarily
intergroup relations that assumes groups influence their members’ self- “loners.”
concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize 4-1a Personality Traits
themselves as group members and identify with the group. personality The configuration of distinctive but enduring & Diener, 2001).
Minimal intergroup situation A research procedure used in studies of Those on the low side of this trait, dispositional characteristics, including
intergroup conflict that involves creating temporary groups of anonymous, traits, temperament, and values, that characterize an individual’s
unrelated people (developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner). responses across situations.
Social categorization The perceptual classification of people, including five-factor model (FFM, or big five theory) A conceptual model of the
the self, into categories. primary dimensions that structure individual differences in personality.
 automatically classify those they encounter into groups based on The five dimensions are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
age, race, nationality, and other categories neuroticism, and openness to experience. Different theorists sometimes
Stereotypes (or prototypes) A socially shared set of cognitive use different labels.
generalizations (e.g., beliefs and expectations) about the qualities and ■ Extraversion: engagement and interest in social interactions, including
characteristics of the typical member of a particular group or social friendliness, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking,
category. and cheerfulness.
 In personality trait theories, the degree to which an individual tends
Self-stereotyping (or autostereotyping) Accepting socially shared to seek out social contacts, including such related qualities as
generalizations about the prototypical characteristics attributed to outgoing, enthusiastic, energetic, and assertive. Introverts are
members of one’s group as accurate descriptions of oneself. oriented primarily toward inner perceptions and judgments of
Social identification Accepting the group as an extension of the self and concepts and ideas, whereas extraverts are oriented primarily
therefore basing one’s self-definition on the group’s qualities and toward social experiences.
characteristics. ■ Agreeableness: cooperative orientation to others, including acceptance,
frankness, compassion, congeniality, modesty, and sympathy.
■ Social identity assumes individuals are motivated to maintain self- ■ Conscientiousness: persistence in the pursuit of tasks, including self-
esteem and to clarify their understanding of themselves and other people confidence, orderliness, meeting of obligations, achievement striving, self-
(Hogg, 2005). regulation, and measured responding.
■ Neuroticism: strong emotional proclivities, including anxiety, hostility,
2. Motivation and Social Identity negative affect, shyness, lack of impulse control, and reactivity to
Collective self-esteem Individuals’ overall assessment of that portion of stressors.
their self-concept that is based on their relationships with others and ■ Openness to Experience: active pursuit of intellectually and aesthetically
membership in social groups. stimulating experiences, including imagination, fantasy, appreciation of
art, openness to emotions and experiences, curiosity, and cognitive
■ Self-esteem is related to membership in higher status groups and to flexibility
collective selfesteem (Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990
 The theory assumes that people differ from one another in many
Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) Seeking direct or ways, but much of this variability is the observable manifestation of
indirect association with prestigious or successful groups or these five basic dimensions (which, when reordered, spell OCEAN;
individuals McCrae & Costa, 2013).
Cutting off reflected failure (CORFing) Distancing oneself
from a group that performs poorly. 4-1b Anxiety and Attachment
Protecting the Collective Self People protect their collective Just as personality traits may push people toward groups, other personal
self-esteem just as they protect. qualities may push them away from groups.
 their personal self-esteem. They deny that their group Shyness The tendency to be reserved or timid during social interactions,
possesses negative qualities. They consider their group to usually coupled with feelings of discomfort and nervousness.
be superior to alternative groups.  The dispositional tendency to feel uneasy, uncomfortable, and
awkward in response to actual or anticipated social interaction
Social creativity Restricting comparisons between the ingroup and other  Shyness can, in some cases, escalate into social anxiety
groups to tasks and outcomes when the ingroup is more successful than Social Anxiety A feeling of apprehension and embarrassment
other groups and avoiding areas in which other groups surpass the experienced when anticipating or actually interacting with other people
ingroup. Experience sampling A research method that asks participants to
Ingroup–outgroup bias The tendency to view the ingroup, its members, record their thoughts, emotions, or behavior at the time they are
and its products more positively than other groups, their members, and experiencing them rather than at a later time or date; in some cases,
their products. Ingroup favoritism is more common than the outgroup participants make their entries when they are signaled by researchers
rejection. using electronic pagers, personal data assistants (PDAs), or similar
devices.
Stereotype threat The anxiety-provoking belief that others’ perceptions Social anxiety disorder (or social phobia) A persistent and pervasive
and evaluations will be influenced by their negative stereotypes about pattern of overwhelming anxiety and self-consciousness experienced
one’s group that can, in some cases, interfere with one’s ability to perform when anticipating or actually interacting with other people.
up to one’s capabilities. Attachment style One’s characteristic approach to relationships with
■ When stereotype threat is high, members become concerned that they other people; the basic styles include secure, preoccupied, fearful, and
will be stereotyped if considered a member of a particular group dismissing, as defined by the dimensions of anxiety and avoidance.

Individual mobility Reducing one’s connection to a group in order to

minimize the threat to individual self-esteem
■ In general, personal failure is more troubling than collective failure.
Individuals will minimize their association with groups that are performing
poorly or will resign from the group (individual mobility).

Chapter 4: Formation

Page 8 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
Relationality The degree to which one’s values, attitudes, and outlooks
emphasize and facilitate establishing and maintaining connections to
others.

4-1e Attitudes, Experiences, and Expectations

Beliefs about Groups (BAG) scale to measure people’s preferences for
taking part in groups, expectations about how hard people work in groups,
and predictions of the positive and negative effects groups will have on
performance.
Experiences in Groups One’s previous experience in groups, whether
good or bad, influences one’s interest in joining groups in the future.
College students who receive low scores on assessments based on team-
learning activities evaluate group work more negatively than students who
get higher grades.
Taking Collective Action
Social movement A deliberate, sustained, and organized
group of individuals seeking change or resisting a change in a
social system. Movements are sustained by individuals who
may share a common outlook on issues or by members of
identifiable social groups or categories, but not by businesses,
political organizations, or governments.
Collaborative circle A relatively small group of peers who work
together for an extended period of time, exchanging ideas for
commentary and critique and developing a shared conception
Figure: Group attachment styles. The four basic styles (secure,
of what their methods and goals should be.
preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing) are defined by two dimensions:
4-2 Affiliation
level of anxiety and degree of avoidance. For example, individuals who
are low in avoidance but high in anxiety would be preoccupied. Affiliation: The gathering together of individuals (typically members of the
same species) in one location; also, a formalized relationship, as when an
4-1c Social Motivation individual is said to be affiliated with a group or organization.
- generally speaking, is the gathering together of conspecifics in one
Need for affiliation A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by
location. This process, as we have seen, depends in part on the
joining with other people, which frequently includes concerns about
personalities, preferences, and other personal qualities of the group
winning the approval of other people
member
Need for intimacy A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by
seeking out warm, positive relationships with others. 4-2a Social Comparison
Need for power A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by Social comparison The process of contrasting one’s personal qualities
gaining control over other people and one’s environment. and outcomes, including beliefs, attitudes, values, abilities,
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO) A theory of accomplishments, and experiences, to those of other people.
group formation and development that emphasizes compatibility among - suggested that it begins when people find themselves in
three basic social motives: inclusion, control, and affection (developed by ambiguous, confusing situations.
William Schutz) 4-2b Stress and Affiliation
 He labeled them the need for inclusion, affection, and control, and Safety in Numbers
argued they combine to determine how people treat others and how When members face an imminent threat, they can work together to fight
people want others to treat them. Inclusion (need for affiliation) against it; they can rally against attackers, organize a concerted response
refers to peoples’ desire to join with others but also their need to be to a disaster, and so on. Groups also enhance survival as members
accepted by those others. Affection (need for intimacy) is a desire to escape. If escape routes are not restricted, the dispersion of a group can
like others as well as a desire to be liked by them. Control (need for confuse attackers and increase the chances that all members of the group
power) includes the need to dominate others but also the will escape unharmed. A group can also organize its escape from danger,
willingness to let others be dominant. Schutz developed the FIRO-B with stronger members of the group helping less able members to reach
scale (the B is for behavior), which is sampled in Table 4.1, to safety. If, in contrast, the group faces a long-term threat, then the group
measure both the need to express and the need to receive may cope by increasing nurturing, protective, and supportive behaviors
inclusion, affection, and control. Inclusion and agreeableness (both (tending) and by seeking out connections to other people (befriending)
wanted and expressed) are associated with gregariousness and Affiliation and Social Support
warmth, expressed control with extraversion, and wanted control  Social support A sense of belonging, emotional support,
with neuroticism (Furnham, 2008). advice, guidance, tangible assistance, and perspective provided
by groups when members experience stress, daily hassles, and
more significant life crises.
o comfort, caring, and companionship extended to those
who are dealing with turbulence and trouble.
■ Belonging: Groups let members know that they are valued
members and reassure them that they are not alone in facing their
problems; they meet members’ need to feel included and accepted.
■ Emotional support: Group members express their caring, concern,
and affection for one another; they minimize self-doubt, tension, and
Table: Example Items from the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations vulnerability while increasing self-esteem, resilience, and self-
Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) Scale satisfaction. Members compliment, encourage, and listen to one
another.
4-1d Men, Women, and Groups ■ Informational support: Groups provide members with useful
information for solving problems, making decisions, and setting their
 Women are, in general, higher in relationality—that is, their values,
goals; they offer advice, guidance, and suggestions.
attitudes, and outlooks emphasize and facilitate establishing and
■ Instrumental support: Groups offer tangible assistance to their
maintaining connections to others (Gore & Cross, 2006). Women
members, as when they help each other with assigned tasks, loan
expect more reciprocity and loyalty in their one-to-one friendship
money and materials to one another, or work collaboratively on
relationships as well as intimacy, solidarity, and companionship
shared tasks.
(Hall, 2011). Men are more agentic than women and so are more
■ Meaning: Groups provide members with existential, or spiritual
likely to join with other men in order to perform a task or reach a
support, by allaying existential anxiety, reconfirming members’ world
goal (Twenge, 1997).
views, and sharing faith and perspectives.
Page 9 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
this tendency causes groups and other interpersonal aggregates to be
Affiliation and Health homogenous rather than diverse.
 People who enjoy strong social bonds tend to experience less Homophily “Love of the same”; the tendency for the members of groups
stress in their lives, are less likely to suffer from depression and and other collectives to be similar to one another in some way, such as
other psychological problems, and are physically health. demographic background, attitudes, and values; generally expressed
 Stressful life circumstances leave people at risk for informally as “birds of a feather flock together.”
psychological and physical illness, but groups can serve as - similarity of the members in attitudes, values, demographic
protective buffers against these negative consequences. characteristics, and so on—is common in groups. The cliques that
 Salutary effects of affiliation occur because of the close form in large volunteer organizations tie together people who are
connection between the biological systems that maintain and similar in some way rather than dissimilar.
promote health and the quality of one’s connection to other Complementarity principle A tendency for opposites to attract when the
people. ways in which people are dissimilar are congruent (complementary) in
 isolation from others can cause disruptions in immune system some way.
functioning, affiliation and social support are associated with Interchange compatibility Compatibility between group members
healthy changes in a body’s immune, hormonal, and based on their similar needs for inclusion, control, and affection (defined
neurological systems. Depleted levels of the peptides oxytocin by William Schutz).
and vasopressin not only trigger an increased desire to affiliate, Originator compatibility Compatibility between group members that
but these neurochemical control systems also damp down the occurs when individuals who wish to express inclusion, control, or
body’s tendency to overreact physiologically to irritating events. affection within the group are matched with individuals who wish to
In consequence, genetic variants that influence the production receive inclusion, control, or affection from others (defined by William
of oxytocin and enhance its physiological effects predict both Schutz)
reactions to stressful circumstances and the likelihood of Reciprocity principle The tendency for liking to be met with liking in
responding positively to others who need help and support. return; when A likes B, then B will tend to like A.
 Affiliation-related experiences may also recruit areas of the Minimax principle A general preference for relationships and
brain that are part of the opioid and dopaminergic systems; memberships that provide the maximum number of valued rewards and
these systems have been implicated in reward-based learning incur the fewest number of possible costs
and positive emotional reactions, including happiness. 4-3b The Economics of Membership
buffering effect in studies of stressors, including health crises, Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) In social exchange theory,
personal tragedies, terrorist attacks, and intergroup conflict. For the standard by which individuals evaluate the quality of other groups
example, individuals trying to recover from a devastating crisis (e.g., that they may join (described by John Thibaut and Harold Kelly).
the death of a spouse or child) who were more firmly embedded in a Comparison level (CL) In social exchange theory, the standard by
social network of friends, relatives, and neighbors were less which the individual evaluates the quality of any social relationship. In
depressed than people who were not integrated into groups (Norris most cases, individuals whose prior relationships yielded positive
& Murrell, 1990). Firefighters who felt they were supported by their rewards with few costs will have higher CLs than those who experienced
peers and their supervisor reported less stress than those who did fewer rewards and more costs in prior relationships (described by John
not feel as closely connected to their group members (Varvel et al., Thibaut and Harold Kelly).
2007). A survey of New York City residents following the September
11, 2001 terrorist attacks indicated that those who were members of
groups or affiliative organizations (e.g., church groups, discussion Chapter 5: Cohesion and Development
groups, or veterans groups) were more resilient to the stressful
effects of the attacks (Silver & Garfin, 2016)
5-1 Sources of Cohesion
4-2c Social Comparison and the Self
 The Latin word haesus means to cling to; it is the basis of such
Downward social comparison Selecting people who are less well off as
words as adhesive, inherit, and, of course, cohesive.
targets for social comparison (rather than individuals who are similar or
 Cohesive groups are unified groups, but their unity is often the
superior to oneself or one’s outcomes).
result of different causes and processes. Consider, for example,
Upward social comparison Selecting people who are superior to oneself
an executive board of a company that is productive and
or whose outcomes surpass one’s own as targets for social comparison.
enduring, yet the members never associate with one another
Self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model A theoretical analysis of
after work. In fact, most dislike one another.
social comparison processes that assumes that individuals maintain and
enhance their self-esteem by associating with high-achieving individuals  Cohesion defined as a strong sense of being a part of a larger
who excel in areas that are not relevant to the individual’s own sense of whole—are more committed to their groups, where commitment
self-esteem and avoiding association with high-achieving individuals who is indicated by the degree of attachment to the group, a long-
excel in areas that are important to the individual’s sense of self-esteem term orientation to the group, and intentions to remain within the
(developed by Abraham Tesser) group.
Social comparison orientation The dispositional tendency to compare  The idea that no one condition, or process is a necessary or
oneself to other sufficient condition for a group to become cohesive is consistent
with systems theory’s principle of equifinality: “final states or
4-3 Attraction objectives may be reached in different ways and from disparate
starting points” (Skyttner, 2005, p. 71). But increases in
 Affiliation may set the stage for a group to form, but attraction cohesiveness are not entirely unpredictable.
transforms acquaintances into friends. Equifinality: In an open system, the potential to reach a given end
4-3a Principles of Attraction state through any one of a number of means (identified by Ludwig
Proximity principle The tendency for individuals to form interpersonal von Bertalanffy)
relations with those who are close by; also known as the “principle of
propinquity.” Sources of a Group’s Unity
Familiarity principle (or “mere exposure effect”) suggests that people ■ Social cohesion: The attraction of members to one another
show a preference for the familiar rather than the unknown. Novel, and to the group as a whole.
unfamiliar stimuli provoke a wariness that is likely evolutionarily adaptive; ■ Task cohesion: A shared commitment among members to
the hunter-gatherer who remained cautious when encountering an achieve a goal and the resulting capacity to perform
unrecognized animal, plant, or human was more likely to emerge successfully as a coordinated unit.
unscathed than one who risked a closer encounter. ■ Collective cohesion: Unity based on shared identity and
Elaboration principle The tendency for groups to expand in size as belonging.
nonmembers become linked to a group member and thus become part of ■ Emotional cohesion: Group-based emotions, including
the group itself; this process is termed percolation in network theory. pride, esprit de corps, and overall affective intensity.
Similarity principle The tendency for individuals to seek out, affiliate ■ Structural cohesion: The group’s structural integrity,
with, or be attracted to an individual who is similar to them in some way; including normative coherence, clarity of roles, and strength
and density of relationships linking members
Page 10 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
during the course of routine interactions in groups—
5-1a Social Cohesion so long as these interactions are relatively pleasant
Interpersonal Attraction o Relational cohesion theory A conceptual analysis of
 Lewin (1948) used the term cohesion to describe the forces that cohesion that assumes members of groups develop
keep groups intact by pushing members together as well as the stronger ties to groups that are perceived to be
countering forces that push them apart. Festinger and his sources of positive feelings or emotions and weaker
colleagues also stressed binding social forces when they ties to those perceived to be sources of negative
defined group cohesion as “the total field of forces which act on feelings or emotions.
members to remain in the group”. 5-1e Structural Cohesion
Group-Level Attraction  Structural cohesion is unity of a group that results from the
 Social cohesion increases when group members like each integrity of its structural features, including norms, roles, and
other. Cohesion, however, is a multilevel process, for group intermember relations.
members may be bonded to each other, to their group, and to  Structurally cohesive group withstand stresses and strains that
the organization in which their group is embedded. would cause a less coherent group to crumble.
 When cohesion is based on group-level attraction, people 5-1f Assumptions and Assessments
remain members even when specific members leave the group
 The Multicomponent Assumption A multicomponent
(Ehrhart & Naumann, 2004
approach embraces this definitional diversity by suggesting that
5-1b Task Cohesion many different factors contribute to the unity of a group.
 Task cohesion: a shared commitment among members to  The Multilevel Assumption
achieve a goal that requires the collective effort of the group o Members of cohesive groups not only identify with
(Severt & Estrada, 2015). other members, mimic their emotions, and meet their
 Group Motivation Task cohesion is based on group-level goal role obligations: They embrace the group’s identity,
motivation. share its emotions, and fit into its structure. A
 Group members typically have the choice of working for the multilevel analysis must also take into account
group, for themselves, for both the group and themselves, or for vertical and organizational bonding (Siebold, 2007).
neither, and thus do not always choose to strive for group o Vertical bonding - strength of the relations between
success. members and their leaders.
 Collective Efficacy and Potency Groups that are cohesive, in o Organizational bonding - relationship between the
terms of task commitment, tend to exhibit high levels of group and the organization or institution
collective efficacy and group potency.  The Multimethod Assumption Since cohesion is multifaceted,
o Collective efficacy is determined by members’ researchers use a wide variety of methods to measure it. Some
shared beliefs that they can accomplish all the make use of social network methods, indexing the unity of a
components of their group’s tasks competently and group by considering who likes who and the group’s structure.
efficiently. Others rely on observational strategies, monitoring
o Group potency is a generalized positive expectation interpersonal relations among members, noting instances of
about the group’s chances for success (Guzzo et al., conflict or tension, and members’ physical locations over time.
1993).
 High potency groups tend to select more 5-2 Developing Cohesion
difficult goals to pursue and they tend to
5-2a Theories of Group Development
outperform their less potent counterparts
(Stajkovic, Lee, & Nyberg, 2009).  Successive-stage models—suggest that groups move
through a series of separable stages as they develop.
5-1c Collective Cohesion
 Cyclical models, in contrast, argue that groups repeatedly
 Collective cohesion The degree to which the group unites it’s cycle through periods or phases during their lifetimes, rather
members, as indicated by the perceived solidarity of the group than just moving through each stage once.
(entitativity) and members’ identification with the group.
5-2b Five Stages of Development
 Cohesion and Entitativity A group that is higher in collective
cohesion will, in most cases, be a group that is higher in  As the group deals with the challenges that it must confront at
entitativity: It will be perceived to be a single, unified entity that each stage, the group’s interactions stabilize, the relations
resists disintegration. joining the members strengthen, and the group becomes more
 Belonging and Identity proficient. A group that has completed its movement through
o They not only consider their group to be a single, each stage in the sequence should, in theory, function more
unified entity, but they also consider themselves to be effectively than one that has not.
a component part of that inseparable whole.
o When a group is highly cohesive, members’ identities
will be based more on their membership in that group
rather than their own personal, unique qualities.
 Identity fusion theory A conceptual analysis that explains the
extreme self-sacrifice (such as heroism in the face of danger
and terrorism) that sometimes occurs when individual identity is
fused with group identity.
o Identity fusion theory suggests that individuals
engage in these actions because their identification
with their group is so great that they no longer
distinguish between themselves and their group.
5-1d Emotional Cohesion
 A variety of terms is used to describe group-level emotional
states, including élan(emotional intensity), morale, pride, esprit
de corps, and positive affective tone, but no matter what its
label, this shared emotional cohesion is one of the most
obvious features of many unified groups. Forming: The Orientation Stage
 Emotional cohesion The emotional intensity of the group and  members monitor their behavior to avoid any embarrassing
individuals when in the group. lapses of social poise and are tentative when expressing their
 Affect and Relational Cohesion personal opinions.
o A number of theorists believe that the positive Self-disclosure: they facilitate this process by revealing some
emotions that generate cohesion arise spontaneously private, personal information during conversations and it serves
Page 11 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
the important function of helping members get to know one o When the unit is reinforced with replacements, the
another. original group members are reluctant to establish
Storming: The Conflict Stage emotional ties with the newcomers, partly in fear of
 marked by a “lack of unity” the pain produced by separation. Hence, they begin
 Low levels of conflict in a group can be an indication of restricting their interactions, and these “old
remarkably positive interpersonal relations, but it is more likely sergeants” can eventually become completely
that the group members are simply uninvolved, unmotivated, isolated within the group.
and bored 5-3b Group Dynamics and Influence
 Conflict is not just unavoidable, however; it may be a key  As cohesion increases, the internal dynamics of the group
ingredient for creating group cohesion. intensify, so pressures to conform are greater in cohesive
 Group members must learn to live and work together, and to do groups, and individuals’ resistance to these pressures is
so they may need to openly discuss—and even argue over—a weaker.
specific problem or task they are dealing with (task conflict), the  Cohesion can also increase negative group processes,
way they work together (process conflict), the stresses and including hostility, scapegoating, and hostility toward other
strains of their interpersonal relationships (personal conflict), groups
and who is in charge (status conflict).
5-3c Group Productivity
Norming: The Structure Stage
 Whereas groups in the orientation and conflict stages are  The Cohesion Performance →Relationship Both correlational
characterized by low levels of intimacy, friendship, and and experimental studies of all kinds of groups—sports teams,
continuity, in the norming stage members become more work groups in business settings, expeditions, military squads,
trusting, supportive, and cooperative. The group becomes and laboratory groups—generally confirm the cohesion !
cohesive. performance relationship: Cohesive groups tend to outperform
Performing: The Work Stage less unified groups.
 The more “mature” a group, the more likely the group will spend o The cohesion → performance relationship is actually
the bulk of its time working toward its chosen goals rather than a reciprocal one: When a group performs well at its
socializing, seeking direction, or arguing. identified task, the level of cohesion in the group
 “members shift their attention from what the group is to what the increases, but should it fail, disharmony,
group needs to do” disappointment, and a loss of esprit de corps are
 Conflict and uncertainty also decrease over time as work- typically observed.
focused comments increase. Groups that have been together  The success of cohesive groups lies, in part, in the enhanced
longer talk more about work-related matters, whereas younger coordination of their members. In noncohesive groups,
groups are more likely to express conflict or uncertainty and members’ activities are uncoordinated and disjointed, but in
make requests for guidance. cohesive groups, each member’s contributions mesh with those
Adjourning: The Dissolution Stage of the other group members. Cohesion thus acts as a “lubricant”
 Planned dissolution takes place when the group accomplishes that “minimizes the friction due to the human ‘grit’ in the
its goals or exhausts its time and resources. system”.
o when dissolution is planned, the members may feel  The Performance → Cohesion Relationship
distressed. Their work in the group may be over, but o Mullen and Copper to conclude that the cohesion–
they still mourn for the group and suffer from a lack of performance relationship is a reciprocal one:
personal support. Cohesion makes groups more successful, but groups
 Spontaneous dissolution, in contrast, occurs when the that succeed also become more cohesive
group’s end is not scheduled.  Exceptions and Conditions Increasing a group’s cohesion
o When dissolution is unplanned, the final group does not guarantee that it will perform more effectively. The
sessions may be filled with conflict-laden exchanges cohesion → performance relationship is stronger
among members, growing apathy and animosity, (1) in bona fide groups than in ad hoc laboratory groups,
repeated failures at the group’s task, and loss of trust (2) in correlational studies than in experimental studies,
within the group. (3) in smaller groups than in larger groups,
(4) in sports teams rather than in other types of groups, and
5-2c Cycles of Development (5) in project-focused teams rather than in production or service
 Equilibrium model A conceptual analysis of group teams.
development that assumes the focus of a group shifts back and The relationship also takes time to reach its full strength. The
forth between the group’s tasks and the interpersonal performance-enhancing effects of cohesion may not yield gains
relationships among group members (proposed by Robert when groups are only beginning their work, but will instead
Bales). emerge over time (Mathieu et al., 2015)
o The sociologist Robert Freed Bales’ equilibrium
model of group development assumes that group 5-4 Application: Explaining Initiations
members strive to maintain a balance between
5-4a Cohesion and Initiations
accomplishing the task and enhancing the quality of
the interpersonal relationships within the group.  Initiations and Commitment
 Punctuated equilibrium model A group development theory o Cognitive dissonance An adverse psychological
that assumes groups change gradually over time but that the state that occurs when an individual simultaneously
periods of slow growth are punctuated by brief periods of holds two conflicting cognitions.
relatively rapid change. o offers an intriguing explanation for the relationship
between how much new members invest in the group
5-3 Consequences of Cohesion and their commitment to the group.
5-3a Member Satisfaction and Adjustment  Severe Initiations and Group Attraction
 A cohesive group creates a healthier workplace, at least at the o In these studies, individuals who suffered through the
psychological level. Because people in cohesive groups more severe initiation were more likely to conform to
respond to one another in a more positive fashion than the the group’s decisions, rated the group more
members of noncohesive groups, people experience less positively, and felt more comfortable when part of the
anxiety and tension in such groups. group.
 Old sergeant syndrome Symptoms of psychological o study have confirmed the basic finding that initiations
disturbance, including depression, anxiety, and guilt, exhibited influence attraction to and dependency on the group
by noncommissioned officers in cohesive units that suffer heavy 5-4b Hazing
casualties. Strongly loyal to their unit and its members, these  Hazing An initiation into a group that subjects the new member
leaders feel so responsible for their unit’s losses that they to mental or physical discomfort, harassment, embarrassment,
withdraw psychologically from the group. ridicule, or humiliation.
Page 12 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
o hazing because they expose the new member to and make other people’s responses predictable and
significant risk of psychological and physical harm. meaningful. Both simple behaviors, such as choice of clothing,
o Hazing is an entrenched group practice and has been manners, and conversational pleasantries, and more complex
documented in ancient and modern societies and in social processes, such as fairness, morality, and justice—are
all parts of the world. Newcomers to groups are based on norms. Each group member is restrained to a degree
routinely subjected to various abuses for reasons by norms, but each member also benefits from the order that
both rational and completely irrational. norms provide.
■ Bonding and dependence: As Festinger’s dissonance theory  Internalization of Norms Norms are not simply external rules
suggests, individuals who suffer to join a group value the group more and but internalized standards. Members comply with their group’s
become more dependent on the group as a source of support and norms not because they have to but because they want to: The
acceptance. Initiation of groups of newcomers, which is typical of certain group’s norms are their own, personal norms. Women who are
groups (e.g., sororities, fraternities, and sports teams), increases feelings members of groups whose norms emphasize healthy eating
of unity, for they tend to affiliate more extensively as they deal with the habits personally endorse healthier dieting practices (Cruwys et
threat and stress. The initiation process thus creates greater cohesion in al., 2015).
the overall group, as the individuality of each newcomer is diminished and 6-1b The Development of Norms
they learn to rely socially on others (Lodewijkx, van Zomeren, & Syroit,  Social tuning The tendency for individuals’ actions and
2005). Hazing of novices, as a group, also increases the unity of the evaluations to become more similar to the actions and assumed
novices, creating a more committed subgroup within the larger group evaluations of those around them.
(Mann et al., 2016).
■ Dominance: Initiations serve to introduce new members to the 6-1c The Transmission of Norms
hierarchical order of the group and the requirements to recognize and  Sherif discovered that, even though the other group members
respect veteran members. The initiation process humbles the newcomers were no longer present, the individuals’ judgments were still
and signals to them their low status, which they can raise only by consistent with the group’s norms (Sherif, 1966). They had
contributing in substantial ways to the group. The hazing rituals also internalized the norm.
provide the current members with the means to exercise their power over  Studies of the emergence and transmission of norms in a
the newcomers. variety of settings—in workgroups, families, sports teams, and
■ Commitment: Hazing requires a substantial commitment from children’s groups—all demonstrate just how rapidly norms can
newcomers and serves to weed out individuals who are not willing to meet emerge to structure group behavior.
the group’s demands. Hazing provides newcomers with the means to
prove their worth. 6-1d Application: Norms and Health
■ Tradition: Many groups haze new members because they feel that they
must honor the group’s traditions, established by founding members of
the society (Nuwer, 1999).
 Newcomers continue to accept membership in groups that use
hazing for many reasons, as well, including a desire to be
accepted and to make a good impression with others.
 In many cases, newcomers are not made aware of the hazing
demands and dangers until they are sequestered by the group,
and they may fear that refusing to comply with the group’s
demands will cause more problems and pose greater risks than
compliance.
Is Hazing Effective?
 Hazing, and illicit hazing in particular, backfired, for it did not
contribute to increased cohesion, whereas more positive forms
of team-building did.
Should Groups Haze?
 Hazing is illegal in a number of states, is aggressive in
character, yields unhealthy consequences, and does not even
work to increase cohesion, yet this practice continues
unofficially
■ The use of hazing is unjustified. It is ineffective as a means of
increasing cohesion and is illegal.

Chapter 6: Structure

6-1 Norms
Norms: consensual, regulatory standards.
Types of Norms
Prescriptive norm A consensual standard that identifies preferable,
positively sanctioned behaviors.
o “Food should be shared equally” and “Those who are not
injured should work to help those who are injured”
Proscriptive norm A consensual standard that identifies prohibited,
negatively sanctioned behaviors.
o “Do not urinate inside the airplane” and “Do not give up hope.”
Descriptive norm A consensual standard that describes how people
typically act, feel, and think in a given situation.  Norms about Drinking Alcohol Norms regulate interactions in
Injunctive norm An evaluative consensual standard that describes how groups, facilitate productivity, and limit conflict, but such
people should act, feel, and think in a given situation rather than how negative, unhealthy behaviors as alcohol abuse, overeating,
people do act, feel, and think in that situation and drug use can also be traced to normative processes.
o Desirable and undesirable actions  Pluralistic ignorance When members of a group privately vary
in outlook and expectations, but publicly they all act similarly
6-1a The Nature of Social Norms because they believe that they are the only ones whose
 Norms are a fundamental element of social structure; the personal views are different from the rest of the group.
group’s rules of order (Fine, 2012). As group standards, they
provide direction and motivation, organize social interactions,
Page 13 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
6-2 Roles groups (Hare et al., 2005). The task-oriented acceptance of
authority/ nonacceptance of authority dimension focuses on role
6-2a The Nature of Social Roles
structure, but distinguishes between roles that are higher and
 Role differentiation An increase in the number of roles in a lower in status, and ones that exert a positive or negative
group, accompanied by a gradual decrease in the scope of influence on the group and its processes. Thus, SYMLOG is a
these roles as each one becomes more narrowly defined and powerful conceptual and methodological tool that provides a
specialized. clearer understanding of the unseen group structures that
 Task role Any position in a group occupied by a member who underlie recurring patterns of interpersonal behaviors in groups.
performs behaviors that center on tasks and activities, such as 6-2d Group Socialization
initiating structure, providing task-related feedback, and setting
goals.  Group socialization to explain how individuals negotiate their
 Relationship role Any position in a group occupied by a role assignments in groups. Their theory, which is summarized
member who performs behaviors that improve the nature and in Figure 6.3, recognizes that individuals are often asked to take
quality of interpersonal relations among members, such as on roles that they would prefer to avoid. Newcomers must
showing concern for the feelings of others, reducing conflict, “learn their place” in the group and acquire the behaviors
and enhancing feelings of satisfaction and trust in the group. required by the roles to which they have been assigned.
o group socialization A pattern of change in the
6-2b Role Theories
relationship between an individual and a group that
 Functional Role Theories begins when an individual first considers joining the
Education theorists and practitioners Kenneth Benne and Paul group and ends when he or she leaves it.
Sheats (1948) developed their well-known functional theory of o Group Socialization Theory developed by Richard
roles by observing the interactions of groups at the National Moreland and John Levine (1982)
Training Laboratories (NTL), an organization devoted to the  Moreland and Levine’s theory distinguishes between five
improvement of groups. They noted that while much work had classes of roles—prospective member, new member, full
been done to train people to lead groups, little had been done member, marginal member, and ex-member.
to train people to work in groups—even though the “setting of  The Newcomer Role
goals and the marshaling of resources to move toward these New to the group and its procedures, newcomers lack basic
goals is a group responsibility in which all members of a mature information about their place in the group and their
group come variously to share”. responsibilities.
 Interactionist Theories
Group members share a basic sense of the requirements of the 6-2e Role Stress
roles that are common in most group settings, but they work out  Roles influence group members’ happiness and well-being in
the details of their roles and their demands as they interact with significant ways. Some roles are more satisfying than others;
one another. Interactionist approaches recognize that group people prefer to occupy roles that are prestigious and
roles are analogous to theatrical roles, but the group setting is significant rather than roles that are menial and unimportant.
more like improv than a well-rehearsed stage play. Roles are  Role ambiguity—they wonder if they are acting appropriately,
negotiated by all group members through a reciprocal process they perform behaviors that others in the group should be
of role enactment—displaying certain behaviors as part of one’s carrying out, and they question their ability to fulfill their
role in the group—and role sending—the transmission of one’s responsibilities.
expectations about what kinds of behaviors are expected of o Unclear expectations about the behaviors to be
people who occupy particular roles (Stryker & Vryan, 2006). performed by an individual occupying a particular
 Self-presentation Influencing other people’s social perceptions position within the group caused by a lack of clarity in
by selectively revealing personal information to them; includes the role itself, a lack of consensus within the group
both deliberate and unintentional attempts to establish, regarding the behaviors associated with the role, or
maintain, or refine the impression that others have; also known the individual role taker’s uncertainty with regard to
as impression management the types of behaviors expected by others
 Roles, then, are negotiated among members through a process  Role conflict A state of tension, distress, or uncertainty caused
that requires motivation, experience, and the ability to step out by inconsistent or discordant expectations associated with
of one’s own role and mentally imagining how others in the one’s role in the group.
groups are seeing you.  Interrole conflict A form of role conflict that occurs when
 This process is termed role-taking. It includes not only taking individuals occupy multiple roles within a group and the
on a role but also a willingness to put oneself into others’ roles expectations and behaviors associated with one of their roles
to see the group as they do (Mead, 1934). are not consistent with the expectations and behaviors
o Role-taking Perceiving the role requirements of other associated with another of their roles.
group members’ roles, by taking their perspective;  Intrarole conflict A form of role conflict that occurs when the
also, the enactment of a role within a group. behaviors that make up a single role are incongruous, often
 Dynamic Role Theories Sigmund Freud (1922) is best known resulting from inconsistent expectations on the part of the
for his insightful analyses of personality and adjustment, but he person who occupies the role and other members of the group
also analyzed group behavior. He suggested our actions when  Person–Role Conflict Sometimes, the behaviors associated
in a group are based, in part, on our rational plans, motives, with a particular role are completely congruent with the basic
and goals, but also on unconscious interpersonal and values, attitudes, personality, needs, or preferences of the
psychological processes that are largely. person who must enact the role: A stickler for organization is
 He believed, for example, that groups psychologically replace asked to be in charge of organizing the group’s records; a
our first, and most basic, group: our family. This replacement relationship expert must take on a role that requires sensitivity
hypothesis suggests that in highly cohesive groups, the other and warmth.
group members come to take the place of our siblings, so the  Role fit The degree of congruence between the demands of a
emotional ties that bind us to our groups are like the ties that specific role and the attitudes, values, skills, and other
bind children to families. characteristics of the individual who occupies the role.
6-2c Bale’s SYMLOG Model
6-3 Intermember Relations
 Sociologist Robert Bales’s (1970, 1980, 1999) SYMLOG model
provides a final example of a comprehensive explanation for the 6-3a Status Relations
types of roles commonly observed in groups.  Status differentiation The gradual rise of some group
 SYMLOG can also be used to create a graph of the group members to positions of greater authority, accompanied by
profile based on dominance, friendliness, and authority decreases in the authority exercised by other members.
dimensions. o Status Differentiation These stable variations in
 SYMLOG, by taking into account role, status, and attraction, members’ relative status have many names—
yields an integrative and in-depth picture of the organization of authority, power, status network, pecking orders,
Page 14 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
chain of command, or prestige ranking—but whatever These people in Bea’s life are said to be part of what variety of
their label they result in elevated authority for some groups?
and less for others. Primary Groups
 Some individuals, given their personalities, skills, behavioral
tendencies, and levels of experience, are more readily granted 2. It influences the nature and strength of the emotional and
authority than others interpersonal bonds within the group.
6-3b Attraction Relations Relationship Interaction
 Sociometric differentiation The development of stronger and
3. The boss assigns Gina to lead a project that needs to be done
more positive interpersonal ties between some members of the
on time. As their group leader, Gina is expected to lead and
group, accompanied by decreases in the quality of relations
guide her members. There are expected behaviors and actions
between other members of the group.
that need to be executed by her for their group to be productive
o results in a stable ordering of members from least
and functional. This falls under what characteristics of the
liked to most liked. group?
 Balance theory An analysis of social relations that assumes Roles
relationships can be either balanced (integrated units with 4. This characteristic of the group answers the question “What is
elements that fit together without stress) or unbalanced the group’s purpose?”
(inconsistent units with elements that conflict with one another). Goals
Unbalanced relationships create an unpleasant tension that
must be relieved by changing some element of the system 5. The following is part of the 3 types of Observation. Which is
(developed by Fritz Heider). NOT included?
6-3c Communication Relations Recorded Observation
 Communication network Patterns of information transmission
and exchange that describe who communicates most frequently 6. Mico was assigned to observe 2 different departments in a
and to what extent with whom. company. His way of observing was done secretly. The
 Patterns of communication among group members, like other members being observed were not aware that they are being
structural features of groups, are sometimes deliberately set in monitored by Mico. What type of Observation does Mico do?
place when the group is organized. Covert Observation
 Network efficiency is related to information saturation. When a
group is working on a problem, exchanging information, and 7. There is a close association between physical pain and social
making a decision, the central position in the network can best pain.
manage the inputs and interactions of the group. As work True, researchers have proven that dACC and
progresses and the number of communications being routed anterior insula are active parts of the brain when
through the central member increases; however, a saturation people were left out in the group. These 2 parts are
point can be reached at which the individual can no longer also active when an individual feels physical pain.
efficiently monitor, collate, or route incoming and outgoing
messages. 8. Which of the following is Bale's SYM-LOG model's correct set of
 Directional (Up–Down) Effects Only small groups with domains being monitored and assessed?
decentralized communication networks outperform groups with Dominance, Friendliness, Acceptance
centralized networks. Once the group becomes too large,
members can no longer keep up with the high rate and quantity 9. What domain in the Five-Factor Theory measures persistence in
of information they are receiving. Therefore, most organizations pursuing tasks, including self-confidence, orderliness, meeting of
manage information flow by adopting hierarchical obligations, achievement striving, self-regulation, and measured
communication networks (Goetsch & McFarland, 1980). In such responding?
networks, information can pass either horizontally between Conscientiousness
members on the same rung of the communication ladder or
vertically up and down from followers to leaders and back 10. Myka and Jane will study the effectiveness of leadership in the
(Jablin, 1979). group’s cohesion. Which research methods should Myka and Jane
use for their study?
6-4 Application: Social Network Analysis Experimental Study

6-4a Mapping Social Networks 11. Cheska is interviewing a group of people living around the
 Social network analysts are the geographers of the human mountains of Rizal. The group is known in their place for their different
terrain. They seek to map the connections that link individuals cultures and beliefs. One of her interview questions is, “how was the
to one another and use that information to determine precisely group formed or founded?” What type of group characteristics does
where people are located relative to each other in interpersonal Cheska want to know?
space. Origin
 Density The degree of connectedness of the group’s members,
as indexed by the number of actual ties linking members 12-14. Enumerate the three types of observation.
divided by the number of possibilities. Covert Observation
 Cliques In social network analysis, subgroups of interrelated Overt Observation
members within the larger group context. Participative Observation
 Holes In social network analysis, gaps or schisms within the
network 15. Sheena is assigned to prepare all the documents and files needed
for the upcoming internal auditing in their department. Their team
6-4b Applying Social Network Analysis
leader suddenly asked her also to monitor the progress of the other
■ Individual-level (egocentric) indexes used in SNA include degree works of her co-members. Since Sheena has two roles to do, she
centrality, indegree, outdegree, betweenness, and closeness. cannot focus on her primary task, which is preparing the documents.
■ Group-level (sociocentric) indexes include size, density, cliques, and Also, she had a hard time being consistent with her excellent
holes. performance. What type of role stress is Sheena facing?
■ Network analyses often reveal discrepancies between the group’s Interrole Conflict
formal status network and its informal (actual) status network (Krackhardt
& Hanson, 1993). 16. Is being isolated and alone for a long period of time healthy?
No, studies have proven that prolonged isolation is
1. Bea has a little circle of friends whom she really trusts, and she one of the major factors of the onset of different
has known these people for a long time. Also, she has a good psychological disorders.
bond and is getting well-established support from her family.

Page 15 of 16
[GROUP DYNAMICS] LESSON 1,2,3,4,5,6 – Professor Pe Benito
17. It is the active pursuit of intellectually and aesthetically stimulating
experiences, including imagination, fantasy, appreciation of art,
openness to emotions and experiences, curiosity, and cognitive
flexibility.
Openness to Experiences

18-22. What are the five theoretical perspectives in Group Dynamics?

Motivational Perspectives
Biological Perspectives
Systems Perspectives
Behavioral Perspectives
Cognitive Perspectives

Page 16 of 16