Digital Communication (EC 1351)
2Marks
1. What are the components of a Digital Communication System?
Sampler, Quantizer, Encoder, Modulator, Decoder, Channel, Demodulator,
Reconstruction Filter are the components of a Digital Communication System.
[Link] are the advantages of Digital Communication? Ruggedness to channel
noise and other interferences. Flexible implementation of digital hardware system
Coding of digital signal to yield extremely low error rate and high fidelity. Security
of information.
[Link] some of the different types of Keying techniques?
Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying, Minimum
Shift Keying, Quadrature Shift Keying.
4. What are Coherent Receivers?
Receivers in which the carrier used in the receiver is of same frequency and phase
of the transmitted one is called coherent receivers.
5. What are Non Coherent Receivers?
Receivers in which the carrier used in the receiver is of different frequency and
phase of the transmitted one is called coherent receivers.
6. What is Binary Amplitude Shift Keying?
In Binary Amplitude Shift Keying the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
between two fixed levels depending on the message signal amplitude.
7. What is Binary Frequency Shift Keying?
In Binary Frequency Shift Keying the frequency of the carrier signal is varied
between two fixed levels depending on the message signal amplitude.
8. What is Binary Phase Shift Keying
In Binary Phase Shift Keying the phase of the carrier signal is varied between two
fixed levels depending on the message signal amplitude.
9. What is probability of error?
When the received signal is not the exact replication of the transmitted signal, the
received signal is said to be an error signal. The probability of occurrence of such
an error signal is called probability of error.
10. What is probability of bit error?
The probability of receiving a bit as an error signal is called probability of bit
[Link] is denoted by BER.
11. What is probability of symbol error?
The probability of receiving a symbol t as an error signal is called probability of
symbol error. It is denoted by SER.
12. Define Dirac comb or ideal sampling function. What is its Fourier Transform?
Dirac comb is nothing but a periodic impulse train in which the impulses are
spaced by a time interval of Ts seconds. The equation for the function is given by
δ Ts (t) = Σ δ (t- n Ts)
n =-
The Fourier Transform ofδ Ts (t) is given by
F[ δ Ts (t)]= f s Σ δ (f- m fs)
m =-
13. State sampling theorem.
If a finite –energy signal g(t) contains no frequencies higher than W hertz ,it is
completely determined by specifying its co=ordinates at a sequence of points
spaced 1/2W seconds apart.
If a finite energy signal g(t) contains no frequencies higher than W hertz, it may be
completely recovered from its co=ordinates at a sequence of points spaced 1/2W
seconds apart
.
14. Define quadrature sampling.
Quadrature sampling is used for uniform sampling of band pass signals Consider
g(t) = gI(t) cos(2Πfct) – gQ(t) sin(2Πfct).
The in-phase component gI(t) and the quadrature component gQ(t) may be
obtained by multiplying the bandpass signal g(t) by cos(2Π fct) and sin(2Πfct)
respectively and then suppressing the sum- frequency components by means of
appropriate low pass filter. Under the assumption that fc>W,we find that
gI(t)&gQ(t) are both low-pass signals limited to - W<f<W. Accordingly each
component may be sampled at the rate of 2W samples per second. This type of
sampling is called quadrature sampling.
15. What is aliasing?
The phenomenon of a high- frequency in the spectrum of the original signal g(t)
seemingly taking on the identity of a lower frequency in the spectrum of the
sampled signal g(t) is called aliasing or foldover.
16. Give the expression for aliasing error and the bound for aliasing error.
(m+1/2fs)
E = | Σ [1-exp (-j2 Πmfst)] G(f) exp(j2 Πft) df |
n =-
(m-1/2fs)
where E is the aliasing error.
|G(f)| is the amplitude spectrum of the signal g(t).
E < 2 |G(f)| df.
| f | > fs /2
Where E is the bound for aliasing error.
17. What is meant by PCM?
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a method of signal coding in which the message
signal is sampled, the amplitude of each sample is rounded off to the nearest one of
a finite set of discrete levels and encoded so that both time and amplitude are
represented in discrete form.. This allows the message to be transmitted by means
of a digital waveform.
18. Define quantizing process.
The conversion of analog sample of the signal into digital form is called quantizing
process.
19. What are the two fold effects of quantizing process.
The peak-to-peak range of input sample values subdivided into a finite set of
decision levels or decision thresholds
The output is assigned a discrete value selected from a finite set of representation
levels are reconstruction values that are aligned with the treads of the staircase.
20. What is meant by idle channel noise?
Idle channel noise is the coding noise measured at the receiver output with zero
transmitter input.
21. What is meant by prediction error?
The difference between the actual sample of the process at the time of interest and
the predictor output is called a prediction error.
[Link] delta modulation
Delta modulation is the one-bit version of differential pulse code modulation.
23. Define adaptive delta modulation
The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the
step size of the modulator assume a time- varying form. In particular, during a
steep segment of the input signal the step size is increased. Conversely, when the
input signal is varying slowly, the step is reduced , In this way, the step size is
adapting to the level of the signal. The resulting method is called adaptive delta
modulation (ADM).
24. Name the types of uniform quantizer?
Mid tread type quantizer.
Mid riser type quantizer.
25. Define mid tread quantizer?
Origin of the signal lies in the middle of a tread of the staircase.
26. Define mid-riser quantizer?
Origin of the signal lies in the middle of a riser of the staircase
27. Define quantization error?
Quantization error is the difference between the output and input values of
quantizer..
28. What you mean by non- uniform quantization?
Step size is not uniform. Non uniform quantizer is characterized by a step size that
increases as the separation from the origin of the transfer characteristics is
increased. Non- uniform quantization is otherwise called as robust quantization
29. Draw the quantization error for the mid tread and mid-rise type of quantizer?
30.
What is the disadvantage of uniform quantization over the non-uniform
quantization? SNR decreases with decrease in input power level at the uniform
quantizer but non- uniform quantization maintain a constant SNR for wide range of
input power levels. This type of quantization is called as robust quantization.
[Link] do you mean by companding? Define compander.
The signal is compressed at the transmitter and expanded at the receiver. This is
called as companding. The combination of a compressor and expander is called a
compander.
32. Draw the block diagram of compander? Mention the types of companding?
Block diagram:
Types of companding:
µ law companding
A law companding
33. What is PAM?
PAM is the pulse amplitude modulation. In pulse amplitude modulation, the
amplitude of a carrier consisting of a periodic train of rectangular pulses is varied
in proportion to sample values of a message signal.
34. What is the need for speech coding at low bit rates?
The use of PCM at the standard rate of 64 Kbps demands a high channel
bandwidth for its transmission ,so for certain applications, bandwidth is at
premium, in which case
there is a definite need for speech coding at low bit rates, while maintaining
acceptable fidelity or quality of reproduction.
35. Define ADPCM.
It means adaptive differential pulse code modulation, a combination of adaptive
quantization and adaptive prediction. Adaptive quantization refers to a quantizer
that operates with a time varying step size. The autocorrelation function and power
spectral density of speech signals are time varying functions of the respective
variables. Predictors for such input should be time varying. So adaptive predictors
are used.
36. What is meant by forward and backward estimation?
AQF: Adaptive quantization with forward estimation. Unquantized samples of the
input signal are used to derive the forward estimates.
AQB: Adaptive quantization with backward estimation. Samples of the quantizer
output are used to derive the backward estimates.
APF: Adaptive prediction with forward estimation, in which unquantized samples
of the input signal are used to derive the forward estimates of the predictor
coefficients. APB: Adaptive prediction with backward estimation, in which
Samples of the quantizer output and the prediction error are used to derive
estimates of the predictor coefficients.
[Link] are the limitations of forward estimation with backward estimation?
Side information
Buffering & Delay
[Link] are the predictor coefficients determined?
For the adaptation of the predictor coefficients the least mean square (LMS)
algorithm is used.
39. Define adaptive subband coding?
It is a frequency domain coder, in which the speech signal is divided in to number
of subbands and each one is coded separately. It uses non masking phenomenon in
perception for a better speech quality. The noise shaping is done by the adaptive bit
assignment.
40. What are formant frequencies?
In the context of speech production the formant frequencies are the resonant
frequencies of the vocal tract tube. The formants depend on the shape and
dimensions of the vocal tract.
[Link] is the bit rate in ASBC?
Nfs= (MN) (fs/M)
Nfs->bit rate
M->number of subbands of equal bandwidths N->average number of bits
fs/M->sampling rate for each subband
[Link] Adaptive filter?
It is a nonlinear estimator that provides an estimate of some desired response
without requiring knowledge of correlation functions, where the filter coefficients
are data dependent. A popular filtering algorithm is the LMS algorithm.
43. Define data Signalling Rate
Data signalling rate is defined as the rate measured in terms bits per second(b/s) at
which data are transmitted.
Data signaling rate Rb=I/Tb , Where Tb=bit duration. 44. Define modulation rate
It is defined as the rate at which signal level is changed depending
On the nature of the format used to represent the digital [Link] is measured in
Bauds or symbols per second.
45. State NRZ unipolar format
In this format binary 0 is represent by no pulse and binary 1 is Represented by the
positive pulse.
46. State NRZ polar format
Binary 1 is represented by a positive pulse and binary 0 is represented by a
Negative pulse.
47. State NRZ bipolar format
Binary 0 is represented by no pulse and binary one is represented by the alternative
positive and negative pulse.
48. State manchester format
Binary 0 The first half bit duration negative pulse and the second half
Bit duration positive pulse.
Binary 1first half bit duration positive pulse and the second half.
Bit duration negative pulse.
49. What is an eye pattern?
The display resulting from the reception of successive binary bits in an
oscilloscope, which is in the form of eye called eye pattern.
50. What is the width of the eye?
It defines the time interval over which the received waveform can be sampled
without error from intersymbol interference.
51. What is sensitivity of an eye?
The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of
the eye as the sampling time is varied.
52. What is margin over noise?
The height of the eye opening at a specified sampling time defines the margin over
noise.
53. How eye pattern is obtained?
The eye pattern is obtained by applying the received wave to the vertical deflection
plates of an oscilloscope and to apply a saw tooth wave at the transmitted symbol
rate to the horizontal deflection plate.
54. Properties of matched filter
The signal to noise ratio of the matched filter depends only upon the the ratio of
the signal energy to the psd of white noise at the filter input. The output signal of a
matched filter is proportional to a shifted version
of the auto_correlation function of the input signal to which the filter is matched.
55. Why do we go for Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure ?
Consider a message signal m. The task of transforming an incoming message
mi=1,2,…..M, into a modulated wave si(t) may be divided into separate discrete
time & continuous time operations. The justification for this separation lies in the
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure which permits the representation of
any set of M energy signals, {si(t)}, as linear combinations of N orthonormal basis
functions, where N £M .
56. What is matched filter receiver ?
A filter whose impulse response is a time reversed & delayed version of some
signal Æ j (t) then it is said to be matched to Æj (t) correspondingly, the optimum
receiver based on the detector is referred to as the matched filter receiver.
57 .What is maximum likelihood detector.
Maximum likelihood detector computes the metric for each transmitted message c
ompares them and then decides in favor of maximum.
The device for implementing the decision rule e; set ^m = mi if
In [ fx(x/mk)] is maximum for k=i is called maximum –likelihood detector and the
decision rule is called maximum likelihood.
58. Define antipodal signals
A pair of sinusoidal signals that differ only in a phase shift of 180 degrees are
referred to as antipodal signals.
[Link] how QPSK differs from PSK in term of transmission bandwidth and bit
information it carries?
For a given bit rate 1/Tb, a QPSK wave requires half the transmission bandwidth
of the corresponding binary PSK wave. Equivalently for a given transmission
bandwidth, a QPSK wave carries twice as many bits of information as the
corresponding binary PSK wave
[Link] the equation for average probability of symbol error for coherent binary
PSK.
Average probability of signal error,
Pe = 1 / 2 erfcÖ Eb / No
where Pe = Probability of error
erfc = complementary error function Eb = Bit energy.
No = Noise Variance.
61. Give the signal space characterization of QPSK
[Link] QPSK
QPSK is Quadriphase –shift keying. In QPSK the phase of the carrier takes on one
of the four equally spaced values Such as Õ/4 , 3Õ/4, 5Õ/4 and 7Õ/4.
[Link] Dibit.
A unique pair of bits is called a dibit. Gray encoded set of dibits 10, 00, 01 & 11
[Link] the transmitted signal of Non-coherent binary FSK.
Si(t) = {Ö 2Eb/Tb Cos(2Õ f i t) ,0 £ t £ Tb
O, elsewhere
fi = nc+ i/ Tb
65. Give the two basic operation of DPSK transmitter. differential encoding of the
input binary wave
Phase –shift keying hence, the name differential phase shift keying
66. Define deviation ratio in MSK .
The parameter h is defined by
h= Tb(f1- f2)
h is deviation ratio , measured with respect to bit rate 1/Tb.
67. Define MSK signal in interval 0£ t £ Tb.
S(t) = Ö 2Eb/Tb Cos [ 2Õ f 1t + q(0)] for symbol 1
2Eb/Tb Cos [ 2Õ f 2 t + q(0)] for symbol 0
68. What is nominal carrier frequency in MSK ?
Nominal carrier frequency is the arithmetic mean of the two frequencies f1 and f2
and it is given as
fc = ½ (f1 + f2)
Where f1 is the frequency for symbol –1 f2 is the frequency for symbol – 0
[Link] are the three broad types of synchronization ? Carrier synchronization
Symbol & Bit synchronization Frame synchronization.
[Link] is carrier synchronization ?
The carrier synchronization is required in coherent detection methods to generate a
coherent reference at the receiver. In this method the data bearing signal is
modulated on the carrier in such a way that the power spectrum of the modulated
carrier signal contains a discrete component at the carrier frequency.
71. What are the two methods for carrier synchronization
Carrier synchronization using Mth Power loop
Costas loop for carrier synchronization
72. What is called symbol or bit synchronization ?
In a matched filter or correlation receiver, the incoming signal is sampled at the
end of one bit or symbol duration. Therefore the receiver has to know the instants
of time at which a symbol or bit is transmitted. That is the instants at which a
particular bit or symbol status and when it is ended. The estimation of these times
of bit or symbol is called symbol or bit synchronization.
73. What are the two methods of bit and symbol synchronization
Closed loop bit synchronization
Early late gate synchronizer
74. What are the disadvantages of closed loop bit synchronization
If there is a long string of 1’s and o’s then y(t) has no zero crossings and
synchronization may be lost.
If zero crossing of y(t) are not placed at integer multiples of Tb, the
synchronization suffers from timing Jitter.
75. What is called frame synchronization ?
Depending on bits used for encoding, the word length is defined. Thus each word
container some fixed number of bits. The receiver has to know when a particular
frame status and when its individual message bits status. This type of
synchronization is called frame synchronization.
76. Why synchronization is required ?
The signals from various sources are transmitted on the single channel by
multiplexing. This requires synchronization between transmitter and receiver.
Special synchronization bits are added in the transmitted signal for the purpose.
Synchronization is also required for detectors to recover the digital data properly
from the modulated signal.
77. What is linear code ?
A code is linear if the sum of any two code vectors produces another code vector.
78. What is code rate ?
Code rate is the ratio of message bits (k) and the encoder output bits (n). It is
defined by r (i.e) r= k/N
79. Define code efficiency
It is the ratio of message bits in a block to the transmitted bits for that block by the
encoder i.e
Message bits in a block
80. What is hamming distance?
The hamming distance between two code vectors is equal to the number of
elements in which they differ. For example let the two code vectors be
X=(101) and Y= (110)
These two code vectors differ in second and third bits.
Therefore the hamming distance between x and Y is two.
81. What is meant by systematic & non-systematic code?
In a systematic block code, message bit appear first and then check bits. In the non-
systematic code, message and check bits cannot be identified in the code vector.
82. How syndrome is calculated in Hamming codes and cyclic codes ? In
Hamming codes the syndrome is calculated as ,
S = YH T
Here Y is the received and HT is the transpose of parity check matrix.
In cyclic code, the syndrome vector polynomial is given as,
S (P) = remainder ( y (p)/ G (P) )
Y(P) is received vector polynomial and G (p) is generator polynomial.
83. What is BCH Code ?
BCH codes are most extensive and powerful error correcting cyclic code. The
decoding of BCH coder is comparatively simpler. For any positive integer ‘m’ and
‘t’ , there exists a BCH code with following parameters :
Block length n = 2 m-1
No. of parity check bits : n-k £ mt
Minimum distance : dmin ³ 2t +1
84. What are the conditions to satisfy the hamming code No. of Check bits q ³ 3
Block length n = 2q –1
No of message bits K = n-q
Minimum distance dmin =3
85. Define code word & block length.
The encoded block of ‘n’ bits is called code word. The no. of bits ‘n’ after coding
is called block length.
86. Give the parameters of RS codes :
Reed Solomon codes. These are non binary BCH codes.
Block length = n =2m -1 symbols
Message size : k symbols
Parity check size : n-k= 2t symbols
Minimum distance , dmin =2t +1 symbols.
87. Why RS codes are called maximum distance separable codes ?
( n,k) Linear block code for which the minimum distance equals n – k + 1 is called
maximum distance separable codes. For RS code minimum distance equals n – k +
1 so it is called as maximum distance separable codes.
88. What are Golay codes ?
Golay code is the (23, 12) cyclic code whose generating polynomial is,
G(p) =P11+P9+p7+P6+p5+p+1
This code has a minimum distance of dmin=7. This code can correct upto 3 errors.
It is perfect code.
89. What are the advantages of cyclic codes ?
Encoders and decoders for cyclic codes are simple
Cyclic codes also detect error burst that span many successive bits.
90. Define pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
A pseudo-noise sequence is defined as a coded sequence of 1s and Os with certain
autocorrelation properties. It is used in spread Spectrum communications . It is
periodic in that a sequence of 1s and 0s repeats itself exactly with a known period.
91. What does the term catastrophic cyclic code represent ?
‘000’ is not a state of the shift register sequence in PN sequence generator, since
this results in a catastrophic cyclic code i.e once the 000 state is entered, the shift
register sequence cannot leave this state.
92. Define a random binary sequence.
A random binary sequence is a sequence in which the presence of a binary symbol
1 or 0 is equally probable.
93. State the balance property of random binary sequence.
In each period of a maximum length sequence, the number of 1s is always one
more than the number of 0s. This property is called the balance property.
94. Mention about the run property
Among the runs of 1s and 0s in each period of a maximum length sequence, one
half the runs of each kind are of length one, one fourth are of length two, one
eighth are
of length three, and so or as long as these function represent meaningful numbers
of runs. This property is called the run property.
95. Give the correlation property of random binary sequence.
The autocorrelation function of a maximum length sequence is periodic and binary
valued. This property is called the correlation property.
96. Mention the significance of spread spectrum modulation.
An important attribute of spread-spectrum modulation is that it can provide
protection against externally generated interfering (jamming) signals with finite
power. The jamming signal may consist of a fairly powerful broadband noise or
multitone waveform that is directed at the receiver for the purpose of disrupting
communications. Protection against jamming waveforms is provided by purposely
making the information bearing signal occupy a bandwidth far in excess of
minimum bandwidth necessary to transmit it.
97. What is called processing gain ?
Processing Gain (PG) is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth of spread message
signal to the bandwidth of unspreaded data signal ie).
Processing Gain = BW (spreaded signal)
----------------------------
BW (Unspreaded signal)
98. What is called jamming effect ?
In the frequency band of the interest, somebody else transmits the signals
intentionally since these signals the in the frequency band of transmission, they
interface the required signal. Hence it becomes difficult to detect the required
signals. This is called jamming effect.
99. What is Anti jamming ?
With the help of spread spectrum method, the transmitted signals are spread over
the mid frequency band. Hence these signals appear as noise. Then it becomes
difficult for the jammers to send jamming signals. This is called antijamming.
100. What are the three codes used for the anti jamming application ? Golay code
(24, 12)
Expurgated Golay (24, 11)
Maximum length shift register code.
101. What is called frequency hop spread spectrum ?
In frequency hop spread spectrum, the frequency of the carrier hops randomly from
one frequency to another frequency.
102. What is slow frequency hopping ?
If the symbol rate of MFSK is an integer multiple of hop rate (multiple symbols
per hop) then it is called slow frequency hopping
103. What is fast frequency hopping ?
If the hop rate is an integer multiple of symbol rate (multiple hops per symbol) the
it is called fast frequency hopping.
104. What are the two function of fast frequency hopping ?
Spread Jammer over the entire measure of the spectrum of Txed signal. Retuning
the Jamming signal over the frequency band of Txed signal.
105. What are the features of code Division multiple Access ?
It does not require external synchronization networks.
CDMA offers gradual degradation in performance when the no. of users is
increased But it
is easy to add new user to the system.
If offers an external interference rejection capability.
106. What is called multipath Interference ?
The interference caused by the interfacing of the signal form the indirect path
with the signal of direct path is called multipath interference.
107. Define modulation?
Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of high frequency carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal.
[Link] are the types of analog modulation?
Amplitude modulation.
Angle Modulation
1. Frequency modulation
2. Phase modulation.
[Link] depth of modulation.
It is defined as the ratio between message amplitude to that of carrier amplitude.
m=Em/Ec
110. What are the degrees of modulation?
Under modulation. m<1
Critical modulation m=1
Over modulation m>1
111. Define Amplitude Modulation
It is the process by which the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the message signal.
112. Define modulation index for AM
It is defined as the ratio of the maximum modulating voltage to the maximum
carrier voltage. It is also called as ‘Depth of modulation’.
m = Vm / Vc
113. What is the relation between total power and carrier power?
Pt = Pc (1 + m2 /2)
Pt : Total power
Pc : Carrier power
m :Modulation index
[Link] is the need for modulation?
Ease of transmission
Multiplexing
Reduced noise
Narrow bandwidth
Frequency assignment
Reduce the equipments limitations.
[Link] are the types of AM modulators?
There are two types of AM modulators. They are
Linear modulators
Non-linear modulators
Linear modulators are classified as follows
Transistor modulator
There are three types of transistor modulator.
Collector modulator
Emitter modulator
Base modulator
Switching modulators
Non-linear modulators are classified as follows
Square law modulator
Product modulator
Balanced modulator
[Link] is single tone and multi tone modulation?
If modulation is performed for a message signal with more than one frequency
component then the modulation is called multi tone modulation.
If modulation is performed for a message signal with one frequency component
then the modulation is called single tone modulation.
117 .The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A when only carrier is sent. It
increases to 8.93A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the
percentage modulation.
Solution:
Given: Ic =8A It=8.93A m=0.8
Formula: It=Ic (1+m2/2) ½
8.93=8(1+m2/2) ½
m=0.701
It=8 (1+0.82/2) ½
It=9.1A
13. A 400W carrier is modulated to a depth of 75 %. Calculate the total
power in the
modulated wave
Solution :
Pc = 400 W
m = 0.75
Pt=?
Pt = Pc ( 1 + m2/2 )
Pt = 400 (1 + 0.752/2)
Pt=512.5 W
14. What is the relation between total power and carrier power?
It=Ic (1+m2/2) ½
118. What is the bandwidth of AM?
Bandwidth =2fm
119. Compare linear and non-linear modulators.
Linear modulators Non-linear modulators
[Link] filtering is not [Link] filtering is required required.
[Link] modulators are used in [Link] modulators are used in low level high level
modulation. level Modulation.
[Link] carrier voltage is very much [Link] modulating signal voltage is very much
greater than modulating greater than the carrier signal voltage.
120. Define demodulation.
Demodulation or detection is the process by which modulating voltage is recovered
from the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation.
121.A transmitter supplies 8 Kw to the antenna when modulated. Determine
the total power radiated when modulated to 30%.
m=0.3;Pc=8 kw
Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)
=8.36 kw
[Link] are the drawbacks of emitter modulator?
[Link] amplifier is operated in class A mode, thus the efficiency is low.
[Link] output power is very small. Thus it is not suitable for generating high level
modulation.
[Link] sensitivity.
It is defined as a measure of its ability to receive weak signals.
[Link] selectivity.
Selectivity of a receiver is defined as its ability to select the desired signals among
the various signals.
125. Define stability.
It is the ability of the receiver to deliver a constant amount of output for a given a
given period of time.
126. What is called image frequency?
Image frequency is defined as the signal frequency plus twice the intermediate
frequency. This has the effect of two stations being received simultaneously and
hence it is undesirable.
fsi = fs + 2 fi
fsi - image frequency
It can be eliminated by providing adequate image signal selectivity between
antenna and mixer input.
127. What is intermediate frequency?
Intermediate frequency (IF) is defined as the difference between the
signal frequency and the oscillator frequency.
IF = fs – fo when fs > fo (or)
IF = fo –fs when fo > fs
[Link] super heterodyne principle.
It can be defined as the process of operation of modulated waves to obtain
similarly modulated waves of different frequency. This process uses a locally
generated carrier wave, which determines the change of frequency.
129. Define frequency modulation.
Frequency modulation is defined as the process by which the frequency of the
carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating or message signal.
130. Define modulation index of frequency modulation.
It is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation tothe modulating
frequency.
b = df/fm
131. What do you meant by multitone modulation?
Modulation done for the message signal with more than one frequency component
is called multitone modulation.
132. Define phase modulation.
Phase modulation is defined as the process of changing the phase of
the carrier signal in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal.
133. What are the types of Frequency Modulation?
Based on the modulation index FM can be divided into types. They are Narrow
band FM and Wide band FM. If the modulation index is greater than one then it is
wide band FM and if the modulation index is less than one then it is Narrow band
FM
134. What is the basic difference between an AM signal and a narrowband FM
signal?
In the case of sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between an AM signal
and a narrowband FM signal is that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency
in the narrow band FM is reversed.
135. What are the two methods of producing an FM wave?
Basically there are two methods of producing an FM wave. They are,
i) Direct method
In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose frequency varies as
function of the modulating source. It is used for the generation of NBFM
ii) Indirect method
In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose phase is a function of the
modulation. Normally it is used for the generation of WBFM where WBFM is
generated from NBFM
136. List the properties of the Bessel function.
The properties of the Bessel function is given by,
i) Jn (b)=(-1)nJ-n(b) for all n, both positive and negative.
ii) For small values of the modulation index b ,we have
J0 (b)=1
J1 (b)=b/2
Jn(b)=0,n>2.
¥
iii) S J2
n (b)=1
n = -¥
137. Give the average power of an FM signal.
The amplitude of the frequency modulated signal is constant .The
power of the FM signal is same as that of the carrier power. P=1/2 Ec2 .
138. Define phase deviation.
The maximum phase deviation of the total angle from the carrier angle is called
phase deviation.
139. Define frequency Deviation.
The maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency
is called frequency deviation.
140. State the Carson’s rule.
An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM Signal generated by
a single tone-modulating signal of frequency fm is defined as
B =2 Df(1+1/ b)
[Link] the deviation ratio D for non-sinusoidal modulation.
The deviation ratio D is defined as the ratio of the frequency deviation Df, which
corresponds to the maximum possible amplitude of the modulation signal m(t),to
the highest modulation frequency .
D = Df / fm
142. What is the effect of increasing modulation index in FM?
In FM, the total transmitted power always remains constant. But with increased
depth of modulation, the required bandwidth is increased.
143. How do you get FM using PM system?
The frequency modulated wave can be obtained from PM system. This is done by
integrating the modulating signals before applying it to the phase modulators.
144. What is meant by PCM?
The analog signal is sampled and converted to a fixed length, serial binary number
for transmission. The binary number varies according to the amplitude of the
analog signal.
145. Define quantizing process.
The conversion of analog sample of the signal into digital form is called quantizing
process.
146. What are the two fold effects of quantizing process.
1. The peak-to-peak range of input sample values subdivided into a finite set of
decision levels or decision thresholds
2. The output is assigned a discrete value selected from a finite set of
representation levels are reconstruction values that are aligned with the treads of
the staircase.
147. Define delta modulation
Delta modulation is the one-bit version of differential pulse code modulation.
148. Define adaptive delta modulation
The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the
step size of the modulator assume a time- varying form. In particular, during a
steep segment of the input signal the step size is increased. Conversely, when the
input signal is varying slowly, the step is reduced , In this way, the step size is
adapting to the level of the signal. The resulting method is called adaptive delta
modulation (ADM).
[Link] the types of uniform quantizer?
1. Mid tread type quantizer.
2. Mid riser type quantizer.
[Link] quantization error?
Quantization error is the difference between the output and input values of
quantizer..
