Advances and Ongoing

Challenges in the
Development of Gluten-free
Baked Goods
Photo © ChameleonsEye @ [Link]

only way to avoid adverse effects is to treatment or cure. Early and accurate
Y. L. Dar1 eliminate wheat and/or gluten from the diagnosis is critical to avoid long-term
Ingredion Incorporated diet. intestinal damage. There is higher chance
Mogi Guaçu, Brasil According to a 2011 report (22), ≈1% of incidence if there is a history of the
of the U.S. population may suffer from disease in the immediate family. The inci-
celiac disease caused by gluten intoler- dence of celiac disease is thought to be
T he visibility of gluten-free labels has
increased significantly over the last
two decades. Consumer awareness of glu-
ance, and ≈6% may have some other form
of sensitivity to gluten. In recent years,
increasing; however, this is possibly due
to a combination of greater incidence and
ten sensitivity or intolerance and wheat there has been a significant increase in better diagnosis through blood tests and
allergies has also increased significantly, gluten-free products launched to meet the biopsies of the intestinal wall.
resulting in an increased demand for needs of this population. It is estimated Replacing wheat flour to develop glu-
high-quality gluten-free baked goods. In that U.S. retail sales of gluten-free prod- ten-free baked goods is a difficult chal-
response, food manufacturers and suppli- ucts will reach $6 billion annually by lenge due to several factors. For example,
ers have developed and introduced a 2015. A search conducted on Mintel’s the baking industry in most parts of the
range of specialty and mainstream gluten- GNPD ([Link]) found that world is based on the unique properties of
free products. Creating gluten-free prod- 1,936 new gluten-free products were wheat flour, and manufacturing processes
ucts with quality comparable to gluten- introduced in the United States in 2010, and equipment have been optimized
containing products has been a significant up from 1,232 in 2009. Interest in gluten- around these properties. A cost-effective
challenge for developers and manufactur- free products continues to increase, and it dedicated supply chain is another compli-
ers alike. Although both the quality and is the fastest growing “free from” product cating factor. Further, the desirable tex-
number of gluten-free products have claim in the U.S. and Western European tures and flavors of baked goods, in many
increased significantly, there continue to markets. The trend is also beginning to cases, have been built around the proper-
be challenges that need to be addressed to catch on in the South American and ties of wheat flour. For these reasons, the
provide gluten-free products that match Asian markets, although the number of development and manufacture of gluten-
the quality and range of traditional glu- products available in these markets is free baked goods presents a complex chal-
ten-containing bakery products. Recent much lower. lenge for the entire baked goods supply
publications by Arendt and Dal Bello There are several reasons consumers chain.
(1,2) and Gallagher (8), as well as others, seek out gluten-free products. The people
describe the science and technology who perhaps need these products the Basic Facts
involved in creating gluten-free cereal most are those who suffer from celiac dis- Wheat Varieties. Wheat is a common
products and beverages. ease, an immune disorder triggered by food crop grown around the world, and
gluten. For those with celiac disease, glu- there are many commercially grown vari-
Wheat Allergies and Gluten ten proteins trigger an autoimmune reac- eties. The most commonly cultivated vari-
Intolerance tion in the small intestine that causes ety is T. aestivum—a hexaploid species
Gluten is the commonly used name for temporary or often permanent damage to with three sets of paired chromosomes
a combination of proteins found in wheat, the inner surface of the small intestine (six total sets), each of which has seven
barley, and rye. Many people suffer from and an inability to absorb certain nutri- chromosomes. The second most com-
wheat allergies or gluten intolerance. In ents. This is accompanied by several monly cultivated variety is durum wheat
certain cases, these conditions are so additional symptoms, including abdomi- (T. durum)—a tetraploid species with
severe that exposure to even minute nal distress or pain that can be accompa- four sets of chromosomes. A third impor-
quantities can be fatal. For those with nied by diarrhea. Over time decreased tant variety is spelt wheat (T. spelta)—
wheat allergies or gluten intolerance, the absorption of nutrients can also lead to a hexaploid species. Wheat varieties can
vitamin deficiencies. also be classified as red or white based on
1 Ingredion Incorporated, Rua Paula Bueno, 2935, Mogi Guaçu,
The only available method of managing the color of the bran; as summer or winter
Brasil, 13841-010. E-mail: [Link]@[Link]; celiac disease is to maintain a gluten-free based on the growing season; or as hard
Tel: 55 19 3851 9098; Cell: 55 19 998 612 395.
diet. Some preventive vaccines and drug or soft based on grain hardness and pro-
[Link] treatments are in different stages of devel- tein content. The differences in wheat
©2013 AACC International, Inc. opment, but there is currently no medical grain types have a significant impact on

298 / NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2013, VOL. 58, NO. 6

grain processing characteristics and the Gluten is essentially a network of glute- During baking, the gas bubbles expand
content of different grain components, nin and gliadin molecules. The combina- with rising temperatures and the release
including gluten, starch, and other nutri- tion of the two proteins leads to the of carbon dioxide. This expansion leads to
ents. unique behavior exhibited by dough dur- stretching and thinning of the gluten–
Wheat is believed to have been culti- ing leavening and baking. Gliadin con- starch matrix. As the process continues,
vated initially in the Mediterranean tributes viscosity, as well as extensibility, this matrix may become discontinuous
region of southern Europe, North Africa, to the network, whereas glutenin contrib- and destabilize the air cells in all parts of
Mesopotamia, and surrounding areas. It utes strength. Sroan (30) conducted a the dough. When this happens, the sec-
has since been introduced and widely cul- comprehensive study on the mechanism ondary stabilizing mechanism of the liq-
tivated as a principal crop in North and of gas cell stability in breadmaking, as uid phase with surface active molecules
South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and well as the role played by gluten in the ensures the stability of the gas cells during
Australia. The macronutrient content of process. The results indicate there is a the later stages of the baking process.
unenriched wheat flour used for bread- dual stabilizing mechanism that leads to Strain hardening, the ability of the net-
making is summarized in Table I (31). development of structure and texture in work to harden under increasing defor-
Gluten. Gluten (which means “glue” in breads. The gluten–starch matrix that sur- mation and resist a further increase in
Latin) is a complex mix of proteins found rounds gas bubbles has unique mechani- deformation, is a key property of the glu-
in wheat, barley, and rye and food prod- cal properties that provide the primary ten network. To provide the required
ucts made from these grains. Gluten has a stabilizing mechanism. The secondary stabilization, the gluten–starch matrix
significant impact on dough and final mechanism is the liquid surface layers on surrounding the gas cells needs to have
product properties. It is responsible for bubbles, which provide stability as the sufficient extensibility to yield and deform
elasticity in the dough, enabling it to rise bubbles come into closer contact during under relatively low gas pressure but also
and keep its shape. Gluten also helps with the later stages of proofing and baking. needs adequate strength to stabilize the
moisture retention in the dough and final Role of Gluten–Starch Matrix in gas bubbles being generated in the dough.
product and is responsible for many tex- Breadmaking. Mixing is the first step in This rheological property is vital for
ture properties in the final baked product, the breadmaking process. During the obtaining good bread volume and pro-
including chewiness, moistness, and mixing process, small gas bubbles are ducing good quality bread.
smoothness. Common gluten-containing trapped in the liquid dough phase due Impact of Gluten Content and Proper-
variants of wheat, barley, and rye include to entrainment of air. The maximum ties. Gluten content and properties are
bulgur, durum, farina, graham flour, kam- amount of air is occluded in the dough determined by the grain, as well as by sea-
ut, matzo meal, semolina, spelt, and triti- when the dough reaches the peak of its sonal growing conditions. For example,
cale. For consumers who are trying to development and the liquid phase becomes hard wheat flours have a higher gluten
avoid gluten in their diets, it is important the continuous phase. The properties of content than soft wheat flours. Gluten
to ensure none of these ingredients are the dough, as well as the size and stability properties depend not only on glutenin
listed on the ingredient statement for the of the gas bubbles, are influenced by the and gliadin content, but on the molecular
food product. rheological properties of the gluten– weights of these proteins as well.
Gluten is a composite of two main starch matrix. The liquid phase on the The amount of gluten and its properties
types of proteins—gliadin and glutenin surface of the air bubbles consists of dif- help determine the optimal application(s)
(6). These proteins are closely associated ferent soluble components from the for a wheat flour. For example, high-qual-
with the starch stored in the endosperm dough, including proteins, polar lipids, ity bread flours are typically high in glu-
of these grains. Gluten is found in foods and other smaller molecular weight mol- ten and made from hard wheat varieties,
prepared directly from wheat, barley, rye, ecules. It is this liquid phase that provides while pastry flours have a lower gluten
and related grains, as well as in food prod- the secondary stabilizing mechanism for content. Using a farinograph, gluten
ucts in which it is used as an ingredient the bubbles. strength and elasticity in flour can be
either to add protein or improve texture. To optimize its functionality and per- measured to estimate the performance of
The proteins found in corn and rice are formance during the baking process, the the flour in different applications. If the
sometimes also referred to as glutens. gluten matrix must be developed. This gluten quality and content is inadequate,
Their proteins differ from wheat, barley, process is aided by kneading of the dough. gluten is typically added to improve the
and rye gluten proteins, however, and Kneading enhances the elasticity of the flour properties.
they do not lead to the same types of gluten and influences the texture of the Gluten-free Standards. Before prod-
immune responses. final baked product. ucts can be labeled “gluten-free,” they

CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 299

must be tested and certified that they do influence on final product texture. As a cessing methods. Gluten-free doughs and
not contain any gluten. There are two consequence, elimination of gluten from batters also can show significant varia-
main factors that complicate this process. the base flour leads to radically different tions in viscosity and elasticity compared
The lowest level of gluten that can be processing requirements, as well as sig- with doughs and batters that contain
detected reliably is defined by the limits nificant differences in product texture wheat, leading to difficulties in mixing
of the detection techniques used, so it is and flavor, which in turn can lead to and machinability. Issues also can be
not possible to certify that a food product many undesirable “defects” in final prod- encountered in extrusion processing, such
or ingredient is absolutely free of gluten. uct characteristics. as for pastas, cereals, and confectionary,
Most declarations and certifications are Gluten provides different functional due to differences in rheology. Gluten-
based on recommendations from regula- levels in different types of baked goods. free products typically have a different
tory organizations or other groups that For example, relatively dense products flavor, texture, and appearance than their
define the maximum levels of gluten that like cookies have the lowest level of gluten wheat-containing counterparts, including
are considered safe for consumption by function, and the main role played by glu- reduced volume; lack of even cell struc-
people with celiac disease, wheat allergies, ten in cookies is moisture management ture; dry, crumbly, or grainy texture; and
or gluten intolerance. and distribution in the product. Gluten poor crust color. The shelf life of gluten-
One of the most commonly followed also helps with structure development free products is shorter as well. Gluten-
standards is Codex Alimentarius Stan- and, for some products, can provide sta- free baked goods typically have faster stal-
dard 118-1979 (4), which states that food bility in a moderately leavened cell struc- ing rates due to increased water mobility
labeled as “gluten-free” should contain ture. Products lacking gluten commonly and decreased ability to retain moisture.
<20 ppm gluten. The standard specifies have an unpleasant texture caused by The nutrient profile for gluten-free
that food containing 21–100 ppm gluten moisture loss, including sandiness, gritti- products also can differ significantly from
can be labeled as “low gluten.” An addi- ness, and brittleness. The firmness of the products that contain wheat. The protein
tional certification standard used in the bite is also reduced, and there is a strong content provided by gluten is an impor-
United States has been developed by the impact on overall flavor. tant factor. Wheat flour with a normal
Gluten-Free Certification Organization Cakes, muffins, and similar baked gluten content contains between 9 and
([Link]) and requires that a food goods require higher gluten functionality. 14% protein. Gluten-free flours need to
product contain <10 ppm gluten to be In addition to the basic functionality pro- provide an equivalent amount of protein
labeled “gluten-free.” Another standard vided in cookies, gluten supports desir- to ensure that the nutritional quality of
that is used by some manufacturers in the able cell structure development during the product is not compromised. Other
United States is that set by the Celiac the baking process. In the final product, it nutrients provided at different levels by
Sprue Association ([Link]). improves shelf stability and helps produce different grades of wheat, barley, and rye
This standard states that gluten-free desirable sensory characteristics, includ- flour include iron and vitamins.
foods need to contain <5 ppm gluten to ing chewiness and moistness. Elimination An additional nutritional aspect that
be labeled “gluten-free.” In August 2013, of gluten leads to lack of volume, crumbli- should be considered is that high levels
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ness, dryness, and gumminess. of sugars and fats are sometimes used to
(FDA) introduced new guidelines that Breads and related products make the mask undesirable texture and flavor char-
allow manufacturers to label a food as most significant demands on gluten func- acteristics in gluten-free products. These
“gluten-free” if the food contains <20 ppm tionality. White pan or loaf bread is one of additions can have a serious impact on
gluten. The FDA guidelines include rec- the most widely manufactured examples. the overall calorie load consumed, as well
ommendations for analytical methods Gluten plays a critical role in the develop- as on the balance of fat, protein, and car-
based on protein analysis that can detect ment of cell structure and volume, dough bohydrate intake.
gluten reliably and consistently at levels of development properties, mixing, rolling, Due to the many different roles played
20 ppm or higher in a variety of foods. and baking. These properties are impor- by gluten in baked goods, it is an extreme-
tant for producing desirable attributes, ly difficult challenge to replace gluten and
Technical Challenges in Developing such as the ability to slice the bread, and maintain the desired processing proper-
Gluten-free Products have a very strong influence on texture ties. There is no known single replacement
Due to several factors the majority of and sensory characteristics. Elimination ingredient for gluten that will provide all
baked goods worldwide are made using of gluten from the flour base leads to seri- of the desired baked good properties
wheat flour. Wheat commerce and agro- ous defects in processing, cell structure, associated with gluten.
nomics have made wheat one of the most and texture properties, including lack of
widely cultivated food sources worldwide volume, lack of elasticity, dryness, and Supply-Chain Challenges in
and, consequently, a staple baking base gumminess. The final product will also Developing Gluten-free Products
for the majority of the world. As a result, have significant defects in crumb struc- In addition to the technical challenges
the majority of developments in baking ture, shelf life, and stability. posed by eliminating gluten, there are also
equipment and processes have been based In short, elimination of gluten leads to significant supply-chain challenges that
on baking with wheat flour or related significant challenges that must be over- need to be considered by manufacturers
ingredients. This includes baking times, come in the processing and manufacture and consumers to ensure there is no
temperatures, and equipment such as of baked goods. Gluten-free products can adventitious contamination of gluten-free
ovens, mixers, and packaging units. be difficult to produce because it is dif- products with gluten-containing prod-
The unique properties of gluten also ficult to form traditional dough without ucts. Figure 1 shows the many different
play a large role in equipment and process gluten, and they can be over or under stages an ingredient go through from the
condition requirements and have a strong processed using traditional thermal pro- field to the table. Precautions to avoid

300 / NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2013, VOL. 58, NO. 6

contamination need to be taken at every and starches. Other options include mod- is free of cross-contamination from gluten-
stage, and testing needs to be conducted ified starches, fruit and vegetable extracts, containing ingredients and is suitable for
at key points. For example, if wheat, bar- and a variety of nonstarch hydrocolloids, consumption by most celiac patients (11).
ley, or rye is grown in a field close to a proteins, and fibers. These drawbacks of native starches and
gluten-free crop, wind or animals could Table I summarizes the macronutrient flours have been addressed through starch
carry gluten-containing grains into the content of different native flours that are modification and, to a lesser extent, flour
gluten-free crop fields, leading to various commonly used to replace wheat flour. modification, as well as the use of a vari-
levels of contamination. As can be seen from the table, the nutri- ety of other ingredients, including non-
One undesirable side effect of the tion content of these flours is quite differ- starch hydrocolloids for increased gelling
supply-chain complexity is added cost. ent from that of wheat and needs to be or viscosity, proteins from dairy and veg-
The cost of segregating gluten-free crops taken into account in gluten-free formu- etable sources, and fibers and extracts
and products, as well as additional test- lations. One significant difference is the from different sources. Table II provides
ing at intermediate stages, is ultimately level of proteins in these flours. This is of an overview of the current understanding
passed on to the consumer and is one of interest because gluten is a protein, and of the function and benefits of commonly
the reasons for the high cost of gluten- an initial starting point would be to con- used alternative ingredients.
free products. sider replacing gluten functionality with As seen in the ingredient descriptions
proteins from other sources. However, in Table II, there is no clear single alterna-
Replacing Wheat Flour in Gluten-free there are significant differences in the tive to wheat flour, but several options do
Products performance of the flours due not only to provide promising functionality. Starch
There are several key attributes that differences in protein levels but to prop- and flour modification has been used to
are required of a wheat flour replacement erty differences among the proteins them- improve the performance of starches in a
ingredient used in baked goods. A replace- selves. variety of applications. Modification
ment ingredient must It has been demonstrated that native greatly improves the versatility of most
starches and flours cannot provide a starches, allowing them to provide stable
1) Match the sensory properties pro- direct replacement for wheat flour, even viscosity, gelling, or other textural proper-
vided by wheat flour, including though many efforts have been made to ties over a wider range of conditions
visual, auditory, bite, mastication, incorporate them in different combina- encountered during processing or stor-
and swallowing related textural tions. Use of native starches and flours age, such as high heat, high shear, low pH,
characteristics leads to significant differences in at least and freeze/thaw cycling. Modification is
2) Ensure a lack of strong or objection- four, if not more, of the criteria listed also used to provide greater storage stabil-
able flavor notes to enable a flavor above. This is because native starches and ity under ambient and refrigerated condi-
comparable to wheat flour flours have substantial differences in tions.
3) Provide nutrition comparable to properties compared with wheat flour. The types of and approaches to starch
wheat flour-based products, includ- There are some differences in processing and flour modification, as well as how
ing calorie density, fibers, proteins, properties, including variability due to modified products are listed on the ingre-
and vitamins comparable to bench- seasonal changes and varietal differences. dient statements of packaged foods, are
marks and within desirable limits They also have a very narrow window of mandated by government regulations.
4) Provide dough formation, han- optimum functionality and show inad- Many approaches have been used to
dling, and processing properties, equate storage stability due to retrograda- modify starches and flours to provide a
including shaping, molding, sheet- tion. Oat flour is one of the most promis- variety of useful properties related to
ing, extrusion, and leavening, that ing alternative functional ingredients, and food. Starches and flours can be modi-
work well with conventional tech- there is strong evidence to suggest that it fied through chemical treatments that are
niques used for wheat flour-based
products
5) Provide optimal cooking charac-
teristics similar to those of wheat-
based products
6) Provide a shelf life length compa-
rable to wheat-based products, both
as an ingredient and in finished
products
7) Have no food safety concerns beyond
those typically expected for wheat
flour-based baked goods
8) Be affordable

This lengthy list of factors is one of the

reasons it has been difficult to find a
single optimal replacement ingredient for
wheat flour. Many alternatives have been
tried with different levels of success,
including combinations of native flours Fig. 1. Supply-chain stages that must be monitored to avoid contamination of gluten-free products.

CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 301

acceptable for food use or physical treat- ments, e.g., to make up for fiber or pro- that includes modified starches or flours
ments such as temperature, pressure, or tein content that is lacking. The term func- as bulk flour replacers and small amounts
shear. A combination of treatments can tional native starch or flour is used when of hydrocolloids, proteins, or fibers as
also be used when allowed by regulations. starches or flours have been processed cotexturizers can provide better results in
Flour modification has typically been lim- using physical methods that allow them gluten-free products. Several such options
ited to physical treatments such as heat or to retain their native labels while signifi- are in commercial use today, and work to
heat–moisture, as well as fermentation (or cantly enhancing their functionality. develop more optimized alternatives is
sourdough) based techniques to provide The references cited in Table II are not ongoing. Structured product development
functionality. There has also been interest intended to provide a comprehensive list involving design of experiments has the
in the use of enzymes such as transglu- of sources, but to highlight some of the best chance of successfully identifying
taminase or protease to modify flour func- more recent ongoing work on ingredient optimal alternative ingredients.
tionality, as well as the use of high pres- functionality. From the observations sum-
sure to add functionality. The ingredients marized in this table, it is clear that there Summary
that have been used for this purpose have is still no single ingredient that can be Wheat allergies and gluten intolerance
three main functions as bulk flour replac- used as a direct wheat flour replacement. or sensitivity cause health problems for a
ers, cotexturizers, and nutritional supple- Currently, a combination of ingredients significant number of people. Although

302 / NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2013, VOL. 58, NO. 6

our understanding of gluten-related dis- 4. Codex Alimentarius Commission. Codex 15. Marco, C., and Rosell, C. M. Functional
orders and their diagnosis is increasing, General Standard for Food Additives and rheological properties of protein
several aspects are still not well under- (GSFA) Online Database. Codex Standard enriched gluten free composite flours.
stood. In most cases, a gluten-free diet is 118-1979, Codex standard for foods for J. Food Eng. 88:94, 2008.
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the only way to manage these disorders.
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The growing awareness of gluten intoler-
[Link]/gsfaonline/[Link]; amaranth flour, pea isolate, and psyllium
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