PERFORMANCE

BASIC PARAMETERS

a) TEMPERATURES

1. TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT)

Outside air temperature plus 100% Ram Rise.

2. RAM AIR TEMPERATURE (RAT)

Outside air temperature plus a certain percentage of the ram rise.

3. STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE (SAT) OR OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE (OAT)

Free air temperature obtained from ground meteorological sources or in-flight TAT, corrected for
instrument error and compressibility.

RAM RISE
Increase in air temperature due to compressibility. Ram rise Negligible until speeds above 0.3 mach.

COMPRESSIBILITY
Change in the volume of matter when external force is applied.

b) SPEEDS

1. INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)

Speed indicated by the airplane's instruments.

2. CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS)

Indicated airspeed corrected for position error.

3. EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS)

Calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility error.

4. TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)

Equivalent airspeed corrected to air density variation.

5. GROUND SPEED (GS)

True airspeed corrected for wind.

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c) ALTITUDES

ALTITUDE
An elevation with respect to an assumed reference level.
The barometric altitude measurement measures the reduction in pressure with an increase in alt.

1. INDICATED ALTITUDE
The altitude as indicated on the altimeter, when the altimeter sub-scale is set to QNH indicates the
aircraft height above mean sea level.

2. PRESSURE ALTITUDE
The aircraft height above the Standard Datum Plane (QNE) The Standard Datum Plane, where the
weight of the atmosphere is 29.92 inhg or 1013.25hpa.

3. DENSITY ALTITUDE
The pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature.

4. ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
The height above the surface measured by a radio/radar altimeter.

5. TRUE ALTITUDE
The actual height above sea level. This altitude is not indicated by any instruments.

POSITION ERROR, PRESSURE ERROR OR INSTALLATION ERROR

An error in pressure instruments caused by the difference between the actual static pressure and
that obtained from the aircraft.
It depends upon the location of the static port pickup points and the attitude of the aircraft.

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TAKEOFF SPEEDS

VS OR VSTALL
Speed where the airflow separates completely and the wing fully stalls.

VS1G
Speed at which airflow separation start, but not full wing stalls.
This is the highest point in the cl and α curve.

VMCA
Minimum inflight speed at which the airplane is controllable utilizing aerodynamic controls only
(Maximum rudder deflection only), in case of engine failure.

VMCG
Minimum speed on ground at which the aircraft is controllable utilizing aerodynamic controls only
(Maximum rudder deflection only); in case of engine failure.

FACTORS AFFECTING VMCG

1. High temp
2. High alt

MINIMUM UNSTICK SPEED (VMU)

The lowest calibrated airspeed at and above which; the airplane can safely lift off the ground,
without encountering tail strike.

LIFTOFF SPEED (VLOF)

The speed at which the airplane lifts off. This depends on angle of attack, flap setting, and gross
weight.

MAXIMUM TIRE SPEED

This speed is determined by the strength of the tires, since the tires are exposed to high centrifugal
forces at high speeds.

MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY SPEED (VMBE)

The maximum speed for full braking to a complete stop. Remain within heat limitations of the
braking system.
VMBE depends on weight, temperature, pressure, runway slope, and wind component.

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ENGINE FAILURE SPEED (VEF)
The speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. This speed is assumed to be 1 second
before the action speed but then revised to be 2 seconds, to allow for the pilots to react to the
engine failure.

ACTION SPEED (V1)

The speed, which is used as a reference, whether to reject or continue the takeoff.
V1is not a decision speed; V1 is the speed at which the first braking action must be applied, and
therefore, the decision to reject the takeoff must be taken before V1.
Upper and lower limits:
VMCG≤ V1 ≤ VR& VMBE

ROTATION SPEED (VR)

The speed at which the airplane is rotated for liftoff.
VR may not be less than:
1) V1
2) 1.05 VMCA

TAKEOFF CLIMB SPEED (V2)

This speed has to be reached at the screen height, and must be maintained for the entire climb, with
takeoff flaps, in the event of an engine failure at or after V1.
The lower limits of V2 are:
1) 1.2 VS (or 1.13 VS1G)
2) VMCA

SCREEN HEIGHTS
The height at which V2 speed must be reached above the takeoff surface after an engine failure at
V1, the value of this height is 35ft for dry runway and 15ft for wet or contaminated runways.

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TAKEOFF PERFORMANC

CRITICAL ENGINE
An engine of a multi-engine aircraft, which will result in the most adverse effects on the aircraft's
handling and performance, in case of its failure.

CLEARWAY
Area beyond the runway, centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway, not less
than 500ft wide with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%, .above which no object or any terrain.

STOP WAY
Area beyond the runway, centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway at least as
wide as the runway able to support the airplane weight during an aborted takeoff.

TAKEOFF DISTANCE REQUIRED (TODR)

The longest of the following:
1) The horizontal distance from the start of ground roll to the screen height above the takeoff sur-
face in case of engine failure recognized at V1.
2) 115% of the horizontal distances, starting from ground roll to the screen height, with all engines
operating.

ACCELERATE-STOP-DISTANCE REQUIRED (ASDR)

Sum of the distances required to:
1) Accelerate with all engines operating to V1,then
2) Decelerate to a full stop from V1

TAKEOFF RUN REQUIRED (TORR)

The longest of the following:
1) The horizontal distance from the start of ground roll to a point equidistant between VLOF and
the screen height above the takeoff surface in case of engine failure recognized at V1
2) 115% of the horizontal distance starting from the ground rolls to a point equidistant between
VLOF and the screen height above the takeoff surface with all engines operating.

THE TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA)

The runway length available for takeoff plus any adjoining clearway.

THE ACCELERATE-STOP-DISTANCE AVAILABLE (ASDA)

The runway length available plus any available stop way.

TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA)

The runway length available for the ground runs of an airplane taking off.

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 FIELD LENGTHS

BALANCED FIELD LENGTH

Means: the takeoff distance available is equal to the accelerate-stop distance available this is
achieved when the airport doesn’t have either Clearway or Stop way, or they were not used.

UNBALANCED FIELD LENGTH

Means: The takeoff distances available is not equal the accelerate stop distance available this is
achieved when the airport has either Clearway or Stop way and it is used.

BALANCED V1
The selected V1 when the TODR is equal ASDR

BALANCED T.O
Means: the TODR is equal ASDR

THE TAKEOFF PATH

THE TAKEOFF PATH

The actual flight path of an aircraft from a point 35ft above the takeoff surface to 1,500ft above the
takeoff surface in case of engine failure.

1. FIRST SEGMENT
Start from (35ft point), to the point where the landing gear is fully retracted, using takeoff thrust and
takeoff flaps at a constant v2 speed.

2. SECOND SEGMENT
Start From the gear up point to a gross height of at least 400ft (minimum acceleration height), using
takeoff thrust and takeoff flaps at a constant v2 speed.

3. THIRD SEGMENT
The horizontal distance required to accelerate, using takeoff thrust, to the final climb speed while
retracting flaps and slats.

4. FOURTH SEGMENT
Start from the end of the third segment to a gross height of at least 1500ft with flaps up, maximum
continuous thrust and at final “Climb speed.”

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CLIMB GRADIENT

CLIMB GRADIENT
Percentage expresses the height obtained, in relation to the ground distance covered.
Gradients of the second segment can reduce the maximum allowable takeoff weights
Second segment Gross gradient = 2.4% (2 engines aircraft)
Second Segment Net Gradient (-0.8%) = 1.6% (used daily)

CONTROLLABLE ITEMS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE & GROSS AND NET GRADIENTS
1. Airplane configuration (position of trim devices, flaps, slats, spoilers, and landing gear)
2. Wheel brake configuration, Whether or not the wheel brake antiskid systems is operative or in-
operative
3. Engine thrust
4. The gross weight

UN CONTROLLABLE ITEMS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE

1. Runway length, and the availability of a clearway or stop way
2. Runway conditions (wet, dry, slushy, snowy, smooth, or rough)
3. Runway slope
4. Runway temperature (OAT) and surface pressure altitude (PA)
5. Runway wind component
6. Obstacles in the takeoff path

REGULATED TAKEOFF WEIGHT (RTOW)

The maximum takeoff weight
This weight is limited by any of the following:
1. A/C Structure limit
2. Runway limit
3. Tire speed limit
4. Brake energy limit
5. Climb limit
6. Obstacle limit

FACTORS AFFECTING GROSS AND NET GRADIENTS

• ConfigurationFlaps setting
• V1action speed (minimum limits is VMCG)
• V2

OPTIMUM TAKE OFF FLAPS SETTING

If the problem is the runway, more flaps are useful.
If the problem is the climb gradient, fewer flaps are useful.
So we can say that the optimum flaps’ setting is a compromise between the two values.

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 ENGINE RATINGS

FLAT RATED POWER

The maximum thrust output that can be provided by the engine based on the ambient
temperatures.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENGINE THRUST

1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Airspeed

TMAX
The maximum temperature the engine can provide thrust.

TREF
The temperature at which the flat rated power begins to decrease because of the high temperature.

METHODS OF THRUST REDUCTION

The thrust reduction shall not exceed 25%.

1. ASSUMED TEMPERATURE METHOD (ATM) FOR BOEING OR (FLEX) FOR AIRBUS

Dictated temperature limits the actual takeoff thrust, thus limit the stress on the turbine, and
increase the engine life.
Benefits of (ATM)
1. Reduces cost
2. Easy to calculate
3. All limitations are considered
4. Operation is always conservative

2. DE-RATE FOR BOEING

Replacing the full rated engine by another less thrust engine. Through the FMC.
Very important: the de-rated engine is an entirely different engine but when using the ATM or flex as
the VMCG is calculated based on the full rated thrust.

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 THRUST RATINGS

1. TAKEOFF THRUST
The takeoff thrust setting can be applied for a period of 5 minutes or 10 minutes in case of engine
failure.

2. GO AROUND THRUST
Setting is the same as the maximum takeoff thrust, with the higher speeds during go-around

3. MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS THRUST (MCT)

The highest thrust level, which can be used continuously. In case of engine failure.

4. MAXIMUM CLIMB THRUST

Usually below the maximum continuous thrust level, and should be used only for the en-route climb,
the step climb, and for the acceleration to cruise speed.

5. MAXIMUM CRUISE THRUST

The maximum thrust usable during the cruise

IMPROVED CLIMB PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUE

Utilizing excess runway available to accelerate to higher takeoff speeds, thereby achieving higher
gradient capability, resulting in higher take off weights.

QUICK REFERENCE HANDBOOK (QRH)

The QRH includes takeoff performance tables and chart
QRH can be used for any airport and any runway
This is useful when pilots land at airports they don’t have RTOW.
These tables are limited to runways with headwind components and pressure altitude of less than
2,000ft. Besides, it doesn’t cover obstacles in the takeoff path.

| Jet Performance P a g e 9
CLIMB

Portion of the flight starts at the end of the final takeoff segment and the start of the en-route climb.

ANGLE OF CLIMB
Expresses
Expressed asthe height
a climb obtained
gradient in relation
(gaining to the
of altitude perground
unit of distance
horizontalcovered.
distance)

RATE OF CLIMB
Expresses gaining of altitude over a period of time.

BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB VX

The climbing speed at which the airplane reaches a specific altitude over the shortest distance.

BEST RATE OF CLIMB VY

The climbing speed at which the airplane reaches a specific altitude in the least amount of time.

IN CASES OF EMERGENCY. FROM THE INITIAL CLIMB TO TOP OF CLIMB (TOC)

• 250 KIAS below 10,000ft referred to as constrained speed (KIAS knots of indicated airspeed)
• 300 KIAS/ 0.78 Machmaintaining 300 knots until switch into Mach number usage
• 0.78 Mach / 300 KIASfor descent
• 250 KIAS below 10,000ft

CRUISE

Phase of flight lasts from TOC to the TOD represents approximately 90% of any flight.
The main task for pilots in this phase is to save fuel as much as they can

G FACTOR OR LOAD FACTOR

The lift produced by the wing relative to the gross weight of the airplane

MANEUVER MARGIN
The ability of the air surrounding the wings to support the aircraft’s weight at high altitudes

EQUIVALENT WEIGHT OR THE APPARENT GROSS WEIGHT

Equals actual aircraft weight multiplied by the load factor.
The apparent gross weight consists of:
1. Actual weight
2. The lift force of the horizontal stabilizer
3. Inertial forces of vertical accelerations
4. Centrifugal forces (TURNS)

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BUFFET BOUNDARIES
The speeds for low and high speed for the initial buffet at any given altitude and weight

LOW SPEED BUFFET

Buffet caused by flow separation when approaching stall.

HIGH SPEED BUFFET

Buffet caused by shockwaves formation

SPEED MARGIN
The margin between speeds for low and high speed for the initial buffet at any given altitude and
weight

COFFIN CORNER, AERODYNAMIC CEILING OR Q CORNER

Altitude at which, there is no margin between low and high speed buffet boundaries, and the load
factor is 1.0 g, it is very difficult to keep an airplane in stable flight.

ENDURANCE
The maximum time the aircraft’s engine will remain operating on a given quantity of fuel.

RANGE

RANGE.
Maximum Nautical Air Mile per unit of fuel

SPECIFIC RANGE
Distance traveled per unit of fuel
Specific Range (SR) =Cruise Nautical Air miles (NAM) ÷Cruise Fuel consumption
NAM = NGM X TAS/GS
Number of nautical air miles (NAM) the aircraft can fly per 1,000 kg of fuel can be calculated using
the following equation
Specific Range (SR) = TAS/Total Fuel Flow

FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIFIC RANGE

1. Altitude: The larger the difference between IAS and TAS the more miles per unit of fuel can be
achieved. Therefore, the higher the better, provided you fly at the correct weights

2. Weight: with in-flight weight reduction (fuel burn) specific range increases

3. Speeds: MRC and LRC

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1. MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE (MRC)
Speed at which the maximum fuel mileage or maximum range is achieved.

2. LONG RANGE CRUISE (LRC)

Basically time cost the LRC speed gains a significant increase in speed compared to MRC with only a
1% loss in specific range.

MAXIMUM SPEED CRUISE (MSC)

The cruise speed at the maximum cruise thrust, or at VMO, used when the value of the flight time is
the overriding cost factor.

CONSTANT MACH CRUISE

Speed between LRC and MSC to satisfy intermediate requirements of the relationship between fuel
and flight time costs.

OPTIMUM ALTITUDE
Altitude at which the best fuel mileage occurs.

STEP CLIMB
A series of altitude gains that improve fuel economy by moving into thinner air as an aircraft
becomes lighter and becomes capable of flying in the thinner air at higher altitude, step climb should
be performed around the optimum altitude, within the 1% range loss lines if possible.

WIND ALTITUDE TRADE OR, BREAK EVEN WIND

The wind required to maintain present fuel mileage or range at new altitude.

DRIFT DOWN
Descent to a lower altitude and an adjustment of speed procedure designed to minimize loss of
range In the event of an engine failure or other radical loss of thrust in cruise.
The drift down procedure requires: (MCT)
And the next step is to choose the descent speed strategy that will ensure:
1. Safe clearance of obstacles
2. Drift down speed (min. Drag)
3. Sufficient range
4. Turbulence Penetration Speed

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DESCENT

Portion of the flight start from top of descent (TOD) to the initial approach point.

FIRST METHOD
Distance = altitude x 3 + 10
Approximately 10 NM required for deceleration from the descent speed to initial approach speed

SECOND METHOD
Altitude = distance x 3 -30
Approximately 3,000ft for deceleration

FACTORS AFFECTING DESCENT TRACK DISTANCE

1. Wind component Add 3NM for each 10 knots of tail wind
Subtract 3NM for each 10 knots of headwind.
2. Aircraft weight at any constant speed the rate of descent is higher for light weights than for
heavy weights.
3. Aircraft speed The higher the descent speed the higher the rate of descent.-Maximum rate of
descent will be obtained at the highest possible airspeed

APPROACH AND LANDING

APPROACH CLIMB GRADIENTS IN CASE OF GO AROUND

2.1% for 2 engine aircraft
2.4% for 3 engine aircraft
2.7% for 4 engine aircraft

LANDING CLIMB GRADIENTS IN CASE OF GO AROUND

3.2% for all engines aircraft

APPROACH AND LANDING CLIMB AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION IN CASE OF GO AROUND

Phase / Configuration Approach Climb Landing Climb

Flaps Approach Flaps Landing Flaps
Landing Gear Retracted Extended
Engine One engine inoperative All engines operating
Thrust T/O thrust on remaining T/O on all engines
engines

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FIELD LENGTH LANDINGWEIGHT REQUIREMENTS

DEMONSTRATED OR REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE

The distance required to land and decelerates to a complete stop, from a point 50 feet above the
threshold.

EFFECTIVE RUNWAY LENGTH

The length of each runway from a point 50 feet above threshold and the remaining runway.

THE LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE

Field surface designated by the airport authorities to be used for landing and rolling free of
obstacles, and able to withstand the aircraft weight.

LANDING REFERENCE SPEED (VREF) OR THRESHOLD SPEED (VTH)

The target speed in landing configuration at a height of 50ft above the threshold
VREF= VTH= 1.3×VS

REGULATION REQUIREMENTS

DESTINATION AIRPORT
The demonstrated landing distance (without reverse thrust):
1. For Dry runway may not exceed 60% of the effective runway length.
2. For Wet or Slippery runway At least 115% of the landing distance required for a dry runway.

ALTERNATE AIRPORT
The demonstrated landing distance (without reverse thrust): may not exceed 60% of the effective
length of the runway, whether that runway is dry, wet, or slippery.

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 METEOROLOGY

METEOROLOGY
The study of the earth`s atmosphere and the physical processes that occur within it.

THE WEATHER
The state of the atmosphere at a given time and location.

THE ATMOSPHERE
The gaseous envelop surrounding the earth.
Composition of dry air in the lower levels up to 60km:
1. Nitrogen 78.09%
2. Oxygen 20.95%
3. Argon 0.93%
4. Carbon dioxide 0.03%

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. TROPOSPHERE
Extends from the surface up to an average height of 11 km.
The temperature decreases with an increase in altitude
The troposphere contains over 75% of the mass of the total atmosphere...
Tropopause
The boundary separating the troposphere and the stratosphere
An isothermal layer
The Tropopause is lowest at the poles (approximately 23,000 feet) and highest over the equator
(approximately 53,000 feet).
At the Tropopause there are two main breaks, one at 40° latitude and one at about 60° latitude. A
third break may be found around 55°latitude; these breaks can often cause jet streams

2. STRATOSPHERE
Extends from the surface up to an average height of 50 km.
The temperature increases with an increase in altitude.
The lower parts of the stratosphere may be referred to as the aviation atmosphere.
Stratopause
The boundary separating the stratosphere and the mesosphere,
The temperature is around 0°c.

3. MESOSPHERE
Extends from the surface up to an average height between 80 and 90 km
The temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
Mesopause
The boundary separating the mesosphere and the thermosphere
At Mesopause the lowest temperature is approximately -90°c occurs
| Meteorology p a g e 15
4. THERMOSPHERE
This is the outmost layers of the atmosphere that holds the ionosphere in its lower region and the
exosphere in its upper regions.
The temperature increases with an increase in altitude.

(ISA)→INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

Standard day which could be helpful to use as a reference for all calculations.
At mean sea level (MSL)
1) Temperature 15°c
2) Pressure 1013.25 HPA
3) Density 1225 G/M3
• From MSL to 11 km (36,090ft.)Temperature decreases at 1.98°c per 1000 ft.
• Tropopause at 11 km (36,090 ft.)Temperature -56.5°c
• From 11 km to 20 km temperature constant at -56.5c
• From 20 km to 32 km temperature rises at 0.3°c per 1000 ft.

ISA DEVIATION
The difference between the ISA temperature at a level and the actual temperature at the same level.

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

The primary cause of weather is uneven heating of the earth`s surface by the sun. (Insolation)

PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE

Means the air flows from the cool dense air of high pressure into the warm, less dense air of low
pressure.

CORIOLIS FORCE
Force that deflects the flow of air to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.

| Meteorology p a g e 16
PRESSURE SYSTEMS

STANDARD PRESSURE
Standard pressure is 1013 HPA, according to ISA as defined by ICAO.

QFE
QFE is the pressure at a meteorological station or at the datum level of an aerodrome.

QNH
QNH is the QFE corrected to MSL assuming ISA conditions.

QFF
QFF is the QFE corrected to MSL using actual outside air temperature and assuming an isothermal
layer between the station and MSL.

QNE
QNE is indicated altitude at touchdown with reference to the standard pressure surface (1013 HPA),
Pressure altitude.

DEPRESSIONS LIU
If we get a point from which the pressure will increase as we move horizontally in any direction from
this point we have a low pressure center
The isobars surrounding the center are typically circular and fairly close together covering a
relatively small area.
The air moves inward upward
Weather in a depression
1. Cloud full cover
2. Precipitation continuous light or moderate. Heavy showers and thunderstorms possible
3. Visibility good out of precipitation but poor in precipitation
4. Temperature mild.
5. Winds normally strong.

ANTICYCLONES HOD
If we get a point from which the pressure will decrease as we move horizontally in any direction
from this point we have a high pressure center or an anticyclone
The isobars surrounding the center may be roughly circular and reasonably well spaced. The
anticyclone will cover a large geographical area
The air moves outward downward
Weather in anticyclones
1. Cloud none
2. Precipitation none
3. Visibility in summer, haze conditions can occur. In winter, foggy conditions
4. Temperature hot in summer, cold in winter.
5. Winds light.
| Meteorology p a g e 17
TROUGH
Is an elongated (extended) region of relatively low pressure, it is like a v shape

RIDGE
Is an elongated (extended) region of relatively high pressure, it is like a u shape

COL
Is a region of very little pressure variation between two high and two lows. Winds are very light and
the air remains stationary, col lasting only a few days.

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

SATURATION
The amount of vapor that air can hold.

HUMIDITY
The amount of water vapor in the air.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
An expression of how much water vapor is in the air, expressed as a percentage.

DEWPOINT
Temperature at which the air is said to be saturated.

THE DENSITY
Mass per unit volume.

TEMPERATURE

SOLAR RADIATION
Radiation from the sun heats the surface of the earth which in turn will heat the atmosphere. This
process is called insolation.

CONDUCTION
Occurs when two bodies are touching one another. Heat passes from the warmer body to the colder
body

CONVECTION
The vertical movement of air as air is heated by conduction or radiation,

ADVECTION
The horizontal movement of air. It is caused by variation in pressure

| Meteorology p a g e 18
 STABILITY

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
The resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion.
Stable air: air that has been lifted sinks back.
Unstable air: air that has been lifted continues to rise.

TEMPERATURE INVERSION
Increase in temperature with an increase in altitude.

LAPSE RATE
Decreasing in air temperature with increasing altitude
1. ELR the accrual vertical temperature profile
2. DALR3°c per 1000 FT.
3. SALR 1.5
The ELR determines whether the air is stable

STABILITY TYPES

1. ABSOLUTE STABILITY
When the ELR is lower than both the DALR and the SALR.

2. ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY
When the ELR is greater than both the SALR and the DALR.

3. CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY
When the state of stability is decided by whether the air is saturated.
When SALR<ELR<DALR.

LATENT HEAT
Energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state (phase) that occurs
without changing its temperature.

| Meteorology p a g e 19
CLOUDS

CLOUD FORMATION
Clouds form when moist, warm rising air cools and expands in the atmosphere. The water vapor in
the air condenses to form tiny water droplets which are the basis of clouds.
The average lifetime of a cloud is 15-20 minutes, but cumulonimbus clouds can last 2 –3 hours.
The base of the cloud = Temperature – Dew point / 2.5 = xxx X 1000 = xxxxxft.

THE TYPICAL LIFTING ACTIONS CAUSING CLOUDS ARE:

1. Convection
2. Frontal uplift
3. Orographic uplift
4. Turbulence
5. Convergence

THE MAIN TYPES OF CLOUDS

Cloud Classification State of Stability Composition

Cirriform N/A Ice crystals only
Cumuliform Unstable Water droplets and/or ice crystals
Stratiform Stable Water droplets and/or ice crystals

CLOUD TYPES

Height Band Cloud Name (code)

High level clouds 45000 ft. Cirrus CI
To Cirrocumulus CC
16500 ft. Cirrostratus CS
Medium level 23000 ft. Altocumulus AC
clouds To Altostratus AS
6500 Ft.
Low level clouds 6500 ft. Cumulus CU
To Cumulonimbus CB
The surface Stratus ST
Stratocumulus SC
Nimbostratus NS
Special clouds Mammatus Clouds
Lenticular Clouds
Castellanus Clouds
Contrails
Fog

| Meteorology p a g e 20
WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH STABLE AIR
1. Stratiform clouds
2. Smooth air
3. Poor visibility
4. Steady precipitations
5. Rime ice

WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH UNSTABLE AIR

1. Cumuliform clouds
2. Turbulences
3. Good visibility
4. Showery precipitations
5. Clear ice

AIRMASSES

AIRMASSES
Large volumes of air with properties of humidity and temperature
There are three main types:
1. Tropical
2. Polar
3. Arctic
They are further subdivided depending in whether they originate over sea or land:
1. Maritime
2. Continental

MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

An air mass passing over a warmer area:
1. Becomes warmer.
2. Becomes more unstable.
3. Experiences a reduction in relative humidity.
An air mass passing over a colder area:
1. Becomes colder.
2. Becomes more stable.
3. Experiences an increase in relative humidity.

| Meteorology p a g e 21
 FRONTS

FRONTS
The boundary between airmasses
When two air masses meet, the warmer air is less dense and rises up over the colder air this gives a
sloping frontal surface
The easiest ways to recognize the front are the change in temperature and pressure,
But the most reliable ways are the change in wind direction and less frequently wind speed.
As a front approaches, atmospheric pressure usually decreases

FRONT TYPES

1. QUASI-STATIONARY FRONT
There is little frontal movement, and neither air mass can be said to be replacing the other

2. WARM FRONT
Occurs when warm air replaces cold air. It rides up over the cold air forming a sloping surface.
As the front approaches, the pressure drops, but once it passes the drop will be arrested.

3. COLD FRONT
Occurs when cold air replaces warm air. The cold air undercuts the warm air
As the front approaches, the pressure drops due to the rising air, but after its passage it rises again

4. OCCLUDED FRONT
Occurs when a fast moving cold front catches up to a slow-moving warm front.
Occlusion point is the point at which the two fronts meet.

COLD FRONT OCCLUSION

Occurs when the fast moving cold front is colder than the air ahead of the slowing warm front. The
cold air replaces the cool air at the surface and forces the warm front aloft.

WARM FRONT OCCLUSION

Occurs when the air ahead of the slow-moving warm front is colder than the air within the fast
moving cold front the cold front rides up over the warm front and forces the cold front aloft

| Meteorology p a g e 22
 THUNDERSTORMS

Develop from well-developed cumulonimbus clouds.

CONDITIONS
1. Unstable air
2. Moist air
3. Trigger action
TRIGGER ACTIONS
1. Convection
2. Orographic uplift
3. Advection
4. Convergence
5. Frontal lifting
THUNDERSTORM CLASSIFICATION
1. Heat or airmass
2. Frontal

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. GROWTH OR CUMULUS
In this stage, several small cumulus clouds combine together to form a large cumulus of about 5
miles across.
This stage is characterized by strong updrafts as strong as 1000 fpm but can be as great as 4000 fpm.
This stage lasts for approximately 15 to 20 minutes.

2. MATURE
This stage is characterized by the onset of precipitation combination of ice crystals and water
droplets.
The precipitation causes downdrafts of approximately 2000-3000 fpm updrafts are still present in
this stage and can be as much as 10000 fpm.
Tops can reach the Tropopause, which can be in excess of 50 000 ft.
This strong downdraft of cold air reacts with the ground and causes a gust front extending up to 17
nm ahead of the storm.
The mature stage lasts approximately 20-30 minutes.

3. DISSIPATING
This stage begins when moisture is no longer sufficient to support the storm.
The stage is characterized by the appearance of an anvil. This occurs when the cloud top reaches the
Tropopause and is spread out by the strong upper winds.
Lightning might still occur at this stage.
This stage lasts about 30 minutes but the cloud can continue for 2 to 3 hours.

SQUALL LINE
Narrow band of active thunder storms, formed in the warm mass ahead of a cold front.
| Meteorology p a g e 23
THUNDERSTORM HAZARDOUS

WINDSHEAR
Sudden change in wind speed and or direction.

GUST FRONT
Cold air flowing out from a downdraft in all directions might extend out 24 to 32 km from the storm
center and can be felt from the surface to about 6000 ft.

MICROBURSTS
Strong downdrafts of air descend from the center of the CB with speeds up to 60 kts down to levels
as low as 300 ft.
They are typically less than 5 km across and last from 1 to 5 minutes.
There are two types of microbursts: wet and dry

VIRGA
Precipitation has evaporated before reaching the ground

HAIL
Can be encountered in the cloud, below the cloud and beneath the anvil
Hail can be up to 14 cm in diameter, and can be present up to 45 000ft

ICING
Any flight in cloud or precipitation can result in icing when the temperatures are below zero. Icing
can occur down to temperatures as low as -40°c.

LIGHTNING
Most lightning occurs within 10°c (approximately 5000 ft.) Of the freezing level.
Hazards associated with lightning are temporary blindness caused by the flash, interference with
compasses and other instruments, and possible airframe damage.

TORNADOS
Vortex associated with severe thunderstorm, with speed up to 200 kt.
If the funnel does not touch the ground it is called a funnel cloud; if it does touch, it is called a
tornado over land and a waterspout over sea.

AVOIDANCE CRITERIA
• 0From
to 250 000
up toFt. avoidavoid
20,000 by 10bynm
10 nm
• Any altitude above 20,000
25 to 30 000 Ft. avoid by 15 nmavoid by 20 nm
• Above 30 000 Ft. avoid by 20 nm
• Maintain at least 5000 Ft. Vertical separation from the cloud tops
• If the aircraft has no weather radar, avoid any storm cloud by 10 nm that is tall
• Avoid flying under a CB overhang.

| Meteorology p a g e 24
 VISIBILITY

VISIBILITY
Is a measurement of atmospheric clarity.
The cause of a reduction in visibility is only reported when the visibility is 5000 meters and below

REDUCTION IN VISIBILITY MAY BE CAUSED BY

1. Water droplets, such as cloud, fog, or rain.
2. Solid particles, such as sand, dust, or smoke.
3. Ice, such as crystals, hail, or snow
Mist: Caused by very small water droplets and RH more than 95%. The visibility is between 1000 m
and 5000 m.
Fog: Caused by very small water droplets and RH close to 100%. The visibility is less than 1000 m
Haze: Caused by solid particles. The visibility is 5000 m or below with no lower limits

VISIBILITY TYPES

1. METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY
The furthest horizontal distance on the ground that an observer with normal eyesight can recognize
a dark-colored object.

2. RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)

The maximum distance in the direction of take-off or landing at which a pilot in the threshold area at
15 Ft. can see marker boards by day, or runway lights by night.
It is only used when the meteorological visibility is less than 1500m or when fog is reported or
forecast
RVR measures by Transmissometers
RVR reporting
Three Transmissometers are positioned alongside the runway giving three readings, one for
touchdown, one from the mid-point, and one for the stop-end of the runway
RVR is reported in increments of 25 m up to 400 m, 50 m up to 800 m, and 100 m over 800 m

3. SLANT VISIBILITY
The maximum distance a pilot can see to a point on the ground when flying at altitude

4. OBLIQUE VISIBILITY
Distance measured along the ground from the point directly beneath the aircraft when flying at
altitude to the furthest point the pilot can see

| Meteorology p a g e 25
 FOG

FOG
Water vapor condensed to fine particles of water suspended in the lower atmosphere

FOG TYPES

1. RADIATION FOG
Fog caused by radiation of the earth heat at night
Conditions
1. Clear sky
2. High relative humidity
3. Light wind of 2 to 8 kt

2. ADVECTION FOG
Fog forms when warm moist air flows over a cold surface.
It can occur over land or sea.
This type of fog can last several weeks.
Conditions
1. Wind of up to 15 kt (20 kt over the sea)
2. High relative humidity
3. Cold surface

3. STEAM FOG
This type of fog occurs at very high latitudes over sea areas cold moist air mass passing over a
warmer sea.

4. FRONTAL FOG
Fog is associated with warm fronts and warm occlusions precipitation from the clouds forming
above the frontal surface falls into the cold air below

5. HILL FOG
Is really stratiform clouds that forms when there is orographic lifting in stable conditions

6. SMOKE FOG (SMOG)

Is a combination of water droplet fog and solid particles.

| Meteorology p a g e 26
ICING

AIRFRAME ICING
Occurs when supercooled water droplets impact with any part of the external structure of an aircraft
during flight.

CONDITIONS
1. Water is present in a liquid state.
2. The ambient air temperature is below 0°c.
3. The airframe temperature is below 0°c

EFFECTS OF ICING
1. Reduced lift (up to 30%)
2. Increased drag (up to 40%)
3. Increased weight
4. This leads to a shifting center of gravity
5. May block the pitot and static inlets
6. Windscreen obscuration.
7. Increased skin friction
8. Radio interference
9. Landing gear deployment/retraction problems

ICING DEFINITIONS
Trace: not hazardous.
Light: the ICAO definition is change of heading or altitude not considered necessary
Moderate: the ICAO definition is change of heading or altitude considered desirable
Severe: the ICAO definition is immediate change of heading and/or altitude necessary

SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS

Droplet cools to a temperature below zero without any freezing nucleus available. These droplets
can exist in temperatures as low as -40°c

FREEZING NUCLEUS
Is a particle which acts as the nucleus for the formation of an ice crystal in the atmosphere.

| Meteorology p a g e 27
 ICE TYPES

1. CLEAR ICE
Forms when large supercooled water droplets impact with an airframe. When the droplet impacts
the airframe it does not freeze instantly.
Clear ice is heavy and difficult to remove.
It is usually described as moderate to severe,
Clear ice is only found in cumulus, cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds as large droplets occur

2. RIME ICE
Forms from impact with small supercooled droplets. When the droplet impacts, most of it freezes
instantly.
This type of icing can occur in any cloud may also occur in freezing fog

3. MIXED ICE
This is a combination of clear ice and rime ice and occurs where both types of water droplets are
present

4. RAIN ICE
This type of icing is very severe and very similar to clear ice. It is common beneath a warm front or a
warm occlusion

5. HOAR FROST
This type of icing occurs when air is cooled to the temperature at which saturation occurs and the
airframe is below 0°c.

| Meteorology p a g e 28
WIND

SEA BREEZE
During the day air flows from the cool dense air of higher pressure over the sea to the warm les dense
air of lower pressure over the land and creates the sea breeze

LAND BREEZE
At night air flows from the cool dense air of higher pressure over the land to the warm les dense air of
lower pressure over the sea and creates the land breeze

KATABATIC WIND OR MOUNTAIN WIND

Wind is caused by a flow of cold air down a hill or a mountain at night.

ANABATIC WIND OR VALLEY WIND

Wind is caused by a flow of air up a hill or a mountain during the day

JET STREAM
Wind greater than 60 KT in speed, which manifests itself as a long corridor of wind with typical
dimensions of 1500 nm in length, 200 nm in width and 12 000 FT In depth.
They are caused by large horizontal temperature differences.
The wind speed is fastest in the core and decreases with movement away from the core
Identification of jet streams it is usually impossible to identify a jet stream visually.
However, if the air is moist, there may be a trail of cirrus
Common global, semi-permanent jet streams.
• Polar front jet stream 45° to 65° n/s300 hpa –30 000 ft.
• Sub-tropical jet stream 20° to 40° n/s200 hpa –45 000 ft.
• Equatorial jet stream 10° to 15° n/s100 hpa –55 000 ft.
• Polar jet stream 70° to 80° n/s

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE

These are large changes in wind speed over a short distance associated with a jet stream.

ISOLINES

ISOLINE: A line that connects points of equal value which is found on charts.
ISOTACH: A line that connects points of equal wind speed.
ISOTHERM: A line that connects points of equal temperature.
ISOHYET: A line that connects points of equal precipitation.
ISOBAR: A line that connects points of equal pressure.
ISOGONAL: A line that connects points of equal magnetic declination or magnetic variation.

| Meteorology p a g e 29
AERODYNAMICS

AERODYNAMICS
A branch of fluid mechanics science focusing on studying air in motion.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The weight of an air column measured from the top of the atmosphere to the point where the
pressure is measured.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

1. First law: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain in motion
at a constant speed and in the same direction.
2. Second law: When a constant force acts upon a body, its resulting acceleration is inversely pro-
portional to its mass and directly proportional to the force F = mass x acceleration
3. Third law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, equal in magnitude and op-
posite in direction

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
As the velocity of a fluid (ex. Air) increases, its internal pressure decreases.

AIRFOIL
The cross-sectional shape of a wing

LIFT
The net result of the static pressure over the surface of an airfoil lift equation L = ½ (ρ×V²×CL× S)

CL COEFFICIENT OF LIFT
The variation in lift depending on the shape and inclination of the airfoil.

COEFFICIENT OF LIFT MAX

The point at which the airflow is completely separated

ANGLE OF ATTACK
The angle between the chord line and the relative wind.

CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK

The angle at which the airflow is completely separated

RELATIVE WIND
The air moving across the airfoil.
| Aerodynamics p a g e 30
 DRAG

DRAG
Any force that opposes an airfoil in its forward motion.

1. INDUCED DRAG
Portion of the total drag force that is created by the production of lift.
Is the predominant drag at low airspeeds.

2. PARASITE DRAG
The opposite force created by any part of the airplane not contributing to useful lift.
Form drag results from the turbulent wake caused by the separation of airflow from the surface of
the structure.
Interference drag occurs when varied currents of air over an airplane meet and interact.
Skin friction drag caused by the roughness of the airplane’s surfaces.
Is the predominant drag at high airspeeds.

TOTAL DRAG
The sum of induced and parasite drags.
Note: The parasite drag acting on the wing is referred to as (profile drag)
The drag acting on other aircraft’s structure is called (structural drag).

BASIC ELEMENTS THAT DEFINES A WING

LEADING EDGE
The first part of the wing that meets the oncoming wind

TRAILING EDGE
The aft end of the wing, where the airflow over the upper surface meets the airflow from the lower
surface

CHORD LINE
An imaginary line that connects the leading and the trailing edges of the wing.

MEAN LINE
The line equidistant from the upper and the lower surfaces of the wing

CAMBER OF THE WING

The displacement between the chord line and the mean line

| Aerodynamics p a g e 31
FACTORS AFFECTING AERODYNAMICS' FORCES OF A WING

1. Wing area
2. Wing span
3. Wing sweep
4. Mean aerodynamic cord (mac)
5. Aspect ratio
6. Taper ratio
7. Thickness to chord ratio
8. Dihedral
9. Angle of incidence

WING AREA
The surface area of the wing is a factor that affects lift. We refer to it by S

WINGSPAN
The tip-to-tip dimension of the airplane wing, regardless of its geometric shape

SWEEPBACK
The angle between a line perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the airplane and the quarter
chord

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)

The assumed chord that represents the whole wing. CP is assumed to be located on the mac.
Mac is used to aid in weight and balance calculation.

THE ASPECT RATIO

The relationship between the span and the average chord of the wing.

TAPER RATIO
Ratio between the root chord and the tip chord.

THICKNESS TO CHORD RATIO

Ratio between a wing thickness (its camber) and its chord.

DIHEDRAL
Upward angle of the airplane’s wings with respect to the ground.

ANHEDRAL
Downward angle of the airplane’s wings with respect to the ground.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
The angle between the wing chord line and a line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane.

| Aerodynamics p a g e 32
HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS

SPEED OF SOUND
The distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave as it propagates.
(α) = 39 × √ (273 ± sat)

SHOCK WAVE
The boundary between the undisturbed air and the compressed air.

SUMMARY OF SHOCK WAVE CHARACTERISTICS:

1. The density and pressure of the air increases
2. The velocity of the air decreases suddenly from supersonic to subsonic
3. The temperature of the air increases suddenly

MACH NUMBER
The ratio between the true air speed, and the speed of sound
TAS
Mach number =
Speed of sound

CRITICAL MACH NUMBER

The speed at which the coefficient of drag rises by 0.002%.

FACTORS AFFECTING (THAT WOULD INCREASE) CRITICAL MACH NUMBER ARE:

1. Swept back wings
2. Less thickness to chord wings
3. Vortex generator

AIRCRAFT S PEED REGIMES

1. Subsonic Mach numbers below 0.75
2. Transonic Mach numbers from 0.75 to 1.20
3. Supersonic Mach numbers from 1.20 to 5.00
4. Hypersonic Mach numbers above 5.00

VMO / MMO
The maximum operating speeds. Indicated air speeds in knots or in Mach number which the aircraft
should be intentionally flown, strength wise and handling.

VDF / MDF
The maximum demonstrated speeds (IAS) in knots and Mach number used during certification
testing.

| Aerodynamics p a g e 33
VORTEX GENERATOR
Small low-aspect ratio wing placed vertically at a fixed angle of attack on large wing's surface used to
delay separation.

MACH TUCK (TUCK UNDER)

Gradual drop of the airplane nose due to a change in the position of the center of pressure resulting
from a rearward movement of the shock.

DUTCH ROLL
A combination of continuous rolling and yawing that occurs when the dihedral effects of an aircraft
are more powerful than the directional stability. Most large airliners have a yaw damper installed
that can increase stability

THE LIFT TO DRAG RATIO (L/D)

The amount of lift generated by a wing or airfoil compared to its drag.

BEST LIFT TO DRAG RATIO, OR L/DMAX

Point where total drag is at its minimum

WASH OUT
The decrease in angle of incidence from root to tip this is usually to ensure that at stall speed the
root stalls before the tips, providing the aircraft with continued aileron control.

| Aerodynamics p a g e 34
WEIGHT AND BALANCE

BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT (BEW)

This weight includes the weight of:
1. Structure
2. Power plant
3. Furnishings
4. Unusable fuel
5. Engine and constant-speed drive system oil
6. Chemical toilet fluid
7. Basic emergency equipment
8. Fire extinguishers
9. Oxygen system
10. Galleys
11. Electronic equipment required by operator
12. Fluids which are contained in a closed system

DRY OPERATING WEIGHT (DOW)

Is the basic empty weight plus:
1. Flight and cabin crew and their baggage
2. Manuals and navigation equipment
3. Engine tank oil
4. Food and beverage and related service equipment
5. Washing and drinking water
6. Life rafts and vests
7. Cargo handling system

ACTUAL ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (ZFW)

It is the dry operating weight plus the payload and must never exceed the maximum zero fuel
weight

MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT

The maximum airplane weight less usable fuel, engine injection fluid, and other consumable
propulsion agents. It may include usable fuel in specified tanks when carried in lieu of payload.

MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT (LW)

The maximum weight authorized at touchdown by applicable government regulations or by the
manufacturer. This is a structural limitation.

MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (TOW)

The maximum weight authorized at takeoff brake release by applicable government regulations
or by the manufacturer. It excludes taxi and run-up fuel. This weight is a structural limitation of
the airplane.

| Weight and Balance p a g e 43

MAXMUM TAXI WEIGHT (TW)
It is also known as maximum ramp weight; it is the maximum weight authorized for ground
maneuvers by the applicable structural limitations and includes taxi and run-up fuel

GROSS WEIGHT
It is the weight of an airplane after all items have been added.

UNUSABLE FUEL
Is the fuel remaining after a fuel run-out test has been completed and is considered to be in two
portions, drainable and trapped. The drainable, unusable fuel can only be drawn off from the
sump drains.

PAYLOAD
It consists of the total weight of revenue including passengers, passenger baggage, and/or
cargo.

USEFUL LOAD
It consists of the payload, usable fuel, and engine injection fluid.

DATUM LINE
An imaginary reference line from which all calculations or measurements are taken for weight
and balance calculations.

BODY STATION NUMBERS

It is how far in inches a body is from the datum line.

CENTER OF GRAVITY
The point in an aircraft around which all the weight is evenly distributed or balanced.

EMPTY WEIGHT CENTER OF GRAVITY

It is the center of gravity of the airplane in an empty weight condition.

OPERATING CENTER OF GRAVITY

It is the distance between the forward and aft limits of the center of gravity.

MOMENT ARM
The horizontal distance from the center of gravity of an object to the datum line

| Weight and Balance p a g e 44

MOMENT
The tendency to produce rotation about a point or axis.
MOMENT=WEIGHT×ARM

LEADING EDGE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (LEMAC)

It is the distance in inches from the datum line to the leading edge of the mean aerodynamic
chord

TRAILING EDGE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (TEMAC)

It is the distance in inches from the datum line to the trailing edge of the mean aerodynamic
chord

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD LENGTH

TEMAC – LEMAC = MAC

LOAD SHEET DEFINITIONS

LOAD INDEX
For every load there is a C.G. position which equals to a load index figure
LI is used for calculations of manual and computerized load and trim sheet

DRY OPERATING INDEX (DOI)

It is the index figure which corresponds to the center of gravity of the dry operating weight

LOAD INDEX ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (LIZFW)

Starting with the dry operating index, passenger and cargo load is distributed on the aircraft, the
result is LIZFW

LOAD INDEX TAKE OFF WEIGHT (LITOW)

Adding the fuel weight index to the load index TOW will result in the determination of the
LITOW

| Weight and Balance p a g e 45

 FLIGHT PLANNING

BLOCK FUEL

BLOCK FUEL (RAMP FUEL)

The total amount of fuel required for the flight and is the sum of ↓

1. TAXI AND APU FUEL

The fuel expected to be used for engine start up and taxi to the take-off position, taking into
account taxi distances and the traffic delays and APU fuel consumption in kg/min for an average
taxi time of 10 to 15 minutes.

2. TRIP FUEL Shall include fuel

A.
TheFor take-off and
fuel expected climb fromused
to be departure aerodromeclimb
for take-off, to initial
tocruising level/altitude,
the expected takinglevel/altitude,
cruising into account the expected
en-route,
departure routing;
descent,
B. From topapproach
of climb toand
top oflanding.
descent, including any step climb/descent;
C. From top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated, taking into account the expected arrival procedure
D. For approach and landing at the destination aerodrome
3. CONTINGENCY FUEL
Fuel is carried to compensate for deviations from:
1. The expected fuel consumption data 4. Extended taxi times before takeoff
2. The forecast meteorological conditions
3. The planned routing and expected altitudes
The A. Contingency fuel is 5% of the remaining trip fuel Or 3% that an enroute alternate is available.
higher
of: B. An amount equal to fuel required to fly for 5 minutes at the holding speed, 1500 FT above the
destination

4. ALTERNATE FUEL
Fuel should be sufficient for:
1. A missed approach from the applicable MDH/DH at the destination aerodrome, to the missed
approach altitude
2. A climb from the missed approach altitude to the cruising altitude; and
3. The cruise from top of climb to top of descent; and
4. The descent from top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated and
5. Approach and landing at the alternate aerodrome
Note: if two alternates are required, the alternate fuel shall be sufficient to get to the alternate
requiring the greater amount of fuel

5. FINAL RESERVE FUEL

Fuel should be sufficient to fly for:
1. 45 minutes in an airplane with reciprocating engines; or
2. 30 minutes for an airplane with turbine engines, at the holding speed, 1500 ft. above the alter-
nate aerodrome (or destination aerodrome if no alternate is required).

| Flight Planning p a g e 46
6. ADDITIONAL FUEL amount of fuel required if the minimum amount of fuel
Fuel
a. added
Descend andtoproceed
complytowith a specific
an Adequate regulatory
Aerodrome in the or company
event of Enginerequirement.
Failure or LossExamples
of fuel for
Pressurization and hold forsuch
technical deficiencies 15 minutes at1500ft
as engine in standard
failure conditions
or loss and make an (EDTO)
of pressurization, approach
ETOPS fuel.
b. Comply with
c . Meet other operational requirement

7. EXTRA FUEL
Additional fuel that the commander considers necessary.

BALLAST FUEL

BALLAST FUEL
Fuel is sometimes carried to maintain the aircraft center of gravity within limits.
Total fuel = block fuel + ballast fuel
TOF = block fuel - taxi fuel - ballast fuel

MINIMUM FUEL FOR DIVERSION

Consists
Shall of: less than:
not be
1. Alternate fuel including go-around fuel at destination and approach and landing fuel at alter-
nate.
2. Final
Fuel required
reserve fuelto fly 30 minutes at 1500 feet above alternate airport elevation at optimum hold-
ing speed.

| Flight Planning p a g e 47
JEPPESEN

EN ROUTE

MINIMUM EN ROUTE ALTITUDE (MEA)

The lowest altitude between radio navigation fixes that assures acceptable navigational signal
coverage (MRA) and meets obstacle clearance requirements (MOCA) .

MINIMUM RECEPTION ALTITUDE (MRA)

The lowest altitude on an airway segment that assures acceptable navigational signal coverage.

MINIMUM OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (MOCA)

The lowest altitude on an airway segment that meets obstacle clearance requirements.

MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE (MCA)

The lowest altitude at which a navigational fix can be crossed when entering or continuing along an
airway that will allow an aircraft to clear all obstacles.

MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDES (MORAS)

ROUTE MORAS give at least 1,000 FT altitude clearance above terrain, and 2,000 FT in mountainous
area. MORAS provide an obstacle clearance within 10 NM on both sides of the airways and within a
10 NM radius around the ends of the airway.
Grid MORAS provide an obstacle clearance altitude within a latitude and longitude grid block.

THE MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE (MAA)

The highest altitude at which the airway can be flown with assurance of acceptable navigational
signal coverage.

GREAT-CIRCLE DISTANCE
The shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere that is measured along a
path.

RHUMB LINE OR (LOXODROME)

A curve that crosses each meridian at the same angle.

| Jeppesen p a g e 48
APPROACH

MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (SAVE)

The lowest altitude which will provide a minimum clearance 1000 Ft. above all objects located in an
area within a sector of a circle of 25 NM radiuses from a navigation radio aid

INITIAL APPROACH FIX (IAF)

The point where the initial approach segment of an instrument approach begins.
Is usually a designated intersection (VOR), (NDB) OR (DME) fix.

FINAL APPROACH FIX (FAF)

It is the point in space where the final approach segment begins on the instrument approach;
FAF on a non-precision approach is marked by a Maltese cross symbol and on a precision approach
by glide slope intercept.

MISSED APPROACH POINT (MAP OR MAPT)

Is the point prescribed in each instrument approach at which a missed approach procedure shall be
executed if the required
MAP is at the decision height (for a precision approach) or crossed MDA (for a non-precision
approach)

THE DECISION ALTITUDE (DA) OR DECISION HEIGHT (DH)

Is a specified altitude or height in the Precision Approach at which a Missed Approach must be
initiated if the required visual reference has not been established.
(DA) is referenced to mean sea level and (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation.

THE MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE (MDA) OR MINIMUM DESCENT HEIGHT (MDH)

Is a specified altitude or height in a Non-Precision Approach or Circling Approach below which
descent must not be made without the required visual reference.

| Jeppesen p a g e 49
ATC

ABBREVIATIONS

ACARS Aircraft Communication Addressing and EOBT Estimated Off-Block Time

Reporting System

ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems ETA Estimated Time of Arrival

ACC Area Control Center ETD Estimated Time of Departure

ADF Automatic Direction-Finding equipment ETO Estimated Time Over significant point

ADS Automatic Dependent Surveillance ETOPS Extended Twin-jet Operations

AGL Above Ground Level FIC Flight Information Centre

AMSL Above Mean Sea Level FIR Flight Information Region

ATA Actual Time of Arrival FIS Flight Information Service

ATC Air Traffic Control FPL Filed Flight Plan

ATD Actual Time of Departure GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System

ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service GPS Global Positioning System

ATS Air Traffic Service HF High Frequency

CAVOK Visibility, cloud and present weather better IFR Instrument Flight Rules
than prescribed values or conditions

CMU Central Management Unit ILS Instrument Landing System

CTA Control Time IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions

CTOT Calculated Take-Off Time INS Inertial Navigational System

CTR Control Zone MEA Minimum En-route Altitude

DA Decision Altitude MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance

Specifications

DH Decision Height MSA Minimum Sector Altitude

DME Distance Measuring Equipment MSL Mean Sea Level

EAT Expected Approach Time NDB Non-Direction radio Beacon

EET Estimated Elapsed Time NOSIG No Significant Change

EFC Expected Further Clearance NSC Nil Significant Cloud

| ATC p a g e 50
ELEV Elevation NSW Nil Significant Weather

OCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude SID Standard Instrument Departure

OCH Obstacle Clearance Height SKC Sky Clear

PANS Procedures for Air Navigation Services SLP Speed Limiting Point

PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar

PCN Pavement Classification Number STAR Standard (instrument) Arrival Route

QDM Magnetic Heading (zero wind) STD Standard

QDR Magnetic Bearing TA Traffic Advisory

RA Resolution Advisory TCAS Traffic Collision Avoidance System

RCF Radio Communication Failure TDZ Touch Down Zone

REG Registration TFC Traffic

RNAV Area Navigation QFE Atmospheric pressure at aerodrome

elevation or at threshold

RNP Required Navigation Performance QNH Altimeter sub-scale setting to obtain

elevation when on the ground

RVR Runway Visual Range THR Threshold

RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum TMA Terminal control area UTC
(Z)Coordinated Universal Time

RWY Runway VASI Visual Approach Slope Indicator

system

VFR Visual Flight Rules VOLMET Meteorological information for

aircraft in flight

VHF Very High Frequency VOR VHF Omni directional Range

VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions WIP Work in Progress

WX Weather

| ATC p a g e 51
 INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION

NAVIGATION
Is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of an object from one point to another.

TYPES OF NAVIGATION

1. PILOTAGE
Is a type of navigation, which solely depends on pilots. Pilots fly from a point to other using landmarks
identifiable from the cockpit.

2. DEDUCTIVE RECKONING ( ALSO REFERRED TO AS DED )

Is a type of navigation used in low speed, low altitude aircrafts. It is majorly based on mathematic
calculations using aircraft speed, track, distance, and elapsed time

3. RADIOAIDS
An advanced type of navigation is navigation using radio aids. This type of navigation is based on
ground equipment sending signals to the aircraft’s embedded receivers.

RADIO AIDS

VOR→VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE

VOR is a radio navigation aid operating in the 108-118 MHZ band.
VOR ground station rely on “line of sight” transmits a two-phase directional signal
VOR is a ground-based facility that provides 360 radials
VOR types
1. VOR
2. VOR\DME
3. VORTAC OR TACAN
VOR Volumes
T (terminal) From 1,000 feet AGL to 12,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 25 NM.

L (low altitude) From 1,000 feet AGL to 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.
From 1,000 feet AGL to 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.
H (high altitude) From 14,500 feet AGL to 18,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM.
From 18,000 feet AGL to 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130 NM.
From 45,000 feet AGL to 60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM.

LINE OF SIGHT
Concept means the straight line between transmitter and its intended receiver.

| Navigation p a g e 39
NDB→NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON & ADF →AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER
NDB is an economic radio navigation aid is received by equipment called ADF onboard airplanes.
NDB is a ground low frequency radio transmitter
NDB signals propagate around any obstacle to reach its receivers.
NDB has many underperformances due to some environmental effects.
These effects include: Night effect, Terrain effect, Electrical effect, Shoreline effect and Bank effect.

DME→DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

Equipment measures the distance of an aircraft to the station ,measures a slant range
It measures speed (in knots) and time (in minutes) to station in lieu of the distance
When flying over the station. The DME reads distance based on the airplane height in nautical miles.

ILS →INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

ILS →INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

Is the primary system for instrumental approaches nowadays it provides horizontal and vertical
guidance.
ILS consists of two ground equipment’s known as Localizer and Glide slope along with distance
measuring supplements.

LOCALIZER
The horizontal guidance of the ILS system
The localizer is an antenna system that consists of VHF transmitters. The transmitter is in the axis of
the runway, but on its other end, opposite to the direction of approach.
The ray width can span from 3° to 6°.
Its range is 18 nm with 4500ft
More sensitive than VOR 4 times
The localizer transmitter operates within the frequency range of 108.10 to 111.95 MHZ

THE GLIDE SLOPE

Is the vertical descent indicator in the ILS system.
Ground UHF transmitter Located 1,000ft from the beginning of the intended approach runway.
The standard glide slope path is 3°.
The ray width is 1.4°

ILS CATEGORIES
Category
ILS CAT I Decision height
- decision heightRVR
not lower than (200ft) and a visibility not less than 800m or a
runway visual range not less550
I > 200ft > or visibility
than 550m. > 800m
II 100-200ft ICAO: > 350m
FAA: 350-800m
ILS CAT II (Special authorization required)
- decision height lower than JAA(EASA): > 300m
200ft) but not lower than (100ft) and a runway visual range
notIIIless
A than
< 100ft
300m. > 200m
forIIIaircraft
B <categories
50ft A, B,ICAO/FAA:
C (D with50-200m
auto landing), and not less than 350m for aircraft
category D without auto [Link](EASA): 75-200m
III C No limit None

| Navigation p a g e 40
 CAT IIIOF
TYPES (Special authorization required)
APPROACH
CAT III (A) - decision height lower than (100ft) or with no decision height and with a
1. Visual
runway visual range of not less than 175m.
2. Precision: approach and landing using lateral and vertical guidance
CAT III (B) - decision height lower than (50ft) or with no decision height and with a
3. Non precision: approach and landing using lateral guidance
runway visual range of less than 175m but not less than 50m .

RNAV

MODERN NAVIGATION –AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)

Modern types of navigation
The Airplanes can fly direct to a waypoint without having to pass over ground equipment.

1. INS→ INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

This system is a self-contained system that detects the motion of the airplane and indicates its
displacement based on its speed, time and attitude Using accelerometers and gyroscopes
The INS updates the position based on the last identified position.
INS suffers from Integration drift: is a small error in calculation of positions based on time and
speed.

2. IRS→INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

This system is a self-contained system that detects the motion of the airplane and indicates its dis-
placement based on its speed, time and attitude Using developed laser gyros
The IRS Updates the position based on initial position not the last position.

3. GPS→GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Is a satellite-based system for navigation owned and operated by the United States Air Force.
Around 33 satellites are available
This receiver uses a minimum of 3 satellites to provide 2D position (longitude, latitude and track).
4 satellites or more, it can provide 3D position of the aircraft (adding altitude).
consists
of 24 satellitesMANAGEMENT
FMC→FLIGHT positioned in COMPUTER
six earth-centered orbital planes with four operation
satellites and a spare satellite slot in each orbital plane
A computer that is the heart of a flight management system, providing a centralized control for
Around 33 satellites are availableAnd around 31 satellites are in orbit around the
navigation and performance management. It obtains data from various navigational systems.
earth
The complete flight plan is loaded into the computer before the flight. The computer calculates air
position, fuel consumption, aircraft position, and expected time of arrival

HSI→HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

Is an instrument used for navigation. It provides a basic horizontal view of the aircraft’s navigation
It reduces the pilot’s scanning workload as it compromises the use of 2 or 3 indicators
It combines the heading indicator, VOR, ILS, or ADF indications.

RMI→RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR

RMI displays two VOR or two ADF or combination of both, along with heading.

| Navigation p a g e 41
 CLIMB GRADIENT CALCULAITONS
Rate of Climb = (Gradient in Ft./nm × Ground Speed) ÷ 60
Rate of Climb = Gradient in % × Ground Speed

DESCENT CALCULATIONS
The required distance to run = (altitude ÷1000 × 3) + 10
For every 3 knots headwind, subtraction of 1nm is required.
For every 3 knots tailwind, an addition of 1nm is required.

HOLDING PATTERN.
Is a racetrack pattern based on a holding fix.
Holding pattern the best way in order to do a coordinated delay to airplanes in flight
A standard holding pattern uses right-hand turns and takes approximately 4 minutes to complete one
pattern (one minute for each 180-degree turn, and two one-minute sections)
ENTRY PROCEDURES
Sector 1 (parallel entry)
Sector 2 (offset entry or teardrop)
Sector 3 (direct entry)
The ICAO Maximum holding speeds
Up to 14000 Ft 230kts
Above 14000 Ft to 20000 Ft 240kts
Above 20000 Ft to 34000 Ft 265kts
Above 34000 Ft M0.83

A DME ARC
Is an imaginary circle, the radius of which is defined by a DME distance from the VOR.
Used to transition an aircraft from the enroute environment to an instrument approach

PATH INDICATORS

What is the range of an NDB?

1. THE VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR (VASI)
The range of a beacon is controlled primarily by its power, with a maximum theoretical
Is a system
range of lights
of 300 nauticalthatmiles
provides visual
over landdescent guidance
and 600 information
nautical during
miles over theapproach
sea, although its
Consisting of four light units situated (mostly on the left side of the runway)
range is often restricted to avoid interference with other signals. For example in the form of two wing

[Link]
A PRECISION APPROACH
over land PATHmiles)
(in nautical INDICATOR
= 3 √ (PAPI)
power output (in watts)
Range over sea (in nautical miles) = 9 √ power output
Is a system of lights that provides visual descent guidance (in watts)
information during approach
They are installed in a single row, normally on the left side of the runway.

3. A TRI-COLOR SYSTEM
What is the range of a VOR?
Is a system of lights that provides visual descent guidance information during approach
The VHF omni range (VOR) uses VHF (radio signal) line-of-sight propagation paths. Its
Consists of a single light unit projecting a three-color visual approach path
theoretical maximum range (nautical miles), based on line-of-sight propagation, is equal to
4. 1.25
THE √ PULSATING
H1 (in feetVISUAL
AMSL) APPROACH
+ 1.25 √ H2SLOPE
(in feet AMSL)
Is a system of lights that provides visual descent guidance information during approach
Consist
H1 of height
is the a single of
light
theunit projecting aand
transmitter two-color
H2 is visual approach
the height path.
of the (Steady and pulsating)
receiver.

| Navigation p a g e 42
Course Is the intended path of an airplane over the ground OR the direction of a
line drawn on a chart

Heading is the direction in which the nose of the airplane points during flight.

Track is the actual path made over the ground in flight

Drift angle is the angle between heading and track.

Wind correction angle is correction applied to the course to establish a heading

so that track will be the same as the course.

Radial IS a magnetic Beam extending from a VOR.

always (OUTBOUND)

Give the following Q definitions

QUJ True bearing to the station
QTE True bearing from the station
QDR Magnetic bearing (radial) from the station
QDM Magnetic bearing (radial) to the station

magnetic variation? Variation is the difference between the direction of magneti

north and true north. E (plus) or W (minus).

compass deviation? Deviation is the difference between the direction of magnetic

north and compass north.

Isogonic lines magenta lines connect points of equal magnetic variation.

Agonic line The line connecting points at which there is no variation between true
north and magnetic north.
True course (+ - ) Variation = Magnetic Course
Magnetic Course (+ -) WCA = Magnetic Heading
Magnetic Heading (+ -) Deviation = Compass Heading

line of position (LOP) does not establish the exact position of the airplane, but
rather a line of possible positions, one of which is the airplane’s actual position

fix The intersection of two different lines of position is a

RVSM reduces the vertical separation of aircraft from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet
when they're flying at altitudes from FL290 (29,000 feet) to FL410 (41,000 feet).

The required equipment to operate in RVSM airspace includes:

1. 2 Independent Altitude Measuring Systems
2. A secondary surveillance radar (SSR) Altitude Reporting Transponder
3. An Altitude Alert System
4. An Automatic Altitude Control System

Wake turbulence is the phenomenon of disturbed airflow; i.e., wing-tip vortices,

created behind an aircraft’s wing as the aircraft moves forward.
NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
The noise pollution is reduced during takeoff and landing, through specific
procedures. There are four types of General ICAO NADP, which are:

1. NADP A:
a. Maintain Take-off power till 1,500ft, upon passing take-off power should be
reduced to climb power
b. At 3,000ft, pilots should start their acceleration phase to the final climb speed
and retract the flaps, while accelerating

2. NADP B:
a. Maintain Take-off power till 1,000ft, upon passing take-off power should be
reduced to climb power
b. At 3,000ft, pilots should start their acceleration phase to the final climb speed
and retract the flaps, while accelerating

3. NADP 1:
a. Maintain Take-off power till 800ft, upon passing take-off power should be
reduced to climb power
b. At 3,000ft, pilots should start their acceleration phase to the final climb speed
and retract the flaps, while accelerating

4. NADP 2:
a. Initiate flap/slat retraction at or above the prescribed minimum altitude (800 ft
above aerodrome elevation), but before reaching the prescribed maximum altitude
(3000 ft. above aerodrome elevation)
b. The thrust reduction is initiated at a point along the acceleration segment that
ensures satisfactory acceleration performance.

Required navigation performance (RNP) is a type of performance-based

navigation (PBN) that allows an aircraft to fly a specific path between two 3D-
defined points in space.

ANP which stands for "actual navigation performance." ANP refers to the current
performance of a navigation system
Accuracy: The accuracy requirement defines the 95% Total System Error (TSE)
the documents that must be on board an aircraft is ARROW:
1. Airworthiness Certificate
2. Registration Certificate
3. Radio Station License (international flights only)
4. Operating Handbook
5. Weight and Balance

Approach procedure types

1. Precision approach ( PA )
2. Approach with Vertical guidance ( APV)
3. Non precision approach ( NPA)

Precision approach
• Is an instrument approach based on a navigation system that provides
vertical and horizontal guidance which is ( Glide slope and Localizer )
• The precision approach provides the most accurate guidance and must
meet

Approach with vertical guidance (APV)

• Provides lateral guidance to align the airplane with the runway and
vertical guidance in the form of glide slope indicator
• APV doesn’t meet the criteria to be classified as precision approach
Examples
VNAV ( Vertical navigation )
LNAV Lateral naviagtion

Non precision approach ( NPA)

• Is an instrument approach based on a navigation system
that provides horizontal guidance ONLY
Examples:
Localizer , VOR , NDB
Approach segments
An instrument approach might be divided into 5 segments
• 1-En-route transition (Feeder route/STAR/Radar vectoring )
• 2-Initial approach segment
• 3-Intermediate approach segment
• 4-Final approach segment
• 5-Missed approach segment

Why circle to land

• A circle to land is not technically an approach but a maneuver initiated
by a pilot
• Circle to land must be initiated when the final approach course is not
aligned with the runway with more than 30 degrees

What is the criteria for a stabilized approach?

The ICAO maximum holding speeds:

From ground up to (14000ft) 230kts
Above (14000ft to 20000ft ) 240kts
Above (20000ft to 34000ft ) 265kts
Above (34000ft ) M0.83

The ICAO maximum inbound holding legs time:

Below (14,000ft) 1MIN
Above (14,000ft) 1 ½ MIN
HOLDING PATTERN ENTRY CALCULATIONS:
●OFFSET ENTRY 70 degrees from inbound course
●PARALELL ENTRY 110 degrees from inbound course
●DIRECT ENTRY 180 degrees from inbound radial

Standard holding pattern (right turns)

Offset entry -70 from the inbound course
Parallel entry +110 from the inbound course

Non-standard holding pattern (left turns)

Offset entry +70 from the inbound course
Parallel entry -110 from the inbound course

5 T’s
•Turn ➔ turn to outbound leg after passing the holding fix
•Time ➔ start timer abeam the holding fix
•Twist ➔ twist the CDI to Inbound course
•Throttle ➔ Adjust your Hold speed (rules)
•Talk ➔ Inform ATC that you are established inbound for Hold

What are SIDs?

Standard instrument departures (SIDs). A SID details a specific initial route or
track from a particular aerodrome runway, often with altitude and, occasionally,
speed constraints at specific points along the track

What are STARs?

Standard instrument arrivals (STARs). A STAR details a specific final route or track
onto a particular runway approach, often with altitude and, occasionally, speed
constraints at specific points along the track.