Lectures 20–30 12-31 March 2020

Real and Complex Analysis

MTL122/ MTL503/ MTL506
Lecturer: A. Dasgupta [Link]@[Link]

1. Cauchy’s Integral Formula

Theorem 1.1. Let w = f (z) be a analytic function on a simply connected domain D.
Let Γ be a simple closed contour in D oriented once inthe counter clockwise direction.
Then for every point z0 inside Γ,
Z
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz.
2πi Γ z − z0
f (z)
Proof. We begin with the function z−z 0
. It is analytic everywhere on D except at z0 .
Let Cr be the circle inside Γ with centre at z0 and radius r. We suppose that Cr is
oriented once in the counter clockwise direction. Since z0 lies outside the annular
f (z)
region of Γ and Cr so z−z 0
is analytic in the annular region with boundary Γ and Cr .
Then by Corollary 2.10 (previous lecture) we have
Z Z
f (z) f (z)
dz = dz
Γ z − z0 Cr z − z0
f (z) − f (z0 )
Z Z
f (z0 )
= dz + dz
Cr z − z0 Cr z − z0
f (z) − f (z0 )
Z Z
1
= f (z0 ) dz + dz
Cr z − z0 Cr z − z0
f (z) − f (z0 )
Z
= f (z0 )2πi + dz. (1.1)
Cr z − z0
To estimate Cr f (z)−f (z0 )
R
z−z0
dz , we note that on Cr ,
Mr = max |f (z) − f (z0 )|
z∈Cr

and
|z − z0 | = r,
so we have
f (z) − f (z0 )
Z
Mr
dz ≤ 2πr = 2πMr .
Cr z − z0 r
Since f is continuous at z0 , it follows that Mr → 0 as r → 0 + . Therefore
f (z) − f (z0 )
Z Z
f (z)
dz = f (z0 )2πi + lim dz = f (z0 )2πi.
Γ z − z0 r→0+ C
r
z − z0
Hence Z
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz,
2πi Γ z − z0
as required. 

1
2

Example 1.2. Let Γ be the circle {z ∈ C : |z − 2| = 3} traversed once in the counter

R ez +sin
clockwise direction. Compute Γ z z dz.
Solution 1.3. Let f (z) = ez + sin z. Then f is holomorphic on and inside Γ. By
Cauchy’s integral formula, we get
Z z Z
e + sin z f (z)
= dz = 2πif (0) = 2πi.
Γ z Γ z −0
R z 2 ez
Example 1.4. Compute C 2z+i dz, where C is the unit circle centered at the origin
and traversed once in the clockwise direction.
Solution: We write 2 z
z e
z 2 ez
= 2 i
2z + i z+ 2
and we let
z 2 ez
f (z) = .
2
Then
z 2 ez
Z Z  
f (z) i πi −i/2
dz = dz = −2πif − = e .
C 2z + i C z + 12 2 4
Theorem 1.5. (Cauchy’s Integral Formula) Let w = f (z) be holomorphic on a simply
connected domain D. Let Γ be a simple closed contour in D oriented once in the
counterclockwise direction. Then for all z inside Γ,
Z
n n! f (τ )
f (z) = dτ.
2πi Γ (τ − z)n+1
Example 1.6. Let Γ be the contour given by Γ = Γ0 ∪ Γ1 , where Γ0 = {|z| = 1}in
R 2z+1and Γ1 = {|z − 1| = 1} in clockwise (this is called the ∞-contour).
counterclockwise
Compute Γ z(z−1) 2 dz.

Solution: Obviously,
Z Z Z
2z + 1 2z + 1 2z + 1
2
dz = 2
dz + 2
dz.
Γ z(z − 1) Γ0 z(z − 1) Γ1 z(z − 1)
2z+1
In Γ0 , let f (z) = (z−1)2
, which is analytic. By Cauchy’s integral formula,
Z
2z + 1 2z + 1
2
dz = 2πi |z=0 = 2πi.
Γ0 z(z − 1) (z − 1)2
Similarly in Γ1 , let f (z) = 2z+1
z
, which is analytic. Then by Cauchy’s integral formula
for first derivative,
Z    
2z + 1 d 2z + 1 1
2
dz = −2πi |z=1 = 2πi |z=1 = 2πi.
Γ1 z(z − 1) dz z z2
Thus Z
2z + 1
2
dz = 4πi.
Γ z(z − 1)

Corollary 1.7. Let w = f (z) be a holomorphic function on a domain D. Then f 0 ,

f 00 , ..., f (n) , ... exist and are holomorphic on D.
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cos z
R
Example 1.8. Let Γ be the contour self-intersecting at 2. Compute Γ z 2 (z−3)
dz.
Solution: Let Γb be the big circle and Γs be the small circle. By Cauchy’s integral
theorem, Z
cos z
2
dz = 0.
Γs z (z − 3)
By Cauchy’s integral formula,
Z
cos z
2
dz = 2πif 0 (0),
Γb z (z − 3)
where
cos z
f (z) = .
z−3
But
−(z − 3) sin z − cos z
f 0 (z) =
(z − 3)2
and hence Z Z
cos z cos z 2
= = − πi.
Γ z 2 (z − 3) Γb z 2 (z − 3) 9

2. Liouville’s Theorem and Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Lemma 2.1. Suppose that a function f is analytic inside and a positively oriented
circle CR , centered at z0 and with radius R. If MR denotes the maximum value of
|f (z)| on CR , then
n!MR
f (n) (z0 ) ≤ , (n = 1, 2, ..., ).
Rn
The above inequality is known as Cauchy’s Inequality. This lemma can be used
to show that no entire function except a constant is bounded in the complex plane.
The next theorem is know as the Liouville’s theorem.
Theorem 2.2. If f is entire and bounded in the complex plane, then f (z) is constant
throughout the plane.
Proof Since f is entire and bounded so there exists a M > 0 such that |f (z)| ≤ M,
for all z. Then by Cauchy’s integral formula we have for n = 1,
M
|f 0 (z0 )| ≤
, ∀R > 0.
R
Then f 0 (z) = 0, for all z and this implies f is a constant function. 
The following theorem, known as the fundamental theorem of algebra and it follows
readily from Liouville’s theorem.
Theorem 2.3. Any polynomial
P (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + .... + an z n , (an 6= 0)
of degree n (n ≥ 1) has atleast one zero. That is, there exist at least one point z0
such that P (z0 ) = 0.
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Proof. The proof here is by contradiction. Suppose that P (z) is not zero for any
value of z. Then
1
f (z) =
P (z)
is entire. We claim that f is bounded. Let w = zan0 + zn−1 a1
+ ... + an−1
z
, so that
P (z) = (an + w)z n . Now
ai
→ 0, i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1
z n−i
|an |
as z → ∞. So for  = 2n
> 0 there exists R > 0 such that
ai |an |
| |< , i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1
z n−i 2n
for |z| ≥ R. Then using triangle inequality we have, |w| < |a2n | . This gives when
|z| ≥ R,
|an |
|an + w| ≥ |an | − |w| > .
2
So then
|an | n |an | n
|P (z)| = |an + w||z n | > |z| ≥ R
2 2
whenever |z| ≥ R. Then |f (z)| < |an2|Rn for |z| ≥ R. So f is bounded in the region
exterior to the disk |z| ≤ R. Now f is entire so it is continuous and bounded in |z| ≤ R.
Hence by the Liouvile’s theorem f is constant. Hence P (z) is also a constant function,
which is a contradiction. 

3. Sequence and Series

An infinite sequence
z1 , z2 , ...zn , ..
of complex numbers has a limit z if for each  > 0 there exists a positive integer n0
such that
|zn − z| < 
whenever n > n0 .
Suppose that zn = xn + iyn (n = 1, 2, ..., ) and z = x + iy. Then
lim zn = z
n→∞

if and only if
lim xn = x and lim yn = y.
n→∞ n→∞
An infinite series
∞
X
zn = z1 + z2 + z3 + ... + zn + ...
n=1
of complex numbers converges to the sum S if the sequence
N
X
SN = zn = z1 + z2 + z3 + ... + zN , N = 1, 2, 3, ...
n=1
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of partial sums converge to S; we then write

X∞
zn = S.
n=1
Test for Convergence of Series

Comparison Test

If a series ∞
P P∞
n=1 zn is given and if we can find a converging series n=1 bn of non-
negative
P∞ real numbers such that |zn | ≤ b n , for all n = 1, 2, ... then the given series
n=1 zn converges.

Ratio Test
P∞
Suppose n=1 wn is a given series with wn 6= 0, n = 1, 2, 3, ..., and suppose
lim wn+1 = L exists.
n→∞ wn
(1) If L < 1, then the series P∞
P
n=1 wn is absolutely convergent.
(2) If L > 1, then the series ∞ n=1 wn is divergent.
(3) If L = 1, the test fails.

Root Test

Suppose that the sequence |wn |1/n is convergent with the limit L, that is, lim |wn |1/n =
n→∞
L. Then
(1) If L < 1, then the series P∞
P
n=1 wn is absolutely convergent.
∞
(2) If L > 1, then the series n=1 wn is divergent.
(3) If L = 1, the test fails.

4. Power Series
A power series in powers of (z − z0 ) is an infinite series of the form
X∞
an (z − z0 )n
n=1
where z0 and an are complex constants and z0 may be any point in a stated region
containing z0 .
∞
an z n converges when z = z1 (z1 6= 0), then it is
P
Theorem 4.1. If a power series
n=1
absolutely convergent at each point z in a open disk |z| < |z1 |.
The above theorem enable us to define the circle of convergence and the radius
∞
an z n . The set of all points inside that circle
P
of convergence for a power series
n=1
∞
an z n .
P
about the origin is therefore a region of convergence for the power series
n=1
The greatest circle about the origin such that the series converges at each point inside
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is called the circle of convergence of the power series and the radius of this circle is
called the radius of convergence.

Remark 4.2.
∞
an z n converges only at z = 0, then the radius of con-
P
(1) If the power series
n=1
vergence is 0.
∞
an z n converges everywhere, then the radius of convergence is infinite.
P
(2) If
n=1

5. Taylor Series
Definition 5.1. Let w = f (z) be a analytic function at z0 . Then the series
∞
X f (n) (z0 )
(z − z0 )n
n=0
n!
is called the Taylor series of f at z0 . In special case when z0 = 0, we call it the
Maclaurin series of f .
We can always write down the Taylor series. The real issue is whether or not it
converges to the function in question.
Theorem 5.2. Let w = f (z) be a holomorphic function on the open disk {z ∈ C :
f (n)(z0 )
|z−z0 | < R}. Then the Taylor series ∞ (z−z0 )n converges to f (z) uniformly
P
n=0 n!
on every closed subdisk {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | ≤ ρ}.
Example 5.3. Find the Taylor series of Log(z) at z0 = 1. State also the largest disk
of convergence centered at 1.
Solution:
Let f (z) =Log(z). Then f is holomorphic at 1 and
{z ∈ C : |z − 1| < 1}
is the largest disk centered at 1 on which f is holomorphic. Now,
1
f 0 (z) = =⇒ f 0 (1) = 1,
z
1
f 00 (z) = − 2 =⇒ f 00 (1) = −1,
z
2
f (z) = 3 =⇒ f 000 (1) = 2,
000
z
... .
Thus,
f 00 (1) f 000 (1)
Log(z) = f (1) + f 0 (1)(z − 1) + (z − 1)2 + (z − 1)3 + ...
2! 3!
∞
X (−1)n+1
= (z − 1)n , |z − 1| < 1.
n=1
n
 7

1
Example 5.4. Find the Taylor series of 1−z
at z0 = 0. State also the largest disk of
convergence at 0.
Solution:
1
Let f (z) = 1−z . Then f is holomorphic at 0 and
{z ∈ C : |z| < 1}
is the largest disk centered at 0 on which f is holomorphic. Now,
1
f 0 (z) = 2
=⇒ f 0 (0) = 1,
(1 − z)
2
f 00 (z) = =⇒ f 00 (0) = 2,
(1 − z)3
3!
f 000 (z) = 4
=⇒ f 000 (0) = 3!,
(1 − z)
... .
So,
1 f 00
= f (0) + f 0 (0)z + z 2 + ...
1−z 2!
2 3
= 1 + z + z + z + ...
X∞
= z n , |z| < 1,
n=0
which is the well known geometric series.
Theorem 5.5. Let w = f (z) be holomorphic at z0 . Then the Taylor series of f 0 at z0
can be obtained from that of f at z0 by differentiating term by term, and it converges
on the same disk as that of f .
Example 5.6. Find the Maclaurin series of sin z and cos z.
Solution:

Let f (z) = sin z. Then

f 0 (z) = cos z =⇒ f 0 (0) = 1,
f 00 (z) = − sin z =⇒ f 00 (0) = 0,
f 000 (z) = − cos z =⇒ f 000 (0) = −1,
f 4 (z) = sin z =⇒ f 4 (0) = 0,
... .
So,
z3 z5 z7
sin z = z − + − + ..., z ∈ C.
3! 5! 7!
By Theorem 5.5,
z2 z4 z6
cos z = 1 − + + − ..., z ∈ C.
2! 4! 6!
Now the following example illustrates the point that sometimes we need to use an
indirect method to compute a Taylor series or Maclaurin series.
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Example 5.7. Find the first three terms of the Maclaurin series for tan z.
Solution:
First let us where tan z is holomorphic. Since
sin z
tan z =
cos z
we see that tan z is holomorphic at all points z unless cos z = 0. But
cos z = 0 ⇐⇒ eiz = −e−iz ⇐⇒ e2iz−πi = 1 ⇐⇒ 2iz − πi = 2kπi,
where k ∈ Z. Therefore tan z is holomorphic everywhere except at
 
1
z= k+ π, k ∈ Z.
2
Therefore {z ∈ C : |z| < π2 } is the largest disk on which tan z is holomorphic. Now,
suppose that the Maclaurin series of tan z is given by
sin z
tan z = ,
cos z
we get
cos z tan z = sin z
and hence

z2 z4
(1 − + − ...)(a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + a3 z 3 + ....+)
2! 4!  a0  2  a1  3
= a0 + a1 z + a2 − z + a3 − z
2! 2!
 a2 a0  4  a3 a1  5
+ a4 − + z + a5 − + z + ... (5.1)
2! 4! 2! 4!
Therefore and this is the same as
z3 z5
z− + − ... .
3! 5!
Therefore
1 2
a0 = 0, a1 = 1, a2 = 0, a3 = , a4 = 0, a5 = , ...
3 15
Hence
1 2 π
tan z = z + z 3 + z 5 + ..., |z| < .
3 15 2

We now look
P∞at series thatnare apparently more general than Taylor series. A series
of the form n=0 an (z − z0 ) is called power series at z0 . Obviously, it converges at
z0 . The most basic property of power series is given in the following theorem.
∞
an (z − z0 )n be a power series. Then there exists a real R in
P
Theorem 5.8. Let
n=0
[0, ∞] such that
(1) the series converges absolutely on {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < R},
(2) the series diverges on {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | > R},
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(3) the series converges uniformly on every closed subdisk of the disk of conver-
gence {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < R}.
In fact,
1
R= p .
lim sup n
|an |
n→∞

Remark 5.9. We call R the radius of convergence of the power series. The formula
for R in Theorem 5.8 is known as Hadamard’s radius of convergence. If R = ∞,
then the power series converges at every complex number z.
Proof. Without loss of generality, we assume that z0 = 0. Suppose that R = 0. Then
p
lim sup n |an | = ∞.
n→∞

Let z be a nonzero complex number. Then

p p
lim sup n |an z n | = |z| lim sup n |an | = ∞.
n→∞ n→∞
∞
an z n diverges for all nonzero complex
P
So by Cauchy’s root test, the power series
n=0
numbers z. Next we suppose that R = ∞. Then
p
lim sup n |an | = 0.
n→∞

Let z ∈ C. Then
p
n
p
lim sup |an z n | = |z| lim sup n |an | = 0.
n→∞ n→∞
∞
an z n converges absolutely for all z in
P
So by Cauchy’s root test, the power series
n=0
C. Let ρ ∈ [0, ∞). Then for all z in the disk {z ∈ C : |z| ≤ ρ},
|an z n | ≤ |an |ρn , n = 0, 1, 2, ...
∞ ∞
|an |ρn < ∞, it follows from Weierstrass’ M-test that an z n converges
P P
Since
n=0 n=0
uniformly on {z ∈ C : |z| ≤ ρ}. Finally, we suppose that 0 < R < ∞. Then
p 1
lim sup n |an | = .
n→∞ R
Let z ∈ C. Then
(
√ p < 1, |z| < R
lim sup n an z n = |z| lim sup n |an |
n→∞ n→∞ > 1, |z| > R.
∞
an z n converges absolutely on {z ∈ C :
P
So by Cauchy’s root test, the power series
n=0
|z| < R} and diverges on {z ∈ C : |z| > R}. That the convergence is uniform on
every closed subdisk is the same as before. 
10

Theorem 5.10. Suppose that

∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n , |z − z0 | < R,
n=0

where R is the radius of convergence of the power series. Then f is holomorphic on

the disk {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < R}.
Theorem 5.11. Suppose that
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n , |z − z0 | < R,
n=0

where R > 0. Then

f (n) (z0 )
an = , n = 0, 1, 2, 3....
n!
Thus, the power series is the Taylor series of f at z0 .
Remark 5.12. It is interesting to note that a power series with positive radius of
convergence is a holomorphic function inside the radius of convergence. Since a
holomorphic function has a Talor series expansion, it turns out that a power series
with positive radius of convergence is a Taylor series.

6. Laurent Series
In the last lecture we know that a holomorphic function on an open disk can be
represented by a power series. What happens if a function is holomorphic only on an
annulus?
Theorem 6.1. Let w = f (z) be a holomorphic function on an annulus D = {z ∈ C :
r < |z − z0 | < R}. Then
∞
X ∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 ) +n
a−n (z − z0 )−n ,
n=0 n=1

where both series converge on the annulus and converge uniformly on every closed
subannulus {z ∈ C : ρ1 ≤ |z − z0 | ≤ ρ2 } of D. Moreover,
Z
1 f (ζ)
an = dζ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...,
2πi C (ζ − z0 )n+1
where C is any simple closed contour in the annulus D enclosing z0 and oriented once
in the counterclockwise direction.
(1) Suppose f is analytic throughout the disk |z −z0 | < R. Then the integrand for
the expression a−n , that is f (ζ)(ζ − z0 )n−1 for all n is also analytic throughout
the disk |z − z0 | < R. Consequently by Cauchy-Goursat Theorem a−n = 0,
n = 1, 2, 3.....
(2) Also by generalized form of Cauchy’s Integral formula
f (n) (z0 )
Z
1 f (z)
an = = , n = 0, 1, 2, ....
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1 n!
 11

Remark 6.2. We allow r = 0 or R = ∞. The coefficient a−1 of (z − z0 )−1 is a

significant number in complex analysis. It is known as the residue of the function
w = f (z) at z0 .
∞ ∞
an (z − z0 )n + a−n (z − z0 )−n the Laurent series of f at z0 . The series
P P
We call
n=0 n=1
∞
a−n (z − z0 )−n is called the singular part of f at z0 . If f is holomorphic on the
P
n=1
whole disk {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < R}, then the singular part disappears.
∞ ∞
an (z − z0 )n and a−n (z − z0 )−n be series such that
P P
Theorem 6.3. Let
n=0 n=1
∞
an (z − z0 )n converges on {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < R},
P
(1)
n=0
∞
a−n (z − z0 )−n converges on {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < r},
P
(2)
n=1
(3) r < R.
Then there exists a unique holomorphic function w = f (z) on the annulus D = {z ∈
C : r < |z − z0 | < R} such that the Laurent series of f on D is
∞
X ∞
X
n
an (z − z0 ) + a−n (z − z0 )−n .
n=0 n=1

Example 6.4. Find the Laurent series of

z 2 − 2z + 3
f (z) =
z−2

on {z ∈ C : |z − 1| > 1}.

Solution:
Note that z0 = 1, r = 1 and R = ∞. So, f is holomorphic on the annulus {z ∈ C :
r < |z − 1| < R}. Now,

1 1 1 1
= = 1 .
z−2 (z − 1) − 1 z − 1 1 − z−1

Thus for |z − 1| > 1,

∞ ∞
1 1 X 1 X 1
= n
= n+1
.
z−2 z − 1 n=0 (z − 1) n=0
(z − 1)

Note that
z 2 − 2z + 3 = z 2 − 2z + 1 + 2 = (z − 1)2 + 2
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and hence we get

 
2 1 1 1
f (z) = {(z − 1) + 2} + + + ...
z − 1 (z − 1)2 (z − 1)3
   
1 1 2 2
= (z − 1) + 1 + + + ... + + + ...
z − 1 (z − 1)2 z − 1 (z − 1)2
∞
X 3
= (z − 1) + 1 + n
, |z − 1| > 1.
n=1
(z − 1)
Example 6.5. Find the Laurent series of
1
f (z) =
(z − 1)(z − 2)
on {z ∈ C : 1 < |z| < 2} and also on {z ∈ C : |z| > 2}.
Solution We can write,
1 1 1
= − .
(z − 1)(z − 2) z−2 z−1
For 1 < |z| < 2
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 X  z n X zn
=− z =− =−
z−2 21− 2
2 n=0 2 n=0
2n+1
and ∞ ∞
1 1 1 1X 1 X 1
= 1 = =
z−1 z1− z
z n=0 z n n=0
z n+1
Hence for 1 < |z| < 2,
∞ ∞
X zn X zn
f (z) = − n+1
+ − n+1
.
n=0
2 n=0
2
For |z| > 2, we still have
∞
1 X 1
= ,
z − 1 n=0 z n+1
but ∞  n X ∞
1 1 1 1X 2 2n
= 2 = = .
z−2 z1− z
z n=0 z n=0
z n+1
So for |z| > 2,
∞ ∞
X 1 X 2n
f (z) = + .
n=0
z n+1 n=0 z n+1
Laurent series can be used to classify isolated singularities of complex valued vari-
able.

A point z0 is called a singular point of a function f if f fails to be analytic at z0

but is analytic at some point in every neighbourhood of z0 .
 13

Definition 6.6. Let w = f (z) be a complex-valued function. Let z0 be a point in C

such that
(1) f is not holomorphic at z0 .
(2) f is holomorphic on some punctured disk {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < R}.
Then we say that z0 is an isolated singularity of f .
Example 6.7. (1) f (z) = z1 is analytic everywhere except at z = 0, so the origin
is an isolated singular point of f .
z+1
(2) The function f (z) = z 3 (z 2 +1)
has the three isolated singular points z = 0 and
z = ±i.
1 1
(3) The function f (z) = sin( πz )
has the singular points z = 0 and z = n
, (n =
1
±1, ±2, ...) all lying on the line segment [−1, 1]. Each z = is an isolated n
singular point but z = 0 is not an isolated singular point because every deleted
neighbourhood of 0 contains other singular points of f .
Suppose that z0 is an isolated singularity of f . Then f is holomorphic on {z ∈ C :
0 < |z − z0 | < R}. Suppose that
∞
X ∞
X
f (z) = n
an (z − z0 ) + a−n (z − z0 )−n , 0 < |z − z0 | < R.
n=0 n=1

Then we introduce the following terminology,

(1) If a−n = 0, n = 1, 2, 3, ..., we say that z0 is removable singularity.
(2) If a−m 6= 0 for some positive integer m, but a−n = 0 for n > m, we say that
z0 is a pole of order m. A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.
(3) If a−n 6= 0 for infinitely many positive integers n, we say that z0 is an essential
singularity.
Example 6.8. Classify the isolated singularities, if any, for each of the following
functions.
(1) w = f (z) = e1/z
(2) w = f (z) = sinz z
z
(3) w = f (z) = ze2
z
(4) w = f (z) = e z−1
Solution:

(1) 0 is the isolated singularity of each of the given functions. Now note that
∞
1/z
X 1 1
e = , |z| > 0.
n=0
n! z n
So, there are infinitely many negative powers. Therefore 0 is an essential sin-
gularity.
14
n 3 5
o 2 4
sin z
(2) z
= z1 z − z3! + z5! − ... = 1 − z3! + z5! − ....
There are no negative powers. So 0 is a removable singularity.
∞
ez 1 zn 1 1 1
+ 3!1 z + 4!1 z 2 + ...
P
(3) z2
= z2 n!
= z2
+ z
+ 2!
n=0
So, 0 is a pole of order 2.

(4) For 0 < |z| < ∞

ez − 1 z2
 
z 1
1+ + = + ....
z z
1! 2!
z z2
= 1+ + + .... (6.1)
2! 3!
The point z = 0 is a removable singularity and if we write f (0) = 1 the
function becomes entire.
7. Residues
If w = f (z) is a holomorphic function on and inside a simple closed contour Γ,
then Z
f (z)dz = 0.
Γ
Question: What happens if f has an isolated singularity z0 inside Γ?

It turns out that the answer is related to a number associated with the function f
at z0 . The number is called the residue of f at z0 .

Definition 7.1. Let z0 be an isolated singularity of w = f (z). Then there exists a

positive number R such that f is holomorphic on the punctured disk {z ∈ C : 0 <
|z − z0 | < R}. Let
X∞ ∞
X
an (z − z0 )n + a−n (z − z0 )−n
n=0 n=0
be the Laurent series of f on {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < R}. Then we call the coefficient
a−1 of (z − z0 )−1 the residue of f at z0 and denote it by Res(f, z0 ).
Example 7.2. Compute the residue Res(f, z0 ) of a function w = f (z) at a removable
singularity z0 .
Solution: Since z0 is a removable singularity, we get a−1 = 0. Therefore
Res(f, z0 ) = 0.
Example 7.3. Compute the residue Res(f, z0 ) of a function w = f (z) at a simple
pole z0 .
Solution: There exists a positive number R such that
∞
X X∞
f (z) = n
az (z − z0 ) + a−n (z − z0 )−n , 0 < |z − z0 | < R.
n=0 n=1
 15

Since z0 is a simple pole, we get

a−1 6= 0
and
a−n = 0, n = 2, 3, ...
Therefore
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + a−1 (z − z0 )−1 , 0 < |z − z0 | < R.
n=0
So ∞
X
(z − z0 )f (z) = a−1 + (z − z0 ) an (z − z0 )n
n=0
Therefore
lim (z − z0 )f (z) = a−1
z→z0
and we get
Res(f, z0 ) = lim (z − z0 )f (z).
z→z0

Example 7.4. Compute the residue Res(f, z0 ) of a function f at a pole z0 of order

m.
Solution: There exists a positive number R such that
∞
X ∞
X
f (z) = n
an (z − z0 ) + a−n (z − z0 )−n , 0 < |z − z0 | < R.
n=0 n=1
Since z0 is a pole of order m, we get
a−m 6= 0
and
a−n = 0, n > m.
Thus, for 0 < |z − z0 | < R,
X∞
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + a−m (z − z0 )−m + ... + a−2 (z − z0 )−2 + a−1 (z − z0 )−1
n=0
and we get
∞
X
m
(z − z0 ) f (z) = an (z − z0 )n+m + a−m + ... + a−2 (z − z0 )m−2 + a−1 (z − z0 )m−1 .
n=0
Recall the formula (

α
β
d α β
β!z α−β , β ≤ α,
z =
dz β 0, β > α.
So, for 0 < |z − z0 | < R,
dm−1
{(z − z0 )m f (z)} (7.1)
dz m−1
∞    
X m+n n+1 m−1
= an (m − 1)!(z − z0 ) + !(m − 1)!a−1 .
n=0
m − 1 m − 1
16

Therefore
dm−1
lim {(z − z0 )m f (z)} = (m − 1)!a−1
z→z0 dz m−1
and we get
1 dm−1
Res(f, z0 ) = lim {(z − z0 )m f (z)}
z→z0 (m − 1)! dz m−1

Example 7.5.
2
f (z) = z −2z+3
z−2
3
= z + z−2 3
= 2 + (z − 2) + z−2 .
The function f has a simple pole at z = 2 and the residue of f at z = 2 is 3.

For 0 < |z| < ∞,

sinh z 1 z3 z5
f (z) = = (z + + + ...)
z4 z4 3! 5!
1 11 1 1
= 3+ + z + z 3 + ..., (7.2)
z 3! z 5! 7!
that is, f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 with residue 16 .
The significance of residues is given by the following theorem, which is known as
Cauchy’s residue theorem.
Theorem 7.6. Let Γ be a simple closed contour oriented once in the counterclockwise
direction. Let w = f (z) be a holomorphic function on and inside Γ except at the
isolated singularities z1 , z2 , ...., zn inside Γ. Then
Z Xn
f (z)dz = 2πi Res(f, zj ).
Γ j=1

1−2z
R
Example 7.7. Compute C (z−1)(z−3) dz, where C is the circle with center at 0 and
radius 2, and oriented once in the counterclockwise direction.
Solution: Let
1 − 2z
f (z) = .
(z − 1)(z − 3)
Then f is holomorphic everywhere except at z = 1 and z = 3. They are simple poles
by inspection(Checked in class). Only z = 1 is inside C. So by Cauchy’s residue
theorem,
1 − 2z
Z
dz = 2πiRes(f, 1).
C (z − 1)(z − 3)
But
1 − 2z 1
Res(f, 1) = lim(z − 1)f (z) = lim = .
z→1 z→1 z − 3 2
Hence
1 − 2z
Z
dz = πi.
C (z − 1)(z − 3)

Example 7.8. Compute C ze1/z + cos z

R

z2
dz, where C is the unit circle centered at
the origin and orientated once in the counterclockwise direction.
 17

Solution: Let I be the integral to be computed. Then

Z Z
1/z cos z
I= ze dz + 2
dz.
C C z
R
Let I1 = C ze1/z dz. Then
∞ ∞
1/z
X 1 1 X 1 1
ze =z n
= .
n=0
n! z n=0
n! z n−1
Therefore
1
Res(ze1/z , 0) =
2
and
I1 = πi.
cos z
R
Let I2 = C z2
dz.
Then the integrand in I2 has a pole of order 2 at the origin. So,
 cos z  d
Res 2
, 0 = lim (cos z) = lim(− sin z) = 0.
z z→0 dz z→0

Hence I2 = 0 and Z Z
1/z cos z
ze dz + 2
dz = πi.
C C z

8. Trigonometric Integrals
Now lets check the trigonometric integrals of the form
Z 2π
I= U (cos θ, sin θ)dθ,
0

where U (cos θ, sin θ) is a rational function with real coefficients of cos θ and sin θ.
To compute I, we use the unit circle C centered at the origin and oriented once in
the counterclockwise direction. We parametrize it by the equation
z = eiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Since
eiθ + e−iθ
 
1 1
cos θ = = z+ ,
2 2 z
eiθ − e−iθ
 
1 1
sin θ = 2i = z−
2 2i z
and
dz = ieiθ dθ,
we get
Z 2π Z     
1 1 1 1 1
U (cos θ, sin θ)dθ = U z+ , z− dz
0 C 2 z 2i z iz
R 2π sin2 θ
Example 8.1. Compute I = 0 5+4 cos θ
dθ
18

Solution: Let C be the unit circle centered at the origin and oriented once in the
counterclockwise direction. Then Z
I= F (z)dz,
C
where
( 2i1 (z − z1 ))2 1 1 (z 2 − 1)2
F (z) = = − .
5 + 4( 21 (z + z1 )) iz 4i z 2 (2z 2 + 5z + 2)
Therefore
(z 2 − 1)2
Z
1
I=− dz.
4i C z 2 (2z 2 + 5z + 2)
Let
(z 2 − 1)2
f (z) = .
z 2 (2z 2 + 5z + 2)
Then
(z 2 − 1)2
f (z) = .
2z 2 (z + 21 )(z + 2)
So, f has simple poles at z = − 12 and z = −2, and a pole of order 2 at z = 0. Now,
(z 2 − 1)2
   
1 1 3
Res f, − = lim1 z + f (z) = lim1 2 =
2 z→− 2 2 z→− 2 2z (z + 2) 4
and
(z 2 − 1)2
 
d
Res(f, 0) = lim
z→0 dz z 2 (2z 2 + 5z + 2)
(2z 2 + 5z + 2)2(z 2 − 1)2z − (z 2 − 1)2 (4z + 5) 5
= lim 2 2
=− .
z→0 (2z + 5z + 2) 4
Thus,    
1 1 π
I = − 2πi Res f, − + Res(f, 0) = .
4i 2 4