57:020 (ENGR:2510)

Fluid Mechanics

Class Notes
Fall 2016

Prepared by:
Professor Fred Stern

Typed by: Stephanie Schrader (Fall 1999)

Corrected by: Jun Shao (Fall 2003, Fall 2005)

Corrected by: Hyunse Yoon (Fall 2007 ∼ Fall 2016)

Corrected by: Jun Shao, Tao Xing (Fall 2006)

Corrected by: Timur Kent Dogan (Fall 2014)

57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND

BASIC CONCEPTS

Fluids and the no-slip condition

Fluid mechanics is the science and technology of flu-
ids either at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics)
and their effects on boundaries such as solid surfaces or in-
terfaces with other fluids.
Definition of a fluid: A substance that deforms continuous-
ly when subjected to a shear stress
Consider a fluid between two parallel plates, which is
subjected to a shear stress due to the impulsive motion of
the upper plate

u=U
No slip condition: no relative
Fluid motion between fluid and
Element
boundary, i.e., fluid in contact
u=0 with lower plate is stationary,
t=0
whereas fluid in contact with
upper plate moves at speed U.
τ Fluid deforms, i.e., un-
θ dergoes rate of strain θ due to
shear stress τ
τ
t=∆t
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 2

Newtonian fluid: τ ∝ θ = rate of strain

τ = μ θ
µ = coefficient of viscosity

Such behavior is different from solids, which resist shear

by static deformation (up to elastic limit of material)
τ
Elastic solid: τ ∝ γ = strain
γ
Solid τ=Gγ

τ G = shear modulus
t=0 t=∆t

Both liquids and gases behave as fluids

Liquids:
Closely spaced molecules with large intermolecular forces
Retain volume and take shape of container
container

liquid

Gases:
Widely spaced molecules with small intermolecular forces
Take volume and shape of container

gas
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 3
Recall p-v-T diagram from thermodynamics:
single phase, two phase, triple point (point at which solid,
liquid, and vapor are all in equilibrium), critical point
(maximum pressure at which liquid and vapor are both in
equilibrium).

Liquids, gases, and two-phase liquid-vapor behave as flu-

ids.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 4

Continuum Hypothesis

In this course, the assumption is made that the fluid be-

haves as a continuum, i.e., the number of molecules within
the smallest region of interest (a point) are sufficient that all
fluid properties are point functions (single valued at a
point).

Consider definition of density ρ of a fluid

For example:

δm x = position vector = xi + yj + zk
ρ ( x, t ) =
δV → δV* δV
lim
t = time

δV* = limiting volume below which molecular variations

may be important and above which macroscopic variations
may be important

δV* ≈ 10-9 mm3 (or length scale of l* ≈ 10-6 m) for all liq-
uids and for gases at atmospheric pressure

tains 3x107 molecules such that δM/δV = constant = ρ

10-9 mm3 air (at standard conditions, 20°C and 1 atm) con-

about 10-3 – 100 mm3 >> δV* and that the “scale” of macro-
Note that typical “smallest” measurement volumes are

scopic variations are very problem dependent

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 5

Exception: rarefied gas flow

δ∀* defines a point in the fluid, i.e., a fluid particle or infini-

tesimal material element used for deriving governing differ-
ential equations of fluid dynamics and at which all fluid
properties are point functions:

λ = mean free path = 6×10-8 m

l* =10-6 m >> molecular length scales

tλ = 10-10 s = time between collisions

l* = 10-6 m << fluid length scales l = 10-4 m
For laminar flow: lmax ≈ smallest geometry scales of the
flow
Umax < U transition to turbulent flow
For turbulent flow: lmax and Umax determined by Kolmogorov
scales at which viscous dissipation takes place, which for

η ≈ 2×10-5 m (ship)/2.3×10-5 m (airplane)

typical ship/airplane,

uη ≈ 0.05 m/s (ship)/1.64 m/s (airplane)

tη ≈ 4×10-4 s (ship)/1.4×10-5 s (airplane)
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 6

Properties of Fluids

ty µ and density ρ, which we have already discussed with

Fluids are characterized by their properties such as viscosi-

reference to definition of shear stress τ = μθ and the contin-

uum hypothesis.

(1) Kinematic: Linear (�) and angular (�⁄2) velocity,

rate of strain (��� ), Vorticity (�), and acceleration (�)

(2) Transport: Viscosity (�), thermal conductivity (�),

and mass diffusivity (�)

(3) Thermodynamic: Pressure (�), density (�), tempera-

ture (�), internal energy (��), enthalpy (ℎ = �� +
�⁄�), specific heat (�� , �� , � = �� ⁄�� , etc.)

(4) Miscellaneous: Surface tension (�), vapor pressure

(�� ), etc.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 7

Properties can be both dimensional (i.e., expressed in either

SI or BG units) or non-dimensional:

Figure B.1 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of common fluids as a

function of temperature.
Figure B.2 Kinematic viscosity of common fluids (at atmospheric
pressure) as a function of temperature.
Table B.1 Physical Properties of Water (BG Units)
Table B.2 Physical Properties of Water (SI Units)
Table B.3 Physical Properties of Air at Standard Atmospheric
Pressure (BG Units)
Table B.4 Physical Properties of Air at Standard Atmospheric
Pressure (SI Units)
Table 1.5 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liq-
uids (BG Units)
Table 1.6 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liq-
uids (SI Units)
Table 1.7 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common
Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (BG Units)
Table 1.8 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common
Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (SI Units)
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 8

Basic Units

System International and British Gravitational Systems

Primary Units SI BG
Mass M kg slug=32.2lbm
Length L m ft

°C (°K) °F (°R)
Time t s s
Temperature T

°K = °C + 273
Temperature Conversion:

°R = °F + 460

°K and °R are absolute scales, i.e., 0 at absolute zero.

Freezing point of water is at 0°C and 32°F.

Secondary
(derived) units Dimension SI BG
velocity V L/t m/s ft/s
acceleration a L/t2 m/s2 ft/s2
force F ML/t2 N (kg⋅m/s2) lbf

density ρ
pressure p F/L2 Pa (N/m2) lbf/ft2
M/L3 kg/m3 slug/ft3
internal energy u FL/M J/kg (N⋅m/kg) BTU/lbm

Table 1.3 Conversion Factors from BG and EE Units to SI Units.

Table 1.4 Conversion Factors from SI Units to BG and EE Units.
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 9
Weight and Mass

F = ma Newton’s second law (valid for both solids

and fluids)
Weight = force on object due to gravity

W = mg g = 9.81 m/s2
= 32.2 ft/s2

SI: W (N) = m (kg) ⋅ 9.81 m/s2

BG: W (lbf) = m(slug) ⋅ 32.2ft/ s2

m(lbm )
EE: W (lbf) = ⋅32.2 ft/s2

lbm ⋅ ft
gc
g c = 32.2 2 = 32.2
lbm
s ⋅ lbf
, i.e., 1 slug = 32.2 lbm
slug

1 N = 1 kg ⋅ 1 m/s2
1 lbf = 1 slug ⋅ 1 ft/s2
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 10

System; Extensive and Intensive Properties

System = fixed amount of matter

= mass m

Therefore, by definition
=0
d ( m)
dt

Properties are further distinguished as being either exten-

sive or intensive.

Extensive properties: depend on total mass of system,

e.g., m and W

system, e.g., p (force/area) and ρ

Intensive properties: independent of amount of mass of

(mass/volume)
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 11

Properties Involving the Mass or Weight of the

Fluid

Specific Weight, γ = gravitational force (i.e., weight) per

unit volume V
= W/ V

= ρg
= mg/ V
N/m3
(Note that specific properties are derived from intensive or
extensive properties per unit mass or volume)
Mass Density ρ = mass per unit volume
= m/ V kg/m3

Specific Gravity S = ratio of γliquid to γwater at standard T = 4°C

= γ/γwater, 4°C dimensionless
(or γair at standard conditions for gases)

γwater, 4°C = 9810 N/m3 for T = 4°C and atmospheric pressure

γair = 12.01 N/m3 at standard atmosphere (T = 15°C and p =
101.33 kPa)
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 12
Variation in Density

gases: ρ = ρ (gas, T, p) equation of state (p-v-T)

= p/RT ideal gas
R = R (gas)

ρ (air) = 1.225 kg/m3 at Standard Atmosphere

e.g. R (air) = 287.05 N⋅m/kg⋅°K

liquids: ρ ∼ constant
(T = 15°C and p = 101.33 kPa)

Water

Note: For a change in temperature from 0 to 100°C, density changes about

29% for air while only about 4% for water.

Liquid and temperature Density Density

(kg/m3) (slugs/ft3)
Water 20oC (68oF) 998 1.94
Ethyl alcohol 20oC (68oF) 799 1.55
Glycerine 20oC (68oF) 1,260 2.45
Kerosene 20oC (68oF) 814 1.58
Mercury 20oC (68oF) 13,350 26.3
Sea water 10oC at 3.3% salinity 1,026 1.99
SAE 10W 38oC(100oF) 870 1.69
SAE 10W-30 8oC(100oF) 880 1.71
SAE 30 38oC(100oF) 880 1.71
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 13

For greater accuracy can also use p-v-T diagram

ρ = ρ (liquid, T, p)

ρ
ρ
T
p

Properties Involving the Flow of Heat

For flows involving heat transfer such as gas dynamics ad-

ditional thermodynamic properties are important, e.g.

specific heats cp and cv J/kg⋅°K

specific internal energy û J/kg
specific enthalpy h = û + p/ρ J/kg
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 14

Viscosity

Recall definition of a fluid (substance that deforms contin-

uously when subjected to a shear stress) and Newtonian
fluid shear / rate-of-strain relationship: τ = μθ .

Reconsider flow between fixed and moving parallel plates

(Couette flow)

δuδt=distance fluid parti-

cle travels in time δt
y

δf at δt
δy
u=U
h
δf at t
u(y)=velocity profile

=
U δθ
y δf=fluid
h element
u=0

Newtonian fluid: τ = μθ = μ

δθ
δt
tan δθ = or δθ = for small δθ
δuδt δuδt
δy δy

δu
therefore δθ = i.e., θ =
δy
du
= velocity gradient
dy

τ=μ
du
and
dy
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 15
Exact solution for Couette flow is a linear velocity profile

u( y) =
U
y Note: u(0) = 0 and u(h) = U
h
i.e., satisfies no-slip
τ=μ
U boundary condition
= constant
h

where

U/h = velocity gradient = rate of strain

µ = coefficient of viscosity = proportionality constant for

Newtonian fluid

τ
µ= = = 2
N m 2 Ns
du m
m m

µ m2
dy s

ν= =
ρ s
= kinematic viscosity
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 16

µ = µ(fluid;T,p) = µ(gas/liquid;T)

gas and liquid µ p, but small ∆µ

µ T
liquid: µ T
gas: Due to structural differences, more molecular
activity for gases, decreased cohesive forces
for liquids
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 17
Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluids

τ  du/dy 
τ ∝ du/dy
Dilatant (Shear thickening):

Pseudo plastic (Shear thinning): τ  du/dy 

Newtonian:

Bingham plastic: Requires τ before becomes fluid

Example: toothpaste, mayonnaise

Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

�� �� �
�∝ �∝� �
�� ��

µ = slope n > 1 (shear thickening) Slope

τ; ex) cornstarch, quick-

increases with increasing

sand

creases with increasing τ;

n < 1 (shear thinning) Slope de-

ex) blood, paint, liquid

plastic
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 18

Elasticity (i.e., compressibility)

Increasing/decreasing pressure corresponds to contrac-

tion/expansion of a fluid. The amount of deformation is
called elasticity: �� = bulk modulus of elasticity

�� > 0 ⇒
�� ��
�� ∝ − ; Constant = �� <0
Increase pressure, decrease volume. ∴ minus sign used
� �

and by definition, � = ��
�� = ��� + ��� = 0
�� ��
−� = �
Thus,
�� �� ��
�� = − = =� [�⁄�2 ]
�� ⁄� ��⁄� ��

Liquids are in general incompressible, e.g.

�� = 2.2 GN/m2
i.e. Δ� = 0.05%� for ∆p = 1MN/m2
water

(G=Giga=109 M=Mega=106 k=kilo=103)

Gases are in general compressible, e.g. for ideal gas (i.e.,

� = ���) at T = constant (isothermal)
= RT
dρ
dp

Ev = ρRT = p
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 19

Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

When the pressure of a liquid falls below the vapor pres-

sure it evaporates, i.e., changes to a gas. If the pressure
drop is due to temperature effects alone, the process is
called boiling. If the pressure drop is due to fluid velocity,
the process is called cavitation. Cavitation is common in
regions of high velocity, i.e., low p such as on turbine
blades and marine propellers.

high V low p isobars

(suction side)

streamlines around lifting

surface (i.e. lines tangent to
low V high p velocity vector)
(pressure side)

p − pv
Cavitation number, �� =
ρV∞2
1
2

�� < 0 implies cavitation

57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 20

Surface Tension and Capillary Effects

At the interface of two immiscible fluids (e.g., a liquid and

a gas), forces develop to cause the surface to behave as if it
were a stretched membrane. Molecules in the interior at-
tract each other equally, whereas molecules along the sur-
face are subject to a net force due to the absence of neigh-
bor molecules. The intensity of the molecular attraction per
unit length along any line in the surface is call the surface
tension and is designated by the Greek symbol �.

Fσ = surface tension force

AIR

Fσ Fσ
Interface

neighbors such that surface is in tension σ per unit length

Near surface forces are increased due to absence of

Away from interface

WATER molecular forces are
equal in all directions

σair/water = 0.073 N/m

Fσ = σ × L = line force with direction normal to the cut
L =length of cut through the interface
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 21
Effects of surface tension:

Contact angle:

θ < 90o, Wetting θ > 90o, Non-wetting

e.g., Water, θ ≈ 0° e.g., Mercury, θ≈130°

1. Capillary action in small tube

∆h = 4σ γd
2. Pressure difference across curved interface
∆p = σ/R R = radius of curvature
3. Transformation of liquid jet into droplets
4. Binding of wetted granular material such as sand
5. Capillary waves: surface tension acts as restoring force
resulting in interfacial waves called capillary waves
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 22
Capillary tube

Fσ Fσ Fluid attaches to solid with contact an-

gle θ due to surface tension effect and

∆h
wetty properties

θ
θ= contact angle
water
reservoir
d

Example:

Fσ = σ × L , L=length of contact line between fluid & solid

Capillary tube d = 1.6mm = 0.0016m

(i.e., L = πD = circumference)

water reservoir at 20° C, σ = 0.073 N/m, γ = 9790 N/m3

∆h = ?
ΣFz = 0
Fσ,z - W = 0
σπd cosθ - ρgV = 0 θ ∼ 0° ⇒ cosθ = 1
ρg = γ
πd 2
σπd − γ∆h =0 V = Δh
πd 2
4 4 =Volume of flu-

4σ
id above reser-
∆h = = 18.6mm
voir
γd
57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 23

Pressure jump across curved interfaces

(a) Cylindrical interface

Force Balance:
2σL = 2 RL⋅(pi – po)
∆p = σ/R

pi > po, i.e. pressure is larger on concave vs. convex

side of interface

π⋅2Rσ = πR2∆p → ∆p = 2σ/R

(b) Spherical interface (Droplets)

4�
Bubble: � ⋅ 2�� + � ⋅ 2�� = ��2 Δ� ⇒ Δ� = �

∆p = σ(R1-1 + R2-1)
(c) General interface

R1,2 = principal radii of curvature

57:020 (ENGR:2510) Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2016 24

A brief history of fluid mechanics

See textbook section 1.10. (page 27)

Fluid Mechanics and Flow Classification

Hydrodynamics: flow of fluids for which density is con-

stant such as liquids and low-speed gases. If in addition
fluid properties are constant, temperature and heat transfer
effects are uncoupled such that they can be treated sepa-
rately.

Examples: hydraulics, low-speed aerodynamics, ship hy-

drodynamics, liquid and low-speed gas pipe systems

Gas Dynamics: flow of fluids for which density is variable

such as high-speed gases. Temperature and heat transfer
effects are coupled and must be treated concurrently.

Examples: high-speed aerodynamics, gas turbines,

high-speed gas pipe systems, upper atmosphere