2 - Group Theory - Subgroups
Definition 2.1 (Subgroup ).
let G be a group, then a subset H of G is a subgroup of G if it a group,
inheriting the operator from G. In such a case we write H ⩽ G. if H ≠ G
, we weite H < G.
Proposition 2.2 (necessary and sufficient conditions for subgroups).
let G be a group, H , a subset of G is a subgroup if and only if the
following properties hold:
1. The identity e ∈ G is also in H .
2. x, y ∈ Himplies that xy ∈ H (H is closed under the product
operator inherited from G).
3. x ∈ H implies that x
−1
∈ H (H is closed under inverses).
Proof. if H is a subgroup, 1,2,3 follow by definition. Now suppose H ⊂ G.
Then the above three conditions guarantee that H is a group, with
associativity following from inheriting the operator from G.
Theorem 2.3 (A simpler condition to guarantee subgroups).
let G be a group, and H a subset of G . then H is a subgroup if and
only if H is non empty, and x, y ∈ H implies xy
−1
∈ H .
Proof. Suppose H was a subgroup of G. then obviously, H is non empty (it
at least contains e, the identity) and x, y ∈ H implies xy ∈ H . Now, suppose −1
H was a non empty subset of G, and that x, y ∈ H implies xy ∈ H . We will
−1
show that e ∈ H : notice that x ∈ H implies xx = e ∈ H . Now we show that H
−1
is closed under inverses: Since e ∈ H , for any element x ∈ H , ex = x ∈ H . −1 −1
Finally, we will show that H is closed under products: Suppose x, y ∈ H .
Then y ∈ H , (as shown earlier). Hence x(y ) ∈ H . Hence xy ∈ H .
−1 −1 −1
Therefore by Proposition 2.2 (necessary and sufficient conditions for
subgroups) H is a subgroup of G.
□
Proposition 2.4 (The intersection of subgroups).
Let G be a group, and H, K be subgroups of G . Then, H ∩ K is a
subgroup of G.
Proof. since e is in both H and K , H ∩ K is non empty. Suppose x, y ∈ H ∩ K
. Then x, y is in both H and K . Therefore, xy is in both H and K . Hence,
−1
∈ H ∩ K . See :Theorem 2.3 (A simpler condition to guarantee
−1
xy
subgroups).
Theorem 2.5 (The intersection of finitely many Subgroups is a subgroup.
).
n
Let H1 , H2 , … Hn All be subgroups of a group G. Then, ⋂ Hi is a
i=1
subgroup of G .
Proof Outline
Use Proposition 2.4 (The intersection of subgroups) with a natural
induction argument.
Theorem 2.6 (Finiteness with product closure are sufficient conditions
for a subgroup).
Let H be finite subset of a group G , such that the identity e ∈ H . If
x, y ∈ H implies xy ∈ H , then H is a subgroup of G.
An intuition for the above idea:
Imagine a finite set H , closed under products, with the identity element
e in it. Starting from an arbitrary element x, start taking left products,
, h h x and so on... each of these products are the images of x
h1 x 2 1
under distinct left coset maps. so eventually, we have to hit e, (we
will show that we can't loop around without ever hitting e), basically
allowing us to get closure under inverses.
Proof.
Since H is finite, let , we can index the elements of
|H | = n
H = {h 0 = e, h 1 , … h n−1 }. We claim that the left coset maps L(H ) are well
defined from H to H . suppose x ∈ H and h ∈ H . then f (x) = h x ∈ H due to
i hi i
product closure.
Now, Consider the set of orbits of x ∈ H under each map in L(H ) defined as
Orb(x) = {h x : h ∈ H }. By two left coset maps never agree on the image of a
i i
particular element if h x = h x, then in G which has inverses, h = h meaning
i j i j
that they are the identical left coset map in G, Hence, they are identical in
H . Therefore Orb(x) has n distinct elements, each of which lie in H . Hence
Orb(x) = H , given that H is finite. Since Orb(x) = H there exists some h ∈ H j
such that h x = h = e. This is the inverse of an element x. Hence H is
j 0
closed under inverses. see Proposition 2.2 (necessary and sufficient
conditions for subgroups).
