Visit : [Link].

in

[Link]
spo
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log

SECTION I

HARBOUR AND DOCK

.b

ENGINEERING
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil

THE S. S. BOOK EM?OR:WIl

.IIDUN1'-JOY. ROAD. HAS" 'I Al>!GU . I,
IlANGALORE. ... ("OIA)
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
HARBOUR, DOCK
AND
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
ot.
sp
.b log
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
Vallabh Vidyanagar Series : 7

ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

HARBOUR, DOCK AND TUNNEL

in
ENGINEERI N G

ot.
[AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK FOR ENGI!'IEERING STUDENTSJ

by
sp
R. SRINIV ASAN
H. E., A. M. T. E.
Professor of Civil Engillferillg
AND
log

Head of the Dept. of Civil Engineering

B. V. B. College of En/.?ineering and Technology, HUBLI.
.b

FIRST EDITION
tas

1958
da
vil

CHAROTAR BOOK STALL

STATION ROAD , ANAND (W. Rly.) INDIA
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
First Published: 1958

in
ot.
sp
log

All rights including those of making the

translation are strictLJ' reserved by the Author.
.b
tas

, H - ....
"
. t
L, L
da
vil

Published by R. C. Pattii, Chal'otar Book Stall, Station Road Tulsi Sada/l,

Arland (W. Rly ), India.
Printed by N. Hernandez, .S. J. , a/ the Anand Press, Anand. (W. iVy.';
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log

.Dedicated sincerely
to
My students
past and present
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

FOREWORD

in
It gives me great pleasure to write a foreword to this valua-
ble book which has been written by Professor R. Srinivasan
on the subjects of Harbour, Dock and Tunnel Engineering.

ot.
There are a number of books on these subjects which have been
written by many specialists, both on the continent and in the
United States of America. Thes books are more or less reference
books for the us of practising engineers in the profession.
As textbooks for young engineering students, they are of course
sp
very valuable, when the course calls for a study of fewer subjects
and the syllabus demands detailed study in the subject of specia-
lisation, as in foreign universities. They are also prohibitively
costly for Indian students preparing for the various examinations
log

of the universities in India. For such students, this book is

a boon.
The section on Harbour and Dock Engineering is well
divided into ten graded chapters and similarly the section on
Tunnel Engineering into nine graded chapters. Both the
sections make good reading and undoubtedly give the reader,
however uninitiated he may be, a grasp of the principles of
.b

these subjects.
I am highly appreclauve of the clear and concise way in
which this volume has been written in respect of the descrip-
tas

tive portions a nd the fully explanatory way in which many

sketches have been got up and included in spite of their relative
trouble and expense. They are very valuable as they go a long
way to clarify the construction methods in an unmistakable
manner at every stage. I am sure this book wiU soon become .a
popular textbook among the students of the several universities
da

in India. I take this opportwlity to congratulate Prof. Srinivasan

for bringing out this useful volume. I am indeed very happy
that I have had the opportunity to go through the book and
to write this foreworrl.
vil

19-10-57 D. SUBBA RAO

BARODA D ean, Faculty of Engineering and Technology
M . S. University (Baroda)
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
PREFACE

in
A sincere attempt has been made to present the funda-
mentals of this aspect of Engineering, which is rather difficult
to comprehend by a student in engineering and on which text
books as such have not been published. During my long

ot.
experience as a teach!"( on this and allied subjects I have con-
stantly felt this handicap and after very earnest deliberation
decided to offer my humble services to fulfil this deficiency.
In making this attempt 1 was greatly encourag d by the express
wish of my students past and present, who constantly urged on
sp
me to bring out a textbook on the subject. To all of them
I am thankful. It will nOl be out of place to mention that
the few books there are deal with thc subject matter with parti-
cular reference to existing works and not on general lines as
would be useful to a student. A valiant attempt has now
log

been made to generalise and develop the subject matter in a

logical way and at the same time to contain the full aspects of
the syllabus of our Indian Universities. I earnestly hope that
this attempt achieves its objective.

So far th e study and practicc of Harbour and Tunnel

.b

engineering ha been based on the practical developments

taking plac!" in the more advanced and maritime countries of
the world ; hut now lh lime has come when our own country
is attempting to develop itself and it is in the fitness of things
tas

that our future Engineers should b gin to understand and

appreciate the importance of thesc branches of engineering
more and more and be able to assist. It is also the aim of this
book to create this incentive in our young engineers and kindle
their enthusiasm, especially when they ' read about the collasal
achievements made by oth('r countries m these branches of
da

engineering.
It is my duty to thallk all my good friends who helped
me to pr pare and bring out this hook. J have to specially
thank Shri P. A. Soni of the B. V. Mahavidyalaya, Anand and
vil

Shri. Miskin of the B. V. B. College, Hubli who meticulously

prepared the numerous sketches that adorn the pages of the
book. I am grateful to Prof. B. R. Sali of B. V. B. College, Hubli,
for his immense help m going through the proofs. My
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

10 PREFACE

in
esteemed friend, Shd D. Subba Rao, Dean of the Faculty of
Engineering, and Technology, Baroda, has been good enough to
go through the book and has kindly consented to launch it
forward. For this, as well as for his constant advice and guid-

ot.
ance in the preparation of the book I am especially grateful.
I appeal to the readers to send me their constructive
criticisms unhesitatingly. I shall thankfully receive all such
useful suggestions and faithfully apply them to make what I
think is a useful book, more useful.
sp
Hubli
R. SRINIVASAN
3- 10- 1957
.b log
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
CONTENTS

in
ECTION 1

HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

ot.
CHAPTER PAGE

1. HARBOURS
II. NATURAL PHENOMENA, TIDE , WIND
AND WAVE 7
sp
III. BREAK WATER . 17
IV. WALL BREAK WATERS. 24
V. DOCKS. ....---: 29
VI. REPAIR DOCKS. 37
log

VII. ENTRANCE LOCKS. 49

VIII. [Link]. 56
IX. TRANSIT SHEDS AND WAREHOUSES. 61
X. }& MAINTANANCE DREDGING. 64

SECTION II
.b

TUNNEL ENGINEERING

1. _,PENERAL ASPECTS . .
11. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND TUNNELING
tas

METHODS. --:- 10
III. OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELING IN
SOFT SOILS. 19
IV. COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING IN
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS 30
da

V. ,A'UNNELING IN ROCK. 33
V!. _sR"AFTS. ' ~ . 42
,....VI1. _;FU NEL LINING. ~ 48
VIII. ' DRAINAGE OF TUNNELS. ~ 59
vil

IX. TUNNEL VENTILATION AND DUST

PREVENTION. ~ 61
SYLLABUS 65
INDEX 67
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER I

HARBOURS

ot.
As navigation developed, ships felt the necessity
to find shelter during their cruise and thus arose the
creation of havens, where ships could take in and
discharge, passengers and cargo, under protected
conditions. Such a place of refuge is called a Harbour.
sp
As methods of navigation improved, these vessels
gradually increased in size, number and importance;
then arose the imperative need for providing suitable
and commodious accomodation. Harbours are
broadly classified as: (1 ) Natura! and (2) Artificial.
log

/ Natural harbour: Natural formations afford- \

ing safe discharge facilities for ships on sea coasts,
in the form of creeks and basins are called Natural
harbours. With the rapid development of navies
engaged either in commerce, or war, improved ac-
commodation and facilities for repairs, storage of
.b

cargo and connected amenities had to be provided in

natural harbours.
4rtificial harbours: Where such natural
tas

facilities are not available, countries having a sea board

had to create or construct such shelters makint use
of en ineering skill and methods and such har ours
are cal e Artificial harbours. J.'
I ..

Thus, a naval vessel could obtain shelter during

da

bad weather within a tract or area of water close to

the shore, providing a good hold for anchoring,
protecte y-natu(al or artificial harbour walls against
the nry of storms - such goo er mg conaitions
constitute a roadstead. Such roadsteads could be
vil

naturally available or artificially created.

Natural roadsteads: (i) A deep navigab1e
channel with a protective natural bank or shoal
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

2 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
to seaward is a good example of a natural roadstead
as shown in fig. 1.

ot.
sp
no.o.o !;Te.6.0
log

Natural roadstead.
FIG. 1
.b

(ii) A confined area naturally enclosed by islands

as in a creek if available is known .as a circumscribed
natural roadstead (fig. 2).
tas
da
vil

aturally circumscribed roadstead.

FIG. 2
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

HARBOURS 3

in
Artificial roadsteads: (i) These may be
created suitably by constructing a break water or
wall parallel to the coast or curvilinear from the
coast (fig. 3). As an alternative a circumscribed

ot.
sp
log

Artificial roadstead.
.b

FIG. 3
artificial roadstead could be formed by enclosing a
tract providing good anchorage, by projecting solid
walls called jetties from the shore (fig. 4).
tas

5 C A
da

ROAD :H~AD
vil

5 II 0 II. ~

Artificially circumscribed roadstead.

FIG. 4
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

4 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERiN G

in
(ii) Another method is to create a confined
basin of small area having a narrow entrance and
exit for ships . Such roadsteads with smaller inner
enclosures and wharf and with loading and unloading

ot.
facilities are commonly provided for fishing vessels
(fig. 5). sp
log

Confined basin.
FIG. 5
From their utility and situation harbours are
.b

further classified into three major types, viz,

(i) Harbours of refuge including Naval bases.
(ii) Commercial harbours, connected with ports.
(iiI ) Fishery harbours:
tas

It is necessary to study the requirements of these

types and provide for them.
Requirements of harbour of refuge :
j (i) Ready ascessibility.
(ii) Safe and commodious anchorage.
da

(iii) Facilities fo~ obtaining supplies and repairs.

On dangerous coast-lines, disabled or damaged
ships, under stress of weather conditions will need
quick shelter and immediate repairs. All types of
vil

naval craft, small and big will need refuge in an

emergency and hence such refuge harbours should
pro ide commodious accommodation. }V10dern big
ships will require a lot of elbow room for purposes of
manouvering or turning about.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

HARBOUR 5

in
Requirements of commercial harbour:
../ (i) Spacious accommodation for the mercantile
marine.

ot.
(ii) Ample quay space and facilities for trans-
porting, loading and unloading cargo.
(iii) Storage sheds for cargo.
(iv) Good and quick repair facilities to avoid
delay.
(v) More sheltered conditions as loading and
sp
unloading could be done with advantage in
calmer waters.
Commercial harbours could be situated on coasts
or estuaries of big rivers or even on inland river coasts.
log

They do not normally have any emergency demand

like a harbour of refuge and practically the size and
number of ships using such harbours are known factors.
;' Requirements of fishing harbour:
(i) Harbour should be constantly open for
.b

departure and arrival of fishing ships.

(ii ) Loading and unloading facilities and quick
despatch facilities for the perishable fish
catch like railway sidings and roads .
tas

(iii) Refreigerated stores with ample storing space

for preserving the catch.
Accessibility and size of harbours: Accessi-
bility depends on the location of the harbour.
The harbour entrance should be designed and located
da

for quick easy negotiation by [Link], overtaken by

storms. At the same time, it should be narrow
enough not to expose the harbour to the effects of the
stormy sea. Maximum dimensions up to 600' have
vil

been adopted. The entrance is generally placed to

receive the ship direct from the worst storm affected
part of the sea, with a passage to the interior of the
harbour so arranged to minimise the effect of rough
seas.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

6 HARBOUR AND DOCK E NGINEERING

in
Size of harbour depends upon the number and
size of ships likely to use the harbour at one time.
Some of the biggest modern ships are 900' to 1000'
long and about a 100' wide and there should be suffi-

ot.
cient area to manoeuvring them, without collision. Thus,
the size is determined by,
(i) Accomodation required.
(ii) Convenience for manoeuvring and naVI-
gation.
sp
(iii) Adaptability to natural features.
Regarding the entrance width the narrower the
entrance the better is the interior portected, consistent
log

with easy and quick entry or exit of the biggest· vessel

using the harbour. Even when the break waters are
high enough to protect the harbour, waves from out-
side the harbour, set up diminutive waves inside the
harbour depending on the entrance widths. The
following empirical formula with a limited appli-
cation is sometimes used in the design of entrances.
.b

h = H {t - .02
4
y'D (1 + Vi)}
""here H is the height in feet of unrestricted wave
tas

at the entrance mouth of width 1 feet, h the reduced

height of the diminitive wave inside the harbour at
a distance D' from the mouth and where the harbour
is L feet wide. This formula is applicable to a dis-
tance of 50 feet from the entrance and where the har-
da

bour is well protected by a vertical sea wall..

Tides during ebb cause scour in a narrow
entrance, likely to undermine foundations of sea
walls and this factor has also to be considered in the
design.
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
C HAPTER II

NATURAL PHENOMrnNA
TIDES, WIND AND WAVE

ot.
./fhe harbour engineer has to study certain natural
and meteorological phenomena which primarily affect
the location and design of the harbour. They are:
(i) Coastal currents and evidences of silting,
sp
incluamg Littoral drift or Coast erosion.
(ii) Tides and tidal range.
(iii) Wind, Wave and their combined effect on
Harbour structures.
log

-'Littoral drift: On exposed coasts - the shore

line undergoes gradual and continual change. Such
changes consist of erosion or washing away at certain
sections, while in other sections accretlOn or deposi-
tion takes place. This process of carrying away and \
depositing materials, is caused by currentjlow created
by waves impinging on the shore Ime. These waves
.b

are ii\ uced by prevailing winds and tend to stir up

and move the lighter partIc es of sand in suspension.
The general effect of wind is shown in fig. 6. It
tas
da

Wind effect on shore.

FlO. 6
tends to carry the drifting sand in a zig zag line. The
vil

process of movement and deposition are complex.

Such sand drifts occuring in the proximity of fore-
shores is known as 'littoral drift'. This factor is impor-
tant in choosing proper harbour sites on exposed shores.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
8 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

Tides: Tides on the coast-line are ~aused by

in
the sun and moon. The effect of tides IS to artI-
ficially raise and lower the mean sea level during
certain stated periods. This apparent variation of
mean sea level is known as the tidal range. Allowance

ot.
will have to be made for this variation in designing
and constructing maritime structures; regular tide
charts are prepared for consultation in important
coastal sections.
sp
Spring tides and Neap tides: Tides, are
well known rises and falls of the surface of the sea and
of some rivers caused by attraction of the Sun and
Moon. There are usually two rises or flood tides and
two falls or ebbs or low tides every 24 hrs. 50 min. (Lunar
log

day). But the intervals of ebb and flow are subject

to great variations, as a]so the height of tides at the
same place. These irregularities are owing to the
shape of coast-line, depth of water, winds and other
causes.
Usually at new and full moon or rather a day
.b

or two after (or twice in each lunar month ) the tides

rise higher and fall lower than at other times and these
are called S,[Link]. Also one or two days after
the moon is in1ler-quarte s \twice in a lunar month)
tas

the tides risc and ratl less than at other times and are
then called .Neap (ides. The total height of spring
tides is general y 1i to 2 times as great as that at
neaps.
Waves and wind: The 'sea wave' is by far
da

the most powerful force acting on harbour barriers

./ and against which the engineer has to contend.
This is produced by the joint action of wind and
water and has tremendous damaging power. It will
vil

no be out of place to quote a well-known author

who says, "the wave has the impulse of a huge bat-
tering ram and equipped with the point of a pick axe
and chisel edge". I t is a most inc:omprehensible
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

NATURAL PHENOMENA-TIDES , WIND AND WAVE 9

in
natural phenomena. The formation of storm waves
takes place in the ope~a, due to the action of wind.
Water waves are of two kinds: viz., waves of
oscillation and waves of translation - the former

ot.
arestationary, while the latter possess forward motion.
But all translatory waves originally start as waves of
oscillation and become translatory by further wind
action. The Harbour engjneer's main concern is
the translatory wave. The wave movement and its
sp
breaking on the beach or shore is shown in fig. 7.
CQf:"~ T [Link](i ON
[Link]'l
log

Wave moment.
FIG. 7
.b

The movement of a translatory particle of water of

the wave as it nears the shore or obstruction is such
as to make the crest gain on the trough causing a
steeper and steeper crest, which overhangs and falls
tas

down with a bang and breaks into froth. It is in

this phase the wave constitutes a potent disruptive
force.
Any uneveness of the sea bed or natural and
artificial protrusions on it are capable of breaking
da

up the wave on its travel. Even a current of air

introduced from the bed upwards disperses the wave.
This is done by introducing a perforated pipe along
the bottom of the sea, (when storms are anticipated)
before hand and discharge compressed air just when
vil

the translatory motion commences. Such an arrange-

ment is known as a 'q.i,Lhreak water' and has been tried
with success in the U.S.A, during a storm in Pacific
ocean. The height of waves generated in the area
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

10 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENOINEElUNG

in
rose to 15 feet, but when compressed air started
discharging, the air bubbles broke up the waves into
harmless small ripples.
Also islands and jutting pieces of land divert the

ot.
direction of waves and deflect them into shallow
ground and so break their power of damage (fig. 8).
sp
log

Deflection of wave by head land.

FlO. 8

Height and length of waves: Waves being

generated by wind, their development depends upon
the surface area of sea exposed to wind action. The
.b

great length and height attained by waves are largely

based on this effective surface area. Such a surface
giving rise to a wave is called a 'Fetch' and is usually
measured in miles" denoting the length across which
tas

the wave action is generated and is active.

The height of the wave in feet = 1·5 vF, where
F is the fetch in miles.
This is an empirical formula employed to ass:er-
tain the approximate value of the height of a wave.
da

Another factor in determining the height is the

location of harbour works in relation to the fetch and
direction of wind. (For example at Karachi harbour
the fetch is nearly 500 miles of open sea, and the depth
vil

is very great. During the peak of south west mon-

soon the highest wave was found to be not more than
15 feet in height. The reason for this is attributable,
to the fetch being probably at right-angles to the direc-
tion of wind.)
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

NATURAL PHENOMENA-TIDES , WIND AND WAVE 11

in
Waves cannot attain full height in shallow waters.
No wave can have a height greater than the depth of
water through which it passes. This is the reason
why, intervention of undulations in the bed reduces

ot.
the depth of wave at the section.
\c Length of wave: The length could be defined
as the distance between crests of a wave (fig. 9).
The length influences the force of the wave. It is
difficult to estimate the length in open sea and is
sp
generally computed by Bertin's formula, as:
t2
L = 27t . g feet
log

or L = 5·125 /2 feet.
Where L = length in feet and t is the period in
seconds for two successive waves to pass the same
section.

-1-1 E-161lT
.b
tas

L ength and height of wave.

FIG. 9
The length of the wave, with the water depth,
determines the velocity of the particles of water in
the wave. Lengths have been known to reach a
da

maximum of 600 feet to 1000 feet. The height of

storm waves on various important water way" have
been observed to be as follows:
North Sea 12' to IS'
vil

Mediterenean IS' to 20'

Atlantic Ocean 30' to 40'
Pacific Ocean 50' to 60'
Tropical Oceans 50' to 60'
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

12 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

,.,.,,-

in
ave section: A sea wave when br~aking
against an obstacle or a sea structure gives nse to
various forces, and the more important of these are
as follows:

ot.
(i) A direct horizontal force causing compression.
(ii) A deflected vertical force tending to shear
away any projections on the face of the ~fl.
(iii) A downward vertical force due to tl'ie collapse
sp
of the wave, which tends the disturb the mound
construction of the foundatiQn and sea bed.
A. Dt-F~"CTr: u..-llD 'DIKE:'
&. OOWH ....AQO V~TI<.Al ~ ( e
log

C. A.e-TU~H SU<TIOti fORCe-

.b

FIG. lO(a)
tas
da

Wave impact on sea-wall.

vil

Fro. IO(b)

(iv) A suction due to the return of the water

after striking, which tends to disturb the mounds in
foundation.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

NATURAL PHENOMENA-TIDE, WINO AND WAVE 13

in
These forces have been diagramatically shown
in fig. 10 acting on a sea wall with a rubble mound
foundation.

ot.
Applying these fundamental forces in designing
sea walls or break waters, they give risc to the follow-
ing phenomena:
"'__( i) A powerful momentary impact combined
with a hydrostatic pressure for a short: period.
sp
(ii) A vibratory effect on the whole structure.
(iii) Impulses imparted to the water contained
in the joints or pore3 producing internal pressures in
various directions.
log

(iv) Alternate contraction and expansion of the

confined air in the pores and cavities of the structure.
Theoreti al evaluation of these forces or deter-
mination is practically. impossible, but to guide the
Engineer a few factors like (a) dynamic value of
.b

wave action, (b) air compression and (c) water hammer

effect could be studied with advantage.
Dynamical effect of wave action: Based on
tas

the simple principles of dynamics, the reaction

of a surface subjected to continued impacts could
be measured by the rate of destruction of the
momentum. The strike of the wave is sudden and
continuous, and causes a sharp blow of high instant-
aneous intensity, followed by a static pressure for a
da

very short period. Generally the whole process is

considered as a simple and constant impact.
The mass of water impinging on unit surface
w.v
- - ,
vil

g
where w is the wt. of unit volume of water,
v the velocity of the wave and
g acceleration due to gravity.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

14 HARBOUR AND DOCIe ENGINEERING

in
The rate of dissipation of momentum = wv
_. X v
g
wv 2
g

ot.
Therefore the reaction of the surface on which the
. wv 2 •
wave stnkes = - = p the pressure on umt sur-
g
face •............................... . ...... . . (1)
sp
(a) In deep water.:
When the depth of water is great compared to
the length of wave, velocity is atmost equal to that
caused by a freely falling body through a height
log

equal to half the radius of the circle the circumference

of which constitutes the length of wave. Thus, velocity
v= 1/ 2g l
r 27t

= 2'25y"l ............................. (2)

Considering the wave as a cycloidal curve,
.b

the height h of the wave = l, where 1 is the length

7t
of the wave
tas

.. v = y4h from equation (2).

Substituting this value in equation (1), we get,
p = 16 wh
g
wh I
= 2" neary.
da

(b) In shallow water:

In shallow water, where if depth of water
is d, it has been found the velocity v = 5· 73yd
vil

approximately.
Substituting this value of v in equation (1), we
h ave p= w X 32·8 X d or wd approximately.
g
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

:>IATUR.o\L PHENOMENA-TIDES, WIND AND WAVE 15

in
Hence if the depth is taken in terms of height of
wave as equivalent to 31l, 2h or Il, then corresponding
values of p is 3wh, 2wh or wh respectively.
!

ot.
A it compression:
/' The maximum , internal pressure on an impri-
soned all' column in - the po!,es or crevices of
structures" wili be' equal' to as much 'as 3:5
times the pressure of water on the face of the wall
sp
or structure. In crevices or open joints in maso-
nry structures, this disruptive force, when repeated
constantly, has a powerful damaging effect. But
where such sea walls or break waters are [Link]
of the mound type the air compression is greatly
log

reduced, owing to the numerous void s aces in the

m~)Und , through which the pressure re leves itself.

(c) Water hammer:

This hydraulic phenomena produces maxImum

.b

pressures equivalent , to fifteen times the face

pres~t on ,enclosed water columns, inside the
joints and pores ' of the masonry struCture" but if
there is sufficient air cushion at the end of the
tas

opening, much of the etlectis;educed. [fig. 11].

FA.(~ OF

PRE':55UQfc
Dl0~'T"
da
vil

Water hammer and air cushion.

FIG. II
A notable example to illustrate the incredjble
-..ana unpredictable damage caused by sea wave~ , is
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

16 ItARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
that of Genoa harbour, where during a severe storm
considerable damage and destruction was caused.
The harbour at that time had a masonry break
water (fig. 12) roughly of the shape of letter Z in

ot.
plan, and a mile and half in length. The 'fetch'
in the ' area is nearly 600 miles and the storm waves
rose nearly 25' high. In the first section the waves
had sucked away the boulder protection for a length
of 800' exposing the foundation completely sweeping
sp
the apron stones each weighing about 40 tons a dis-
tance of 160 feet away from the wall.
.b log

OQIGIIIA.L LINe- Of-

BLOCK 5 8. i!oOUI.O""
• ~I"AL _ILe- ,r- - - L -...
~Tf:-. 3TO~."· / e~r :ci_"
tas

• 5~aJON -01' HOlf.:" •

Plan of Genoa harbour.

FIG. 12
In the third section 500 feet length of wall · was
da

split into several sections and bodily thrown into the

harbour, the largest such block weighing nearly 10
to 12 tons.
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
C HAP T E R III

BREAK WATERS

ot.
_./ Br eak wat er: The protective barrier construged
to enclose harbours, and to keep t e harbour waters \
undisturbed by the effect of heav and tron seas
are called break waters. Such a construction makes
sp
it possible to use the area thus enclosed as a safe
anchorage for ships and to facilitate loading of cargo
in comparatively calm waters.
Sometimes the inner side of a break water is
log

constructed as a Quay for cargo handling and is

known as a Mole.
"...-elassification of break waters: Break waters
are classified mainly into: (i) heap or mound break
water, (ii) mound with superstructure and (iii) upright
wall break water.
.b

(1) Heap or mound break water is a hctrogeneous

assemblage of natural rubble, undressed stone blocks,
rip rap, supplemented in many cases by artificial
tas

blocks of huge bulk and weight, the whole being

deposited without any regard to bond or bedding.
This is the simplest type and is constructed by tipping
or dumping of rubble stones into the sea till the heap
or mound emerges out of the water, the mound being
consolidated and its side" slopes regulated by the action
da

of the waves. The quantity of rubble depends upon

the depth, rise of tides and waves and exposure. On
exposed sites the waves gradually drag down the
mound, giving it a flat slope on the sea face. As
far as possible such flattening has to be protected.
vil

The disturbing action of the waves is most be~

tween the h igh an ow water levels. Consequently,
all protective methods are adopted a bove the low
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

18 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
water level. Protection is also very necessary to
the top of the mound and outer, or exposed face.
Methods of protection:

ot.
(a) Dumping heavy blocks of concrete on top
and on front face. This to a great extent resists

~ =l '=
sp
Concrete blocks on top and frot face.
FIG. 13
log

the flattening action of the waves, by sheer weight.

These blocks weigh 25 tons to 30 tons and are either
deposited at random fig. 13 or laid in courses as
shown in fig. 14. These blocks are prepared as
.b

e)<TIO-AIOIl
tas

.. " ' . . '.

~ - -.'OC o · ' :"· -.,_

da

Concrete blocks laid in regular courses.

FIG. 14
rectangular solids and laid with ends towards the
waves. This provides minimum area and maximum
vil

mass against impact or overturning.

(b) Paving -the upper part up to the low water
level by deep granite blocks (fig. 15) is another method
to protect the top and face. Granite paving blocks
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

BREAK WATERS 19

in
set in cement mortar reduc s the · erosive action of
the waves.

ot.
sp
Top protection by granite paving .
FIG. 15

.......-Mound [Link]: Rubble mounds are

formed using rubble of assorted weights, placed ac-
log

cording to sizes; the smallest and lightest materi~ls

constituting the core. The sizes are increased gradu-
ally outwards. This arrangement' is logical, exposing
the bigger sizes to the action of the waves, while the
smaller sizes forming the core are protected (see fig. 16) .
.b

• r E [Link]~
tas

Mound formation.
FIG. 16
da

Where rubble is difficult to get concrete blocks

have been used to form the mound. Concrete blocks
have the advantage that they could be heaped at a
steeper slope than rubble, economising in space and
vil

material. Also the size of blocks could be controlled

to suit the exposure condition.
(2) (i) Mound with supert~ founded at low
water:
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
20 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
A solid superstructure consisting of a Quay
protected by a parapet on the sea face is construc-
ted on top of the rubble mound (fig. 17). Such a con-
struction is founded about low water level. The

ot.
~dvantges of such a construction are,
PARAPe'T

COIfC. "LOCK covelli'",

~.

I NTtRIOR
sp
log

Mound with solid superstructure

and concrete block potection.
FIG. 17

(a)
It provides a platform for handling cargo.
It protects the top of the mound.
(b)
.b

It reduces the mass of rubble required for

(c)
the mound in proportion to the depth at
which it is founded.
Unlike the ordinary or plain mound break water,
tas

this type of construction makes it possible for ships

to come close to the break water wall on the inner
or harbourside for loading and unloading cargo.
Heavy concrete blocks are used on the sea face
for protection. The front batter changes from ' 2·8
da

to 1, abruptly to 1 to 1 in order to provide a sharp

edge to cut the waves on impact.
(ii) Mound with superstructure founded below L. W.
level:
vil

This type of construction affords the advantage

of founding the superstructure well below the
level of disturbance, the waves having _ practi~
IUL_oot\:H'bing effect at such low ve s. In deep
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

BREAK WATERS 21

in
waters this type, IS very economical In mound mate-
rial (fig. 18).

ot. [Link]', L
sp
1--- - - -- - - - 1 9 1 '_0 " - - - - - -_ _ _...
Mound with superstructure founded below L.W L.
log

FlG. 18

.,/"Stability of mounds: Mounds lack quality of

permanence in shape and section specially the upper
portions. They stand in ,e quilibrium, below - levels
of wave effect at slopes of 45 ° to 50°. The maximum
wave effect and disturbance of the mound is felt bet-
.b

ween H.W.L. and L.W.L. Hence large and bigger

blocks of 30 tons each or more are deposite at a_
slope of I to I in this region. The concrete blocks
are made in -hrrge rectangular blocks and laid as
tas

headers, offering minimum face area and maximum

resistance to overturning. ~. ;\QJIJ (0/0"
MOUND CONSTRUCTION: '" ~
Size of material and arrangement: Mounds are
formed in ~rted ayers, the smaller sized material
da

being dispose at the base and the larger at the top

and sides, particularly between the High and Low .
water levels, which region is the worst affected (fig. 16).
Methods of construction:
vil

Mound construction is carried out by anyone

of the following three methods.
(i) Barge method.
(ii) Staging method.
(iii) Low level method.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

22 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERlNG

in
(1) ( Barge ) method: Special barges with flat
bottoms and .-f1oppers with vertical sides and doors
at the bottom opening outwards are used. The
hoppers are loaded with rubble, and the barge is

ot.
adjusted and aligned in position along the line of
construction and the load is discharged by opening
the hopper doors (fig. 19). Rubble should be
evenly distributed over the entire width of base of the
break water mound. The layers are trimmed and
sp
rectified to the correct section by divers.
.b log
tas

~ IWPPl"R ~
~I
LoooR llf:'LD tly <I"N~ . '
da

Discharge from hopper barge.

FIG. 19 (b )
When the mound rises up sufficiently high that
hopper barges cannot be used, decked barges (fig. 20)
are resorted to. These are loaded and brought to
vil

the site and slightly canted by flooding compart-

ments on one side, causing a tilt which dislodges the
material.
This method has the advantage of offering the
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

BREAK WATERS 23
opportunity for a uniform depositing, simultaneously

in
over a large area.
A - OMPARTMENTS CO"'~ING
~TE.R &AlLAST '

~=tl A A A
,Decked barge.
FIG. 20.
A

ot.
:J±±
sp
~ 2 ) Staging method,' A series of piles are driven
at regular intervals of 15' to 20' and connected by
longitudinal runners, struts and braces (fig. 21 ) forming
a number of parallel tracks for tipping waggons to
move on rails. These tracks are well above the high
log

sea level and at 25' to 35' centres. The material is

hauled on this staging and is tipped at the ends and
sides. As work in one section is completed the staging
is removed and re-erected in a forward posi tion to
continue the work. Very heavy and powerful tackle
arrangement is necessary to withdraw the staging piles
from the areas where the mound has been completed.
.b
tas
da

Cross-section of staging.
FIG. 21
(3) Low level method,' This consists in forming a
length of mound from the shore, well above the
high sea level and using this for laying tracks and
vil

running tipping waggons on this solid break water

structure as it advances. This method naturally
restricts the scope of a multi-section attack, but has
the advantage of consolidating the mound formed, by
the traffic of loaded waggons.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
C HAP T E R IV

WALL BREAK WATERS

ot.
These are regularly designed as structures sub-
jected to forces causing failure in the following ways:
-0 ) By the shearing of bed joints or by sliding
of one block against the other.
1 ii) By overturning as a solid mass .
sp
/ (iii) By the uplifting of horizontal layers.
iiv) By fracture.
I. Shearing of bed joints due to horizontal
log

pressure of the wave: Thi is prevented by

(a) The resistance of offered by the adhesive
force of the mortar joint. Usually 1 :3 cement mortar
is used, giving a high adhesive strength of 6 to 7 tons
per sq. ft.
b) Frictional resistance to sidillg: In the case of
.b

concrete or stone blocks the coefficient of friction is

·7. The resistance will be ·7W. But the effective
weight should be calculated after making a llowance
tas

for loss of weight due to immersion, equal to the

weight of an equal volume of water.
ll. Overturning: It is another aspect of the
horizontal pressure and the design should provid<; for
this, like ordinary walls, to keep the resultant of the
da

weight and the horizontal pressure within the middle

third of the base, to avoid tensional stress in the fo und-
ation courses. The maximum permissible compres-
sive stress is taken as 12 tons {sq. ft. with concrete on
rock base.
vil

The horizontal force causing shear of the joints

and the overturning has been experimentally deter-
mined in many cases and the maximum value has
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

WALL BREAK WATERS 25

in
been found to be about 2·8 tons/sq. ft. at mean sea
level, taking the average wave size as 26' (fig. 22).

ot.
sp
f.2-2 TOH3-j
Horizon tal force 011 sea-wall.
log

FIG. 22
m. Uplifting: It. 1 due to wave action or wave
force underneath a mas. The only opposing force to
eliminate this is the weight of the masonry, which
thus is a simple case of equal and opposite forces.
IV. Fracture: This docs not result directly
.b

from wave action. It may be caused by the dislocated

blocks, knocking against each other, and breakin~ ~
loose the joints and such failures are usually avoidec ~
by proper bonding 11) the masonry, by joggles etc ~
tas

(see fig. 23 ) . >-

0::
~I()
[IJ , rn -
1Xl
..J
'I,
II,
~ "'
~
('I')
da

~ ­
:J
Dovetail Masonn' Joggle joint Dowel joint.
(a ) . (b ) (c)
Joints in Blocks.
FIC. 23
vil

•
This type of break water construction is suited to
sheltered site and not reliable for very heavy seas.
When depth is not great and the bottom is firm
upright wall break water could be built.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
26 HARBOUR AN D D OCK ENGI NEERING

(i)

in
Advantages: Reduces the amount of material.
/' (ii) Avoids dangers of unequal settle-
ment, as in the case of mound.

ot.
Disadvantages: (i) Involves building a good height
/ of wall und er water.
(ii) Calls for special care and costly
methods of construction.
sp
A typical section of upright wall break water is
shown in fig. 24.
log

I'-l<TF.-IUO
.b

/
tas
da

f- -~ .· . 6 ·:;_ -~

Section of upright wall break water.

FIG. 24 •
vil

Alternate construction: 100 ton concrete bags are

deposited by special hopper barges across the full
width, upto L. W. Level. Above this level solid con-
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

WALL BREAK WATER, 27

in
crete wall is constructed. Jute cloth protects concrete
during passage through water, and the cement mortar
oozing out of the pores of the bags forms the morter
joints (fig. 25 ).

T
B ot.
sp
~
t • .~"'
_l!-
JUTr:- e,.o.G5 F-ILlt-O WIT-Il CONCRf-Tt-
r:-IG>1ING 50 TONS TO 100 TON:I.
log

1l-·- ---.4""o·.()I:-"- ~·I

Wall on concrete bag foundation.

FIC. 25
.b

___.....-METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION:
_./

The most popular method is the staging system,

though all the methods adopted in the case of the
tas

mound could be made use of with additional lifting

devices, on proper floating a rrangements.

Staging jystem: It consists in erecting on either

side a regular staging on piles, bridged over at inter-
da

vals by braced cross girders. The staging carries over

head moving gantries, with tracks for trucks to carry
huge concrete blocks of construction. The blocks are
bodily lifted and placed in position, with due regard
to joints, on a previously prepared firm foundation.
vil

The blocks are sometimes shaped to form a "dovetail

masonry" in plan (fig. 23 ). Heavy Joggles are
formed to prevent lateral movements of blocks under
the impact of waves. Fig. 26 shows the method of
construction by this method.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

28 HARBOUR AND DOOK ENGINEERINC

in
J ot.
sp
!
log

.9
::

(Lu4lTtl ~ :W~ ~.
a,a\ .:d" T"" ..... "u,a t;,IU.(U)
.b

Cross-section of staging showing construction of wall breakwater.

Fro. 26

Bond : The blocks have to be properly bonded ~

tas

together and at the same time allow relative set1mn,~

but stop lateral movement. Joggle or Dowel joints as
in masonry could be adopted.
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER V

DOCKS

ot.
/ . Docks arc enclosed areas for berthing ships,
to keep them afloat at a uniform level, to facilitate
loading and unloading cargo.
Harbours are prone to be affected by tides, which
sp
may cause changes in the water level. If at low tides
the level is sufficient as not to ground the ships, the
ships could be berthed in these areas.
Thus, in ports on the open sea coast protected by
log

an outlyigg_ breakwater, basins are formed within

its sl1eher fig. T. In these basins, quay walls are
projected at right angles to the shore alongside
which vessels can lie and discharge their cargoes.
.b

,
'\
\.
I U~. '\
tas

I ( ~ANEi. \.
I '
I
. e, A 5 I '"
da

oS E- ...

Dock location and basin formation.

FIG. 27
__.ap e n berths : Where tidal ranges are very
vil

marked and large, docks are formed by enclosures.

The water level in these enclosures should be
maintained at constant level by providing locks
and gates .
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

30 HARBOUR AN D DOCK E NGINEERING

in
Docks or ~_docks are enclosed and are shut
off by entrances or locks to maintain a fairly uniform
level of water, and basins are partially enclosed areas
of water, which are apprmrched by open entrances

ot.
and are subject to fluctuations of levels, due to
tidal variations. These are also known as tidal basins
(e.g. Mediteranean sea) .
•
The permissible tidal range is about 15'-0".
sp
Advantages of tidal basins:
./
(1) Vessels can come 1ll and berth or leave at
all times.
(2) Costly arrangements like lock gates are not
log

required.
Advantages qf wet docks:
../ (1) Uniform level of water is maintained which
is very convenient ' for handling cargo.
(2) Prevents the rubbing of the ships' sides
.b

against the quay walls.

(3) Effect of storms in the outer sea and har-
bour do not obstruct the dock enclosure.
tas

River ports: are formed with quays alongside

the river banks, where the tidal effect is small. ' The
river in this case serves as the basin (fig. 28) .
\
When tide ranges are large in such rivers, wet
docks are constructed, with locks and entrances, 'which
da

retain the water level during the fall of level in the

flver.

Form and arrangements of basins and docks:

vil

The exact arrangement and form must depend

upon the available site. The object to be aimed at in
the design is to obtain the maximum length of quay
in proportion to the water area of the basin or dock.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

DOCKS 31

in
ot.
sp
log

Dock location on river sid e.

FIG. 28
Shape of decks and basins: Should be of
.b

shapes form ed by straight lines , as curved

lines arc not suitable for ships to stand alongside.
(i) Rectangular shape: The length and breadth
could be adjusted to give the maximum quayage
tas

(fig. 29) .

-tf STIlAIGIlT
[Link]
da

. eo ... SIN

-T-e:--"'---- -V
r---e,-Q-e--..-II--- W-
..
\.__ _ _ _ _ _ _--'-_ _ _ _-'_
O U T LYIHG
[Link]':"~
SUt"l Te-~
"'[Link]
1!>.~lIi
- ~ TO
vil

Basin with protective breakwater.

FIG. 29
(ii) Diamond shape : For the same perpen-
dicular distance between the long sides, the long
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

32 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEER ING

in
sides could be conveniently extented (fig. 30) .

•
ot.
sp
f-tHQAN'f:-

Diamond shaped basin.

FIG. 30
log

(iii) Inclined quays type: It consists of a number

of projecting quays into the basin or dock (fig . 31).
.b

Basin with inclined quays.

FIG. 31
Lo cati on : Docks could be located, on inland
ports of rivers, at estuaries or on open sea coast.
tas

A site on the sea coast is preferable to one up a

river as at Calcutta, where navigation of the Hugli
river is difficult especially as the river is congested
with local traffic. A proper piloting service is
necessary for this purpose. The river aproche~ to
da

the dock have to be maintained.

A site on the estuary of a river, if sheltered, broad
and free from storms is very good. (Southampton).
Int ernal arrangetnent: Separate docks are
vil

usually required for different kinds of cargo, as for

example, coal and oil should be dealt with separately,
away from general or food cargo. Flour acquires the
smell of its surroundings and should not be discharged
near cargo, with strong odour like salted fish .
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

.~ DOCKS 33

in
yther aspects:
(1) Availability of fresh water to replace leakage
and fouled water from docks. In inland ports sepa-
rate canal from the rivers will have to be drawn for

ot.
this purpose, if alternate sources of supply are not
available. In the case of sea coast docks the sea water
could be used for cleaning and replenishing the dock.
(2) Approaches must be sheltered and of sufficient
sp
depth. In many cases both on the open sea coast
I or in inland docks, the approach channel has to
frequently dredged (fig. 27 ).
In certain ports, docks could be approched only
log

at high tides as the approach channel cannot be

navigated at low tides.
Design and construction of basin or dock walls:
Design loads:
.b
tas

[Link].l [Link]
da

TO Q~T !)UI'PII'IG .
vil

Typical section of a dock wall.

FIG. 32
These walls are designed as gravity retaining wall
sections. It should satisfy the following conditions:
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
34 HARBOUR AND DOCK RNGlNEER ING

in
(1 ) Dock empty to withstand pressure of back fill.
(2) Dock full with back fill removed.
(3) Thickness at top should be sufficient to resist
the shock of contact with ships.

ot.
(4) Dock walls have to carry additional con~
centrated loads like crane foundations, and
capstans or bollard fixtures for mooring ships.
(5) Surcharge loads in the shape of loaded vehicles
or trains on the quay adjacent to the wall.
sp
(fig. 32).
Other aspects of construction details:
(i) Basin walls have to be of u~h.m gre~t
height than dock walls to allow for the vanatIOn
log

In
water levels due to tides.
.b
tas
da

Sliding caisson.
FIC . 33
vil

(ii) As the water level has to be kept constant

the sides and bottom should be made impervious and
arrangements must be made to supply any loss of
water by leakage.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

DOCKS 35

in
(iii ) The front [ace is generally straight or has
a very slight batter for ships to stand close to the wall .
(iv) Thc front face is given a granite fending

ot.
surface or timber or steel fender to protec t the face
of the wall from abrasion of ships.
(v) lvlaterial for construction: Dock walls are
constructed of [Link], b rickwork or concrete or a
combination of these materials (with construction
sp
joints as in the case of concrete walls).
Dock entrances: Docks are entered either
directly or through Jocks. In either case gates are
provided for the dock entrances . The types of gates
log

used are:
(1) Wooden or Iron gates as are adopted for
locks.
(2) Caissons.
The former type IS described in detail under
lock gates.
.b

Caissons for dock entrances: Two kinds of

caIssons are ell].ployed:
(1) Sliding caisson.
tas

(2) Ship caisson.

Sliding caisson: It consis ts of a box shaped
steel structure stiffened internally with proper bracing.
It is provided with steel keels sliding on smooth granite
floor. Instead of the keel'l, the caissons could be moved
on rollers and rails. The entrance is opened by hauling
da

the caisson into a recess provided in the side of the

dock. The caisson also serves as a bridge across the
dock entrance.
Ship caisson: Resembles the outline of a
vil

ship in cross-section and is constructed of steel with

stiffeners at proper intervals. It is floated into position
and sunk into specially prepared grooves in the dock
sides and sill. The sinking and raising of this caisson
is done by ballasting and unballasting respectively.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

36 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
This type does not require any gate recess or machinery
for moving (fig. 34). .

ot.
sp
log

Ship caIsson.
FIG. 34
Sizes of dock entrances: The width of
entrances depends on the largest ship the dock has to
.b

receive. Modern ships have beam widths upto 100'

nearly, and to accommodate the largest ship the
entrance will have to be ufficiently wide for this
purpose.
tas

2 TON CI"'N~
da

1-,,'-1
vil

Sectiun of dock showing quay, sh eds and oth er arrangements .

FIG. 35
Fig. 35 illustrates a typical dock and other
apurtenances like crane, sheds etc. in the proximets.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
C HAP T E R VI

REPAIR DOCKS

ot.
~epair docks are necessary for the execution of
repaIrs, cleaning and painting of ships' bottom.
Hence these docks and docking arrangements should
be such as to expose, the ship's exterior fully and keep
it out of water ~uring the progress of repairs or reno-
sp
vation . . There are generally four classes of such
docks viz:
1. Graving or dry dock.
2. Floating dock.
log

3. Marine railway.
4. Lift docks.
__./·Graving or Dry dC!£.k: The graving dock,
also known as a dry dock is a long, excavated chamber,
having side walls, a semicircular end wall and a floor.
.b

The open end of the chamber is provided with a gate

and acts as the entrance to the dock. Figs. 36 (a) and
(b) show the plan and an enlarged cross-section of a
typical graving dock.
tas

The side walls are formed with a series of steps

known as altar courses to receive the ends of the
r - - - - - - - 1000 • ------------1
.I
!ALTE'l8"~·2

(
da

Plan of dry dock.

FlO. 36(a)
vil

shores which support the vessel in a vertical pOSItion

while being docked. The dock is constructed of
concrete or masonry and the altar courses and steps
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

38 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEER ING

in
are of granite to withstand heavy wear.. Suitable
culverts are also provided in the side walls for filling
and emptying the dock.

ot.
. + 1/
16

~AG f>oLTS f~
sp
K eel block.
.b log

Enl arged cross-section .

tas

FIG. 36(b )

The dock floor is finish ed in concrete and is very

heavy. On the floor are fixed the keel and ~
blocks on which the ship is brought to rest on the
~tying of the dock. The floor has a. cross fall to
da

the side ,d rains which have a longitudinal slope to

carry away all wash water. The drains are' protected
with proper gratings on top to exclude solids and
scrapings carried by the wash, while cleaning the
ship's bottom.
vil

Other accessories include big capacity pumps,

lifting and hoisting machinery and repair equip-
. ments all suitably housed either on tqp of, or inside
the side walls.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

REPAIR DOCKS 39

in
/ Method of Dry docking: The ship enters
the dock on adjusting the water level inside the dock
to that outsid~" when the entrance gate is closed.
The water inside the dock is now pumped out by

ot.
powerful pumps, the ship being kept vertical a nd
central by the shores between the ship's sides and
alter steps while slowly being lowered on to the keel
and bilge blocks on which it comes to rest.
__.......-
Size of dock: The size of a dock depends on
sp
the size of the largest ship it has to dry dock. Dry
docks to handle modern big ships have to be 1,000 ft.
in length, with an entrance width of 80 ft. to 100 ft.
The ratio of length to breadth of modern ocean liners
log

are about 9·5 to 1. One of the world's biggest dry

docks is built in British Columbi,a. The Esquimalt
dry dock has a length of 1150 ft. and breadth of
135 ft. It is constructed of concrete, with granite
altars. The pumping plant consists of 3 pumps of
60,000 gallons per minute capacity each, which
empties the dock in 4 hours. This would give an
.b

idea of the enormity of the dock size as well as its

pumping equipment.
~rces on a graving dock: The principal
tas

forces to which the dock is subjected are:

i...- Weight of ship resting along the centre line
of dock floor, when dock is empty.
"V 2. Weight of water on the floor when dock is
flooded.
da

)..3. Upward pressure under the floot' when it is

being emptied.
"V 4. Earth and hydrostatic pressures behind the
side walls.
5. Load imposed by the shores on tqe inside
vil

face of the side walls.

6. Surcharge on the side walls due to cranes
and other heavy stationery and movmg
. appliances.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

40 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGlNEERING

in
7. In addition to this if there is a strong breeze
blowing during dry docking operations, the
shores on the leeward side of the ship will
be subjected to wind stresses.

ot.
For purposes of design the following conditions
of loading are to be investigated.
Dock [Link]: The floor is subjected to heavy
uplift, which will be considerably more than the
weight of the floor itself. This unbalanced excess
sp
load is transmitted to the side walls, by "actual"
or "virtual" inverted arch action, and being resisted
by the weight of the side wall and the horizontal
pressures behind it (fig. 37).
log

The weight of a ship resting on the empty dock

floor, adds concentrated loads along the centre line
of the floor. Heavy reinforced floor sections may
become necessary if the soil is soft or yielding, as
intensity of this load may reach as high as 75 tons to
90 tons per running foot. It is generally assumed that
5/8 of such loads are borne by the keel block and 3/8
.b

equally divided on the bilge blocks on either side,

at the loaded sections.
tas

,. Scheme of dry dock consrruction.

da

I FIG. 37 '
Dock filled with water: This condition imposes
the greatest load on the foundation . The horizontal
pressures behind the side wall are moreor less resisted
vil

by the water pressure inside the dock. The inverted

arch action of the floor will be absent under this
condition of loading, and the full weight of the side
wall less loss due to buyoncy along witl;l the surcharge
loads, will have to be taken directly by the foundation.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

REPAIR DOCKS 41

in
Scheme of constructing dry docks : Very
careful thought has to be bestowed on the effects of
horizontal eartl;l and hydrostatic pressur s as well
as uplift pressures during the construction of docks.

ot.
The sequence of construction should be 0 manipu-
lated as to ensure the stability of the structur during
construction. The following ~chem in this respect
is noteworthy: (fig. 37).
(i) Site is partly excavated and portion marked
sp
a of the side wall is built.
(ii) The core h is excavated to lay the floor in
short lengths and the outer section el , el , are laid,
leaving the core in betwee n. By so doing only small
log

lengths of the side wall are exposed to the lateral soil

and hydrostatic pressure; this pressure being also
sustained by the unexcavated central core e of the
floor and the completed sections of the floor el , el •
(iii) The flooring in the central section is placed
after excavating the core e.
.b

(iv) The upper portion of the side wall marked

d are constructed.
(v) The back fill e is placed to complete the
tas

work.
D esi gn of d ry dock [Link] : The floor of the
dry dock ~ustain loads both from above and below
under critical conditions like that of the floor of locks,
and floor thickness has to be carefully designed. A
simple numerical example will make this aspect very
da

clear:. Let us consider the concrete floor of a dry

dock to sustain 40 ft. of water over an entrance width
of 70 ft. Assuming a modulus of rupture of 10 tons per
sq. ft. for cement concrete, a floor thickness of nearly
vil

20 ft . will become necessary, jf the foundation below

the floor sinks and the concrete slab breaks, in conse-
quence. But actually such an extreme condition is
rare. Then consider the same floor to withstand the
upward pressure when the dock is empty, causing
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

42 HARBOUR AN D DOCK E NGINEERING

in
a reversal of the original conditions. Of course this
upward pressure is to be taken up by the virtual invert-
ed arch or actual constructed flat ar<;h_m:__the floor.
In practice it has been found quite sufficientiocteSign

ot.
the floor thickness, to accommodate an inverted
arch of about 6 ft. thickness and t rise, adding up to
an actual floor thickness of 16 ft. to satisfy all the
afore-mentioned conditions.
It would also be necessary to construct the side
sp
wall and the floor as independent sections considering
the divergent effect of the forces on them. It could
be also noticed that constructing the floor slab in
sections aids in its action as an inverted flat arch to
resist the upward pressure.
log

Keel and Bilge blocks: Keel block consists

of hard wood blocks of very large dimensions. A
number of blocks are so spaced along the centre line
of the dry dock floor, to afford sufficient bearing to
the ship's keel, without the blocks being crushed.
A typical simple keel block of wood is shown in
.b

fig. 36. The block is made up of 2 or 3 blocks placed

one above the other and is placed at 4 ft. centres
longitudinally. The height of the block is about 4 ft.
tas

to 4! ft., to give enough clearance for workmen to

work under the ship [fig. 36(b)J.
Bilge blocks also consist of two or more thicknesses
of timber and are fixed on both sides of the 'keel blocks,
but at longer intervals apart. The upper part of a
bilge block is slightly wedge shaped, fbr being; ad-
da

justed under the ship to give a level seating.

Floating dry docks: Floating dock may . be
.......-aefined "as a floating vessel which can lift a ship
out of water and retain it above water by means of
vil

its own buoyancy". I t is a hollow structure of steel,

or concrete consisting of 2 side walls and a floor, with
the ends open. To receive a ship, the structure is
sunk to required dept~ by ballasting its interior
chambers with water, the ship is then floated into
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

REPAIR DOCKS 43

in
position and berthed; the dock is raised bodily with
the berthed ship by unballasting the chambers by
pumping out the water.
Types of floating docks : There are three

ot.
important types that have been developed VIZ:
(i) Rigid type or non-self docking.
(ii) Self docking type.
(iii) Self docking offshore type.
sp
Rigid type: In this type the side walls are
rigidly fixed to the pontoon or bottom section (fig.
38). The floor portion is divided into a number of
chambers, so as to assist in canting the dock if neces-
sary to berth listing ships, by partial unballasting
log

of the chamber.
.b

SIDE
tas

ONTOON
Rigid type floating dock.
FIG. 38
Self docking type: "Self docking" refers to
da

a type of floating dock, which is divided into sections

longitudinally, anyone of which is capable of being
lifted and docked on the remainder of the dock for
purposes of, cleaning, painting or repairing. A
vil

typical self docking dry dock, known as Bolted Sec-

tional type is illustrated in fig . 39; firstly the whole
dock (which is in three sections) is shown assembled;
secondly the centre section is shown detached and
about to be docked on the two end sections; and
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
44 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
thirdly an end section is seen being docked on the
other two.

J-----k---~ --- -l,

~-b ot.
sp
log

Bolted sectional floating dock (self docking).

FIC. 39

This type is usually constructed in" three equal

sections, the two end sections having stepped ends to
form landings during self docking. It combines the
.b

advantage of strength of the rigid type with self dock-

ing facility.
The Offshore type: The offshore dock has no
tas

side wall on the water side and has an 'L' shaped

da

- -- I
-~
L ____________ ..i,
... ,
1.. _____________ -'
vil

Offshore dock (self docking).

FIG. 40 .
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

REPAIR DOCKS 45

in
cross-section. The side wall is connected to the shore
· by hinged parallel booms capable of lifting 01: lower-
ing the dock. The ship to be docked, could be
brought on to the dock from either end or sideways.

ot.
The dock is longitudinally made into two sections,
so as to dock one half on the other. . Th dock and
the self docking operation is illustrated in fig. 40.
This type of dock is convenient in a sheltered situation
and adaptible for being attached to river fJuays.
sp
Design c onsiderations: The design of float-
ing docks has to be considered in respect of two condi-
tions, viz:
log

(i) When loaded with a ship: The transverse

strength of the structure should be sufficient to
e1'l_flble the buoyancy of the side walls and the side
sections of the pontoon to carry the concentrated
load of the ship along the longitudinal central axis
of the floor.
.b

(ii) When unloaded and floating: The tr; nsverse

strength should be sufficient to support the weight of
the side walls and other heavy machinery carried by
or on the side walls, like pumping units, cranes, etc.
tas

When a ship is on the dock , and the dock com-

mences to rise, the water ballast from the side walls
is unballasted first. The sheath or skin of the side
walls will thus be exposed to the outside water pres-
sure and has to withstand this pressure. The maxi-
da

mum pressure will be attained, when the side wall

is fully empty and the dock is still immersed and in
the process of rising. In most floating docks this
pressure is not allowed to exceed 20 ft. head of water.
In order to..get the full lifting effect a floating dry dock
vil

has to }.>e fuIfyunballasted which results in the dock

structure taking all the transverser bending strain.
A correct manipulation of the pumping out of ballast
will ensure avoidance of any undue or excessive strain
on the structure.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

46 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
.._Advantages of floating dry dock:
( (i) It is cheaper in initial and working cost!,.
/' (ii) It could be constructed in half the time

ot.
( it takes to construct a graving dock of the
same capacity.
~i) It has the advantage of mobility and
could be transferred from port to port.
(iv) I t could be trimmed to take a damaged
sp
and listing ship, which it could not be
possible to tow through the entrance of a
graving dock.
..(v) It has no elaborate entrance or gate ar
log

rangements.

}/ Disadvantages of floating dry docks:

. / )i) The durability or service life is appreciably
Jess. The floating dock being a steel struc-
ture constantly afloat in sea water could
.b

have a life of only about 50 years, like any

other steel structure, whereas a well con-
structed graving dock is practically inde-
tas

structible.
/ (ii) Upkeep and maintenance are more since
a floating dry dock itself is a large floating
vessel and needs dry docking, cleaning,
painting etc.
da

(iii) The m_anotlv..e.t:ing and towing of a floating

( dry dock needs great skill and care and in
exposed situations it may not be possIble
~1 to use it at all .
Q,lp _/,"Marine railway: Marine railway is an inclined
vil

'f'allway extending from the shore well into the

water as well as the foreshore, to enable a ship to be
drawn up clear out of the water. The. essential parts
are cradle. which moves up and down an inclined
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

REPAIR DOCKS 47

in
track and the track itself supported on an unyielding
and firm foundation or pile foundations.
The cradle or platform (fig . 41) is constructed

ot.
sp
.b log

Enlarged mid-section .
FIG. 41
of steel and provided with keel and bilge blocks to
tas

receive the ship. The crad ic is mounted on a system

of rollers which move on iron tracks carried by longi-
tudinal timbers, supported on cross tics or beams bearing
on piles or other firm foundations. Strong cables
attached to the shore end of the cradle haul the cradle,
operated by strong mechanical winches built on shore.
da

The ways consist of h avy rails secured to longi-

tudinal sleepers supported on cross ties, and laid at
an inclination varying from 1 in 15 to 1 in 20. A
rocking device to receive the safety pawls under the
vil

cradle is placed in the centre of the ways, to keep the

cradle from slipping back if the hauling cable breaks.
For dry docking the cradle is slipped down into
deep water and the ship to be docked is towed over
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

48 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
the- cradle1and positioned to rest and moored to the
towers on either side of the cradle. The cradle slowly
emerges above the H . Water level, when hauled up the
ways, permitting the ship to come to rest, on the

ot.
cradle floor as the cable reaches the normal docking
position.
The use of this type of dock is no doubt economi-
cal but is limited to vessels of not more than 5000
tons. In modern naval practice this type is yielding
sp
place to graving docks and floating docks which have
become popular.
_ / ' Lift dry. dock: These are substantially constru-
cted platforms capable of being lowered into and
log

raised from water. Raising and lowering is accompli-

shed by means of hydraulic power applied through .
cylinders supporting the ends of cross girders
carrying the platform. As modern ships have
considerably grown in tonnage and size, this ancient
method of dry docking had to be discontinued, glvmg
.b

place to more efficient and less cumbersome types.

tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER VII

ENTRANCE LOCKS

ot.
Locks giving access to docks resemble In prin-
ciple river or canal locks.
The lock consists of a chamber, enclosed by quay
walls on each side and is JJaved at the bottom by f!:.n irlJp-
sp
ted ar§}_l flooring, to resist the upward water pressure,
When the lock level is low. This floor abuts against
the side walls, protecting them against sHding due
to earth pressure when lock is empty or has a low
level of water. The gates closing the entranc are
log

constructed of wood or iron of heavy design to stand

heavy water pressur. These gates close against a
sill provided for the purpose. The sill is raised above
the gate floor by 2'.
Sluice ways are formed in the side walls for fIll-
ing and emptymg locks (fig. 42 ).
.b
tas

Plan of lock.
FIG. 42
Lock foundations: Foundations have to be
da

carried with special care, so as to secure the Jock

against settlement. Foundations generally adopted are,
(a) on bearing piles protected by sheet piles
alround, or
vil

(b) on hard pan.

[Link] of entrances and l ocks: Depend
on the width, SIze and displacement of the longest
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
50 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
vessel using the lock and dock. Modern locks have
widths varying from 80' and above and depth 25'
to 40' and lengths of 800' and over. Fig. 43 shows

ot.
sp
.b log

Plan op gate floor .

FrG. 43(a)
tas
da
vil

Cross-section of lock.
FIG. 43(b)

a typical lock, with an enlarged plCl;n showing the

details of the gate floor.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
ENTRANCE LOCKS 51

in
Construction of Lock Gates:
Material: The gates are made generally In
pairs and are of,
(a ) Wood, and

ot.
(b) Iron.
Wooden gates: They consist of a series of
horizontal beams of green heart, (plain or fram d)
spaced closer towards the bottom to resist the water
sp
pressure, and joined together by a heel post and meet-
ing post at the two extremities and uprights in th
middle. Over the beams are fixed close sheeting
of boards on the inner face (fig. 44). -
log

t-,~
.b
tas
da

:5IL ..

Wooden lock gates.

FIG. 44
vil

Iron gates: Iron gates consist of plate iron

ribs fixed horizontally and vertically and covered
over with a skin of iron sheeting. The thickness of
plate ribs are increased, and the spacing of the ribs
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

52 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
reduced towards the bottom to withstand the increas-
ing water pressure (fig. 45 ).

ot.
sp
log

Lock gates.
FIG. 45

Forces on the gates: The stresses, a gate has

to bear are,
.b

(1) a tl"ansverse stress due to the water pressure

against the inner face, increasing with
the depth of water;
tas

a compressive stress along the gate due

to the pressure imposed by the other gate
at the meeting, which is a component of
the water pressure reaction. This compre-
ssive force is equal to the product of half
the water pressure and the tangent of' half
da

the angle between the closed gates, as

shown below: (fig. 46. )
Consider a pair of lock gates AB, AC, having a
rise n, the width of the lock being S. Let the length
vil

of each gate be equal to L.

Water pressure on AB = wL, if w is the unit
pressure per foot length of gate, and acts at the middle
point of AB.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

ENTRANCE LOCKS 53

in
The reaction at either end of AB = ~L.
The reaction at the meeting post will be hori zontal
and in the direction AO.

ot.
sp
log

FlO . 46

Therefore the reaction at the heel post must

pass through 0, the intersection of the other two for c s.
Thus,
.b

L OAB = L OBA
and L OBA = L ABe
2n
tas

tan ABC = S.
The component of heel reaction along AB
=
wL cot
- 0:
2
wL S
da

= 2" . 2" (Pruduct of half the water pressure

n and tangent of half the an gle
between the gates) .
wLS
= - -, which is the compresiv~ force
vil

. 4n on the gate.
It could thus be seen that the Icompressive force
varies inversely as the 'rise' . Thus, a large rise will
decrease this stress, but by increasing the rise the length
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

54 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
of the gate will be increased, which will increase the
transverse stress due to water pressure on the gate.
This will also increase the length of the lock. A
good compromise is achieved by adopting a rise of

ot.
i or i·
Shape of gates: The shape of gates in plan
have an important bearing on the strength of gates.
Gates are usually straight or curved.
sp
The straight gate is subjected to forces as discussed
previously and have to be designed accordingly.
The curyed gate is strong against the transverse
water pressure, and on account of the arched shape,
log

the transverse stress gets decreased as the curvature

increases and the two gates together form a circular
arch, when the transverse stress is completely changed
tol ongitudinal compression. Thus, the stress becomes
wholly compressive. This of course varies with the
depth of the gate, as the section of the gate at the
bottom gets the maximum compressive stress. These
.b

gates are theoretically the best type. But such gates

have the following draw backs. viz.,
(a) They are longer and costlier.
tas

(b) They require large gate recesses.

(c) The gate sils will have to be curved, which
is difficult and costly to construct. So, as a
compromise, gates with a small curvature
on the inside and with a straight sill are
da

constructed (fig. 43).

Support for dock gates: The gate is fitted
with a pivot cap at the bottom of the heel post, which
rests and revolves on a steel pivot embedded on the
vil

floor. At the top it is fixed by an encircling anchor

strap, which is tied back to the wall. Where the gate
is long and heavy it is provided with castors or, rollers,
under the free end to ease the overhanging weight.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

ENTRANCE LOCKS 55
~

in
These rollers are provided with roller paths on the
gate floor (fig. 47 ).

ot.
sp
log

Heel post of gate.

FIG. 47

Working of gates: The gates are usuall y

opened and closed, by two sets of chains, one for
opening and the other for closing and operated
.b

simultaneouslv. These chains are fastened to each

gate at one third its height on both sides, near the
free end. Various mechanical devices have also been
adopted for this purpose.
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
C 'I APT ERVIn

QUAYS

ot.
Platforms or landing places are necessary for
ships to come close enough to the shore, for purposes
of rembarkatiQn;' disembarkation etc., at the same
time. These platform locations should give suffi-
cient depth of water for the ship to float. Such
sp
platforms are called WharVtH. They are built out into
or on to the water. Wharves along and parallel to
the shore are .generally called Quays and their protec-
tion walls are called quay walls (fig. 48. )
.b log
tas
da

Quay walls.
FIG. 48

Those that project into the ship's fairway or basin,

at right angles or oblique from shore are km;>wn as
vil

Piers.
Design of quay wall : Quay walls are built
to retain and protect the embankment or filling.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
QUAYS 57

in
Factors affecting the design are:
(1) Character of foundation.
(2) Horizontal pressure to be provided for.

ot.
Quay walls are designed _similar to retaining
walls but on the water side they are subject to varying
water pressure (owing to level variations due to tides),
and on the land side, ~rth and containe water
pre ~ ures, with proper allowances for surcharge.
sp
Forces on quay wall: (fig. 49).
log

-H
t---..L!:oI:.Il....-_ _ .J....
t-----4
.b

Forces on quay wall.

FIG. 49
tas

(1) Horizontal pressure: Generally the contained

water on the land side stands at a higher level
especially at low tide. Hence a rapidly falling tide
t;xposes the wall to a combined earth and water pres-
sure from the land side. This is the most critical
condition. Taking unit length of wall,
da

Water pressure =
W h2
+
Earth pressure
vil

Combined pressure
where ,Wl = weight of 1 [Link]. of sea water.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

58 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
w 2 = weight of 1 [Link]. of earth behind the wall.
cj> = angle of repose of the earth.
h = height of wall.

ot.
(2) Overturning moment: It is caused by the mo-
ment of differential head. Consider a unit length of wall.
Total equivalent liquid pressure (W ) acts at a height
i on the shore side and water pressure (w) acts at
sp
a height ~ on the waterside, at low level.

Taking moments about the base,

log

The differential moment = W X 3"h - wH

"3 ' ten ding
to overturn.
For equilibrium, this overturning moment has
.b

to be balanced by the weight of wall and the counter

moment. Hence.
p X '!_ = W X Iz _ wH
233
tas

Construction of quay walls : These walls have

to be founded under water and constructed in water.
The various types of wall construction are as follows:

(i) Solid wall types are founded on ~ els,

da

caissons and mounds, and raised above water by

masonry construction or large concrete blocks
(fig. 50 and fig . 51 ).
(ii) Dwarf quO:) wall types founded on piles
vil

are also built. (Piles should be immersed always

under water, if of timber). These are economical
for river ports and ports having very moderate traffic
(fig. 52) .
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

Q_UAYS 59

in
(iii) Timber lattice work jetties carried on iron
piles or cylinders provide the cheapest form of
quays, during the initial stages of port development.

ot.
sp
.b log

Solid quay wall.

FIG. 50
tas

COHR~T 81.00:..
, 01'4 ,,",OUHD
.
da

. .. .. - '..
' . .... .. .
QQCY C:cx a;r j t r-c
Solid quay wall.
FIG. 51
vil

The driest and most durable materials should

be put at the back of the quay walls, such as rubble,
slag, granite to minimise pressure caused by back
filling (fig. 52 ).
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

60 HARBOUR AND DOCKS ENGINEERING

in
Maritime quay walls must be extended into deep
water for vessels of the largest displacem ent , such
depths varying from 25' to 36'.

ot.
sp
OM PIL ~S
log

PILI:.S
DRIVEf'I TO HARD :STRATA.

Quay wall on piles.

FIG. 52
.b

In long quay walls expansion joints at every 66'

IS necessary. These are designed to permit irregular
tas
da

TAR APpJ.,.lED TO f>OOY

COHcRE"£' &EFORE.
kf:Y 6LOCK. IS CA~T.
vil

Expansion joints on quay wall.

FIG. 53

movements of adjoining sections but to lock them

to prevent horizontal break (fig. 53) .
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER IX

TRANSIT SHEDS AND WARE HOUSES

ot.
Transit sheds : These are the sheds of one
or two storeys in height, the floor area being devoted
to the handling and distribution of incoming and
outgoing cargo requiring protection and used for
sp
storage of cargo for a short time. Hence these
should be capable of affording flood space for
storage of incoming cargo and accumulation of cargo
ready for loading into the vessel (fig. 54) .
log

Transit shed.
.b

FlO. 54

Construction requirements:
tas

(1) Doors should be provided for ready and

rapid opening and closing (folding or
sliding doors could be employed) .
(2) C nstruction should be ligrt and _fire
resistin (as goo s are on y in transit
da

ana no need to store in safety for a

long time).
(3) Should have ample lighting provided by
long continued sky lights during day
time and ample artificial lights for
vil

working at night time .

(4) Should have modern fire fighting app-
aratus.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

62 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING

in
Other requirements:
(1) Should be adjacent to the quay.
(2) Should have big capacity for storing

ot.
incoming and outgoing cargo at the
same time.
(3) Provision of road and rail for quick
transit of cargo.
(4) Equipment like portable cranes for
sp
handling cargo should be adequate.
Fig. 54 shows a typical transit shed constructed
of steel and ~f large dimensions (width 180' inside).
log

Roadway runs through the shed; and railways lines

run on the quay and behind the shed. The maxi-
mum capacities, floor area and quay space with res-
pect to each running foot length of quay are the prime
factors to be considered. For the shed shown in the
figure we have per running foot length of quay,
.b

Capacity of shed 5012 c. ft.

Floor area of shed 19·9 sq. yd.
Quay space 4·0 sq. yd.
tas

Ware houses are permanent structures, usually pro-

vided on shore or directly behind transit sheds for
goods to be stored for a lengthy duration.
When such ware houses are for storing dutiable
cargo remaining under customs authority, until
da

cleared, they are called Bonded ware houses.

Modern ware houses are built of R.C.C. with
many floors (see fig. 55).
vil

They include buildings, devoted to' special pur-

poses, such as grain storage, meat storage etc., special
types of construction and equipment for each type of
material will be required. Hence in the equipment,
special storing bins and spouts to empty grains at
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

TRANSIT SHEDS AND WAREHOUSES 63

in
floor levels refreigeration plants for cold storage etc.,
have to be put in. Loading and unloading arrang -

ot.
sp
log

Ware house.
FIG. 55

ments, like light cranes may have to be put up at

.b

intermediate floor levels so as to reach top floors and

bottom floors a)-ike.
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER X

MAINTENANCE DREDGING

ot.
Dredging is defined as "excavating under water".
This excavation is carried out to increase the depth
of waterway to provide sufficient draft for ships , in
harbours, entrances to docks etc. Actions of waves
and tides, tend to deposit sand and silt within mari- I.
sp
time enclosures and navigable rivers. During ebb "-
tides a certain amount of scouring takes place but
stil1 a large deposit remains uncleared reducing the
navigable depths.
log

Dredge or Dredger is the name applied to the

equipment which carries out this deepening or dredg-
ing work.
Di sposal of the dredged material: Dredged
material is mainly disposed off in the following ways .
.b

(i) Conveyed out to sea and deposited far from

the site of accumulation.
(ii) Conveyed and deposited in swampy areas
tas

inland or adjacent to the shore for "reclamation"

of land.
In respect of the above, state laws are established
as to the disposal of the dredged material and have
to be followed.
•
da

Types of dredging devices: The following

are some of the modern types of mechanical dredges
used in modern marine engineering practice.
(1) Dipper dredge.
vil

(2) Grapple dredge .

(3) Continuous bucket or ladder dredge.
(4) Hydraulic or suction dredge:
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
MAINTENANCE DREDGING 65

A brief description of the working of these dredges

in
will now be given.
Dipper dredge: It consists of a floating vessel
strongly constructed, carrying an inclined 'A frame

ot.
in the bow to hold the boom B by guy wires.
Through the middle of the boom runs a dipper stick,
worked by a rack and pinnion arrangement and to
the end of which is rigidly attached the dipper bucket
K, with a flap. A hoist cable is fixed to the bucket,
sp
to move it up or down. The vessel is fixed to the
bed in position by means of three stakes during the
dredging operations. The boom B could swing
horizontally, at the bow.
.b log
tas

Dipper dredge.
FlO. 56
da

Operation: The hoist cable is released, to

enable the bucket to reach the bed when a crowding
force is applied to the stick, through the rack and
pinion forcing the teeth of the bucket to bite into the
soil. The hoist cable is slowly pulled resulting in a
vil

cut being made in the bed. The hoisting is continued

and the bucket is hauled out of the water, the boom
B is swung round to deposit the material in the
bucket, into any scow alongside or on to any prede-
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

66 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGtNEERING

in
termined place, by opening the flap. The boom is
swung back, and the dipper lowered , in preparation
for the next cut.
Advantages oj dipper dredge:

ot.
")- (1) Easy manouverability and hence suitable
for use in confined spaces around docks and narrow
channels.
(2) Very powerful and capable of excavating
sp
in hard soil, for removal of boulders, and breaking
up of heavy objects like old piles, cribs etc. This type
of dredge, can dig in depths upto 50' of water and
the dipper capacity varies from 1 to 5 c. yds. normally.
These types of dredges of heavy capacities of about 15
log

c. yds. are in use in the Panama canal.

Grapple dredge : It consists of a substantial hull,
to the front of which are fixed an 'A' frame and a
boom B. The 'A' frame is guyed back, by back legs.
A grab bucket K is suspended by two cable lines H,
.b

H' called the opening and closing lines. The

tas
da
vil

Grapple dredge.
FIG. 57
boom is fixed at the required elevation by means
of a guy wire and arranged to rotate through a hori-
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

MAINTENANCE DREDGING 67

in
zontal angle on a pivot at the lower end. The bucket
hoisting lines pass over two main sheaves fixed to the
upper end of the boom. The dredge is moored by the
f \

ot.
help of stakes fixed fore and aft.
Operation: Mter positioning the dredge, a co
is brought along side and tied fast to it, on the right
side. The bucket is lowered to the bottom, where it
bites the bed and fills itself. Then tension is put on
sp
the closing cable, which closes the bucket, hoists the
load and swings the boom horizontally to the right.
When the boom reaches over to the scow, the tension
in the cables are reversed, and this results in the
opening and discharging of the bucket and the boom
log

swings back to the digging position as before.

The hull is generally 100 ft. to 200 ft. long and
50 ft. across, the booms being 50 ft. long. The capa·
city of the grab bucket ranges from 10 [Link]. upto
30 [Link].
.b

This dredge is very efficient and suitable fo

dredging materials, like sand, clay or mud, but no
good for hard diggings. The bed dredged by a gra
will seldom be even and will exibit pits and high spots.
tas

Continuous bucket Elevator or Ladder

dredge: It consists of an endless chain of buckets,
mounted and running round a ladder L, formed in the
t;niddle of the bow of a floating vessel. The ladder
·could be lowered or raised by ·the line N. The chain
da

of buckets is operated, manually or mechanically by a

big wheel E. The buckets are provided with pronged
-cutting edges.
Operation: Each bucket cuts and brings up
vil

material to the top of the ladder as the chain moves

round, where each bucket inverts on descent and
·discharges its contents into special holds H.H. The
vessel moves forward on completion of work at each
·section.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

68 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGUNEERING

in
The size of these vessels is about 2DD...fr.. in length
and 50 ft . in width, having a draft of about 8 ft . to
10ft. These can be used for digging depths of ~._ _
to 40 ft. The average digging capacity of such a

ot.
sp
log

Continuous bucket el evator or ladd er dredge.

FIG. 58
vessel is about 8000 [Link]. to 10000 [Link]. per day.
.b

This dredger is very suitable for handling coarse

gravel or sand, hard clays and even soft or broken
stone, at fairly good depths and beyond the reach
f a dipper. The bed dredged is least disturbed.
tas

' Hydraulic or suction dredge: It consists of

a suction pipe, carrying at the lower end a cutter
of some sort and having a universal joint at top.
This pipe is supported on a laddq and held in posi-
tion by an A frame mounted on the bow of the dredg-
da

ing vesseL - The suction pipe is connected to a centri-

fugal pump located amidships having a long fI~xible
delivery pipe discharging into hopper barges along-
side the vessel itself or on to specially selected spot
on shore, needing reclaiming or filling.
vil

Operation: ' The hull V carries the suction pipe

'S' on ladder, in the bow and the pumping machinery
P is h oused in the middle of the ship. with its delivery
pipe D discharging into hopper barges floating be-
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
MAINTENANCE DREDGING 69

in
hind the dredging vessel. The cutter is suspended
from a frame in front and the vessel is moored by
anchors. The cutter rotates, cuts and loosens the
soil for quick and easy suction by the pump. The

ot.
cut up material is well churned in the operation, and
mixed with water to facilitate suction.
sp
log

FIG. 59

3
.b

:1
H ydrau lic or Suction Dredge.
tas

FIG. 59 (b)
Sea going dredges of this type have a size varying (
from 150 ft. to 450 ft. in length and 30 ft. to 50 ft. in
width. The digging depths vary from 15 to 50 ft.
The machinery is operated either by stearn power or ,'\
da

electric power. The pump is a special type of centri-

fugal pump capable of handling heavy particles of
dirt and rock brought out in dredging.
This type of dredge is very effective in beds of
sand, silt, mud and clay in open water and is an exce-
vil

llent machine to clear sand bars. If big boulders or

tree stumps are met with, they will have to be lifted
out before putting the cutter to work. Gravel and
soft rock are easily reduced by the cutter.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
ECTION II
log

TUNNEL ENGINEERING
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER

GENERAL ASPECTS

ot.
TUlmel are underground pas age used for
transportation. They ould be used for carrying freights
and passengers, water, sewage gas te. The m thods
involved are underground operations known as Tunnel
driving and the ground surfac is not disturb d.
sp
,)r' Advantages of tunneling : There are rnany
factors that make a tunnel more advantageous than
other means, viz.,
(i) Tunnels are more e onorni al than open
log

cuts beyond certain depths.

(ii ) Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering
surface life and traffic during construction.
c onomics of tunneling : Thi s is a very
road question and in general depends on the rela-
tive cost of open c ut vs tunneling. The followin g
.b

aspec ts of the problem are instru ctive:

(a ) Nature of soil , part icularly in deep cutting,
with the consequent side slopes and volume of xca-
tas

vation , will greatly influenc the cost of open cuts .

A tunnel may be comparativel y cheaper and
easier.
(b) If the soi l is hard rock, the open cut cou ld
be of steep side slope, ilwolving much less volume
da

of excavation and may prove ;::heaper; whereas a

tunnel through the same, though may require little
or no timbering may be very difficult to blast ont.
(c) The requirements of fill in the neighbour-
vil

hood also largely influence the choice. If a large

amount of material is needed for the nearby fill, an
open cut may be justified, though a tunnel may be
comparatively more economical.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
4 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
Generally when depth of cut IS over 60 feet
tunneling is advisable.
Tunnel approaches: 'Ihese _ a!_e 0 en cuts_at
tither ends. The cost depends on th e topography.

ot.
The approach is ver short (see fig. 1) .in case _ of
sp
""'",ItP-"C!If I- AP~ -to:i A C; H
Short approach Long approach.
FIG. 1
steep hill slopes and ver Ion when the hill slo e
IS very flat. A~ ver high altitudes t e approac es
log

. are 1 e y to et snow ound In winter or may get

13loCked by neavy ana slides. These factors may
carr weight in deciding 'tile c Olce of 'cut' or 'tunnel'.
lignlDent and grade: The several points
consideration could be summarised as follows:
(1) Strai ht ali nment is_b~t. an9 economical.
.b

(2) r es in a tunnel should be appreciably

less than that outside; thf: tendency to continue the
maximum grades, of approach . open cuts into the
tunnel should . be checked. In a railway tunnel,
tas

b c
da

G~DIE. I'fT- C:;~ OI ~ NT

Surfac ealignment and grade for tunnel.

FIG. 1 (a)
vil

ther will be constant wetness of rails .causing.. slip_

~ of the wheels nef increased atmos heric resis-
tance. These tend to reduce th~ hauling capacity
o ocomotives.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
GENERAL ASPECTS 5

in
(3) As nearly level as 0'2% gradient may be
given to provide effective drainage in the tunnel.
(4) In Ion tunnels it is better to giv_e t
::ising from each en towards the centre. [se-e- .....__.,.';-r'

ot.
(5) But, ventilation will be more effective if th
grade is all in one lrection:- - .
unnel surveying: A brief description of the
type of survey and the instruments usually used will
sp
be given. Mainl the work ~ nsists qf alignment
of the centre line_ on the surface_, its transfer into th
tunnel and good levelli ng work on tne surface and
inside the tunnel.
log

(1) First a preliminary location survey is done,

followed by a very precise resurvey of the line on th
surface.
(2) As tunnel excavation is carried. out from
each end 'face, . as also from. several intermediate shaft
ces, Q!inute accuracy in the survey of the centre
.b

line is essential; the centre line will have to be carried

forward by prominently marking on each fresh fac
after excavation. When adjacent headings carried
from opposite faces meet, there should be no appreci-
tas

able shifting of the centre line laterally or verticall y.

(3) 'W hen the tunnel is short, ordinary engineers
transit, properly handled gives close and satisfactory
result.
(4) When the tunnel is very long it is very
da

necessary to have a . unne nsit which is large, . . . .

owerful, invertible in the wyes and is fitted with a
stft m level, by which the transverse axis can be
~de truly horizontal.
vil

(5) These instruments must be frequently tested

and maintained in adjustment.
(6) Levelling work is carried on in the standard
way except for the fact, that where steep slopes are
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

6 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
encountered extra care is necessary to avoid errors.
The practice is to make back sights and, foresight
equal as far as possible to neutralise and minimise
errors due to mal-adjustments of the instrument.

ot.
(7) Horizontal distances are measured by:
(i) Stepping or (ii ) inclined sights.
Cumulative errors arc avoided by applying neces-
sary checks and corrections to the steel tapes, for
sp
tension and temperature.
Curved line survey and alignment (see fig. 2)' :

\
log

~ \
\
\ T"'N G EN 1.

\
\
\ C \ HEADING . '
.b

\ \
C'ENTI?E. LINt: OF'
TU ~N E'"
\
\
I
\
tas

I I
r I
I
I
I
da
vil

o
Centre line on curve~
FlO. 2
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

GENERAL ASPECTS 7

in
(1 ) The heading contains short tangents to the
curved line like ab, be, cd etc.,
(2) To locate the centre line · offsets from these
tangents are set off.

ot.
(3) When heading has proceeded upto x y, align
points like n on the tangents . Set off the calcu-
lated offset n 0 to intersect the centre line at 0, on
the heading.
sp
(4) Centre line has to be transferred thus after
each blasting of the heading face.
_ / ' Transfering centre line into the tunnel:
;Phis is a work needing the utmost care and accuracy
log

in execution, as otherwis~ the centre line worked

from opposite faces will not meet, and deviations in
the centre line will cause overbreaking and additional
expenditure, especially, when the material tunnelled
through happens to be hard rock.
Elaborate equipment is necessary for the pur-
.b

pose: Initially plumb bobs, weighing 22 lbs. are

lowered into the tunnel shafts from the surface from
tas
da
vil

Transfer of centre line into the tunnel.

FIG. 3
opposite faces of the shaft, to transfer two points from
the centre line on the surface, vertically down. The
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
8 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

plumb bobs are suspended by piano WIre, passing

in
over grooves cut on pipes fixed, across the mouth of
the shaft. The wire of each plumb bob is wound
over a reel and released to the required length to the
bottom of the shaft. Once the bottom is reached,

ot.
these plumb bobs are replaCtd by a pair of extra
heavy ones made of angle iron, to keep the wires steady.
As a further precaution against the wires oscillating
or vibrating, the heavy plumb bobs are kept immersed
in a pail of oil (fig. 3) placed on the shaft floor. The
sp
line joining these two piano wires is fixed and extended
by a theodolite placed in the shaft (as shown in the
figure ) on to a point on the roof of the heading and
indicated on spuds or dogs fixed to the roof. A
log

corresponding point is similarly located on the roof of

the opposite face. The centre line is then marked on
the floor of the shaft with reference to the roof points
and is extended through the tunnel.
I >~ ransfer of tunnel grade: Grade levels
from tunnel portals are carried into the tunnel in the
.b

ordinary way, but transferring levels from the surface

to the shaft bottom, the same piano wire and plumb bob
equipment is used . wo marks are made on the
wire one at the top and the other below, 5 feet above
tas

the intended springing level of the arch roof. The

R.L. of the top mark is first determined with respect
to a bench mark at the top near the shaft mouth and
the corresponding R.L. of the other mark is obtained.
With this as reference a permanent B.M. is established
da

on the side wall of the tunnel and the floor levels are
then transferred and continued from this B.M.
'V Design of shape and size: ~a e of tunnel
, ' cross-section is gQV rned by the nature an type of
groun penetrated . wliile size IS argely controlled
vil

by the use to w lch the tunn IS pu .

, the circular tunnel section is the
- ~ -, -' eit er internal or externa pressures;
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

GENERAL ASPECTS 9

in
and at I he same time rovides the greatest cross-
area Sor the e~amtr. But this section

ot. 8
sp
Arch with ~ t raight sides. Horse shoe section. Circular section.
log

Shapes for tunnel cross-sections.

FIG. 4

though ideal has other disadvantages from the engI-

neers' point of view. The curved invert makes it
. difficult 111 ' .carry railway tracks without corisiderable
filling and levelling of the invert. The curved bottom
.b

also makes it_ difficult for placing the [Link](! Jjning

of the invert. general _2ractice is to design tunel~
in rock with a semicircular arch and vertical side walls.
in
tas

lunnels soft soils or ground, are usua ly circular

or horse-shoe -shaped as they have to. withstand hori-
~tal pressures. The horse-shoe shape is a compro-
mise [Link] to minimise the inconvenience of lining
the invert of a circular section. Fig. 4 shows
typical sections in common u e.
da

Procedure of work: In the wake of driving,

tunnels are lined, with timber, masonry, or concrete
with suitable outlets to let out enclosed sub-soil water
behind the lining. Other items of work including
vil

provision of ventilation during and after construc-

tion, drainage and lighting if necessary, are carried
out to complete the construction of tunnels.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER n
CLASSIFICATION AND TUNNELING
METHODS

ot.
/ Methods employed vary with the kind of soil
penetrated. Mainly soils are classified as (1) hard
rock or fully self supporting and (2) soft soils, requir-
ing temporary supports during and after construction.
sp
The soft soils are further classified as:
(a ) Running ground, needing instant support
alround. Water bearing sands and similar
cohesion-less soils come under this
log

classification.
(b ) Soft ground needing instant support for roof,
like soft clay soil.
(c) Firm ground wherein the roof will stand
for a few minutes and the sides for a much
.b

longer period. Firm clay, dry earth and

ground are good examples of this class
of soil.
(d) Self-supporting ground, when the soil stands
tas

supported for a short period and for

short lengths of 4 feet to 16 feet .
.of, Methods of tunneling (soft soils): . The
more popular methods are:
da

..( i ) Forepoling method.

e ) Needle beam method.
(ii Army method.
(i American method.
vil

(v1/ English method.

(. Belgian method.
A brief description of each of these standard
methods will now be given:
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND TUNNELING METHODS II

in
I. F orepoling method: This is
only s_yst m which could _pe a v cated
ground and similar soils: The process is slow and
tedious requiring skilled miners. Iunne s 01 small

ot.
dimentions, Tor laying sewers, gas pipes etc., at ordinary
depths, could advantageously be constructed by this
method. It is very important that the sequence of
operations has to be strictly adhered to, in the correct
order.
sp
Sequence of operations jor a 5' X 5' tunnel in running
ground (see fig. 5 (a) and (b) :
( 1) A shaft is sunk from surface to the grade
level and properly protected with timber heeting .
..
log

"14''w Ir-- , ~ .. ~3-

., .,
5P'lf. 7. f( GO It 5-6.
~ ~ TR s
~
S H

.i iWii .w
~
i
J l
.b

FIG. 5(a)
tas
da

Forepoling method.
FIG. 5(b)
(2) A wooden bent properly braced is set up
vil

a few inches from the sheeting.

(3) Small holes at close intervals are drilled
through the sheeting to facilitate sections being cut
out later. The pattern of the holes are as shown in
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
12 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
figure, 3 inches apart above the cap, and another
line of holes below the cap.
(4) A piece of sheeting above the cap is cut
out along the top line of holes.

ot.
(S) Forepoles or 'spiles' consIstmg of planks
Sf X 6" X 2" with wedge ends are entered one at
a time and driven through the cut, into the ground
for half their lengths with an upward inclination of
sp
2" per foot. This inclination is very important to
prevent fouling of spiles.
A few spiles are also started on the sides,
flaring out with a slope of Ii" per foot.
log

(6) After all the roof and part of side spiles are
driven to half their lengths, a timber is laid across
the back ends of the spiles and by wedging this down,
the front ends of spiles are cantilevered up.
(7) The face sheeting is now cut across the lower
line of holes, which removes the sheeting between
.b

the two rows of holes and the loose soil is allowed

to run into the tunnel till the face assumes a natural
slope.
tas

(8) A 'horse head' is now set as a temporary

support about 2 feet from the sheeting and the spiles
are driven to their full length; the earth beneath the
forward end is scooped out for a depth of 18" ana
the face supported by a breast board, placed under-
neath the point of the spile.
da

(9 ) The next cap supported on a bridge is then

set and temporarily supported on a single post.
(10) Meanwhile the side spiles are also driven
vil

for their full lengths.

(11) A heavy horizontal beam 6" X 8" is pushed
forward to support the forward cap. This facilitates
clearing the forward bench, setting the new bent for
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND TUNNELING METHODS 13

in
the forward cap and relieving the temporary support-
ing beam.
(12 ) The 18" breast board is now extended to
the grade level by adding new sheets. The side spiles

ot.
are secured to this by cleats. This new brest board
acts as the sheeting for the next set of operations.
The sequence of operations are illustrated III
fig. 5.
sp
II. Needle beam method: This method is
suitable for soils, in which the roof could be depended
upon to stand for a few minutes without support.
By this method 10' to 12' length per day could be
log

advanced.
The needle beam consists of a stout timber beam
or a composite fEtched beam (see fig. 6) and forms
the main temporary support during the excavation.

f---- - - - 1tJ·rf
.b
tas

Needle beam method.

FIG. 6
da

The sequence of operations is as follows am:\.

diagramatically shown in fig. 6.
( 1) A monkey drift for a short distance of 3'
is driven beyond the day's work, on the working face .
vil

(2 ) The roof of the drift is supported by lagging

carried on wooden segments, which are in turn sup-
ported by two trench jacks set in hitches cut in the
sides of the monkey drift ..
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
14 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
(3) After this drift is completed the needle
beam, which is about 16' long is slowly skidded for-
ward into the monkey drift.
(4) The front end of the needle beam rests on

ot.
planks on the floor of the drift, while the rear end
is carried on stout posts resting on the floor lining •
of the tunnel. A trench jack is now placed on the
centre line of the needle beam to support the seg-
ment, thus transferring the roof load to the needle •
sp
beam.
(5) The other trench jacks are removed and
the drift is widened side-ways and supported as before,
by 1aggings , segments and trench jacks supported on
log

the sides of the needle beam, as shown in fig. 6.

If necessary compressed air could be used initi-
ally for roof support, at a pressure of 12 lbs. /sq."
III. Army method or Case method: This
method was devised by the United States Army
.b

for constructing sm all tunnels at fairly shallow

depths. This was mainly used for laying underground
sewers.
The great advantage of this method lies in its
tas

simplicity and economy as only a few timber planks,

with a trench jack or two form the main equipment.
The operations involved are as follows: (see fig. 7. )
(1) To advance the work the top brest b~ard is
removed and the ground excavated for a short distance
da

of 8" to 10" ahead; the breast board is reset in the new

face and braced back.
(2) The next cap board is set and held in posi-
tion by a 'crutch' or trench jack. 't
vil

(3) The breast boards are removed one at a

time, and reset in a line below the top breast board
after removing the earth behind each breast board,
thus forming a new advanced face.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

SOIL CLASSIPICATION AND TUNNELlNO METHODS 15

in
The sill boards are now advanced after
the grade level.
fixed between the

ot.
sp
log

Case method.
FIG. 7
IV. The American method: This is a method
suitable for large sized railway or highway tunnels.
.b

The operations involved are as follows:

(1) A top drift shown by dotted line in fig. 8
is first driven and supported by 1aggings , segment
and two posts.
tas

.
, .'.,
\ \~
da

'~ . ~
I , / ./

~, \ " II
I. .....L ....-'?,
t.-V~PO!lT -"/_j_/
I

i
I , - , - /

\\. \.. ___________ __ I

vil

~ ~ -t.. J
American method.
FIG. 8
(2) Sides of the drift are now widened and
supported on shoulder segment timbers and struts
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
16 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

~rom the sill; widening is thus carried upto the spring-

in
mg.
(3) Wall plates of 16 feet lengths are introduced
at the springing, supporting the arch set 'omposed

ot.
of the segments, which are connected Sll i Lably by
dowels at their ends.
(4) The wall plates are then under pinned b y
introducing props or vertical posts at intervals.
(5) The timber arch segment, and roof load
sp
are thus transferred to the wall plate and posts for
support, relieving the timber support in the top
drift, which are now removed.
(6) Sides and benching are more full y cleared
log

and the tunnel lined.

V. The English :method: (see fig. ~n
(I) A central top heading about 16 lCet ahead
of the existing arch lining is driven.
(2) This is supported by crown b ;'1 rs, which
.b

are supported on posts in front and blochd by the

face of the completed arch ring in the r(';11'.
tas
da

English method.
FIG. 9
vil

. (3) Widening of the. heading is thcll done as

111the American method and the sill piece i ' extended
right across the tunnel.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND TUNNELING METHODS 17

in
(4) The extended sill is underpinned and sup-
ports are introduced, the entire arch now being carried
on the longitudinal crown bars.
This method involves the use of a lot of timber

ot.
and frequent shifting of heavy timber logs back and
forth is the greatest disadvantage of this method.
VI. Belgian method: This is a popular
method and is suitable for all classes of moderately
sp
firm or hard soils. Fig. 10 indicates the sequence of
operations.
(1) A top centre heading, for the full rise of the
arch abc d is driven and supported by crown bars,
posts and laggings, similar to the English method. Th e
log

posts are supported on sills.

(2) The heading is widened sideways, and suppor-
ted by additional crown bars and posts supported
from the same sills.
(3) The arch lining is then built and a horizontal
.b

brace is fixed between the ends of the arch at the

spnngll1g.
tas

d .$l~ C
da

Belgian method.
FIG. 10
vil

(4) A trench M N 0 P is then excavated to

clear the benching right down to grade level. Pockets
are cut at intervals in the trench sides to insert shores ·
to underpin the arch.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

18 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
(5) The alternating spaces between shores are
then cleared and the supporting side masonry is built.
The shoring is now removed, and the space filled

ot.
with masonry. The invert is then constructed.
The advantage of this method lies in the use of
lighter sections of timber, as the timber is used closely.
But the disadvantage is due to the system of under-
pinning of the built arch, particularly when the
sp
avoidable subsidence of the soil may take place,
causing settlement and cracks in the arch masonry
.b log
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER III

OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELING IN

ot.
SOFT SOILS

Liner plate [Link]: Standard sized pressed steel

plates, plain or corrugated are used to support the
soil and the work is carried on in short lengths corres-
sp
ponding to the lengths of these plates. The plates
are made with flanges of angle shape on all four sides
[fig. 11]. All the flanges carry holes through which
they are connected together by bolts and nuts, longi-
log

tudinally and transversely.

Liner plates are generally made 16" by 36" with
a 2" flange on all four sides. Another common size is
16" by 3'- IH-", the latter dimension along the
PLAIN

Do oQf
.b

0 0

1--16"---1

COJ::R UGA,-CD

f3jlEu=:"" ,," olF "1

tas

f-- I~

Pressed steel liner plates.

FIG . 11

circumference of the tunnel section . The obvious

advantage of this size is that the number of plates
da

required are equal to the diameter of the tunnel in feet.

Stiffening ribs: When diameter of tunnel is
10 feet or more stiffening of the liner plates becomes
necessary to withstand pressures. These stiffners consist
vil

of R .S. beam bulkheads, to the web of which the

liner plate flanges are bolted. Such an arrangement is
indicated in fig. 12 (a). The depth of beam is usually}"
to 1i" per every 3' dia. of tunnel.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
20 TUNNEL ENOINEERTNO

The ribs are generally spliced near the crown and

in
on the flanges as the web connects the liner flanges .
All bolts and nuts, for splicing stiffeners or connecting
liner plates and stiffeners should be made of the same
size for convenience.

ot.
sp
Liners with stiffening ribs.
Flo. 12 (a)
The thickness of liner plates used are as follows
and vary with the diameter of the tunnel. For 6' to 7'
diameter tunnel, i" thick and used without stiffeners.
log

For 8' to 10' diameter tunnel, t" thick and used without
stiffeners. For 10' diameter and above, i " thick with
R.S. beams at 16" centres as stiffeners.
Use of liner plates without ribs:
(I) A hole 16/1 in depth is eut out at the crown
.b

section and a crown liner plate is inserted and set

[see fig. 12 (b)].
tas
da

\ I
\ ~

\ e.d1"'IIIIf l"'~PLATt5 /
"''l" j ~. /
' ~ , ::.:..:.:::.: ......::: -,-
vil

Tunneling with liner plates.

FlO. l2 (b)

(2) Excavation is gradually widened from the

crown sideways and adjacent liner plates (b), (c) are
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELINO IN SOFT SOILS 21

in
set. Trench braces may be used if need be for , support
in case soil exerts pressure.
(3) Top drift is extended for a total length of
three liner prates or 48", and widened sideways as

ot.
before.
(4) Excavation is continued sideways to the
springing line.
(5) Now, wall plates are carefully introduced
sp
with tightening wedges under the last liner plates,
which are spiked to' the wall plates.
(6) The trench braces if used, are now removed,
leaving the liner plate arch to support the roof.
log

(7) The bench is then cleared to invert, to place

the bottom liner plate, which is used as sill for support-
ing the top liner plates by braces. The wall plate
is thus underpinned, removed and the lower section
of liner plates are symmetrically built up from either
side of the invert plate and brought up to the springing
.b

line.
(8) After securely joining the bottom and top
half metal plates, the braces are removed.
tas

Use of liner plates with ribs:

(1) The work is carried out one liner plate
length, at a time.
(2) Each ring between ribs is completed before
da

the succeeding one is projected.

(3) The liner plates are cantilevered out from the
preceeding rib; then the forward rib sections are bolted
to the liners as the widening of tunnel proceeds.
vil

(4) The ribs are brought up to correct levels

by tightening up with wedges from bench blocks.
Grouting the rear of the liner plates: The
area immediately behind the liner plates should be
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

22 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
pressure grouted ([Link].") using good cement mortar.
This is accomplished through 1t" dia. holes tapped in
the liner plates and only semi-dry grout should be used
to minimise leakage through the liner joints and it has

ot.
also the advantage of stopping water leaks in the soil.
Shield tunneling: Shield consists of a circular
steel ring with a transverse diaphragm. The essential
parts of a shield are the Hood, Tail, Cutting edges
and Propelling jacks (see fig. 13).
sp
.b log
tas

LOH(;lrUDIN"L [Link]... c~s SECTION .

Shield for tunneling.

FIG. 13

(i) Hood is the forward extension of the ring

da

at the top and affords protection to miners working

III the forward section.

(ii) Tail is the rear section which projects back

a little distance over the completed lining, which is
vil

usually of heavy cast iron rings as shown in fig. 14(a).

(iii) Cutting edges provided with proper stiff-
eners form the forward circular edge of the shield and
cut into the earth to be excavated.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELlNG IN SOFT OILS 23

in
(iv) Propelling jacks are powerful hydraulic
jacks attached principally along the centre line of the
central ring beam of the shield. These jacks are equally
spaced, react against the i'm mediately completed lining

ot.
and push the shield forward, cutting the soil.
Port holes are also provided in the diaphragm
which could be opened out to permit the rpuck to flow
into the completed portion, aft of the ~hield. The
shield is strengthened by a circular box girder carrying
sp
the skin and there are horizontal and vertic al box
girders to stiffen this ring beam. Such a heavy con-
struction is very necessary to meet unexpected resistance
from soil, specially when the design data availabl e is
log

meagre. Precedent in such design s will be a vital

guide.
Shields have been mostly used for tunnel work
in France, U.K. and U.S.A. for tunneling under
rivers, for tube railways etc. These tunnels are, through
silt, clay, sand and similar soils, more or less uniform .
.b

The progress has been varying, from as low as 2'

per day to as high as 12' per day. The diameters of
these tunnels vary from 10' upto about 30'.
tas

Rrimary lining: It is the name given to the

heavy cast iron lining that is used in conjunction with
da

' Cast iron primary lining.

vil

FIG. 14(a)

the shield. This is made up of segments of 5' to 6

lengths, and is of channel section [see fig 14 (a)J.
The metal thickness is never less than 1".
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
Steering the shield: Forward propulsion of
the shield is accomplished by the thrust of the jacks
against the primary lining immediately behind. The
primary lining should be firmly erected and bolted

ot.
up, to withstand this thrust initially, when only one
or two primary linings would have been erected. As
the work progresses, more and more number of rings
get added and provide sufficient weight and stability
for the forward reaction of the shield. As the lining is
sp
.,
L' ~ I...l ,-
A ,A. f'RI"'I,A,R( L,,. IHCO
log

A
~ A Z . [Link]
II
F-
:s

./ fii ~
"

Steering the shield.

.b

FIG. 14(b)

built inside the tail section,}' a small annular spa~e is

tas

left above the lining where the soil would be

loose and may cause subsidence of the surface of the
overburden, by its settlement. As a precaution against
this, the annular space is pressure grouted with good
cement or rich cement mortar. During prQPulsion
da

the shield has a natural tendency to rotate, which

though helpful in excavation, may cause shifting of the
centre line.

Plenum process or compressed air method:

vil

The essential principle of this method is the use of

compressed air and is very well suited for soft or water
bearing ground. The use of compressed air for
subaqueous work was first. thought of by a French
inventor M. Triger.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT SOILS 25

in
The method consists in forcing air under suitable
pressure into an enclosed space like a tunnel heading,
to force back percolating water or water mixed soil
and thus stabilise the area of excavation.

ot.
Equipment: The following equipment IS
necessary for this method:
(i) Air lock and accessories.
(ii ) Bulkhead to fix the air lock.
sp
(iii) Safety measures during emergency.
(iv) Air compressor.
1. Air lock : It is a long air tight cylindrical
steel chamber, with two doors, one at each end and
log

both opening inwards. These door openings are

provided with gaskets to keep them air tight when
closed. The lock is provided with necessary valves to
adjust the air pressure inside it to atmospheric or
tunnel working pressure. A 4" diameter bulls eye is
provided on the doors for inspection when the doors
are shut tight. Amenities like electric lights, and wooden
.b

benches for seating the miners are also provided inside

the lock. The average size of such locks is 6' dia.
and 30' length. Fig. 15 shows a typical air lock fixed
tas

to a bulkhead ready for use.

da
vil

Air lock fixed in bulk-head.

FIG. 15

2. Bulkhead : It is the air tight diaphragm in

which the air lock is fixed . It divides the working face
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUNNEL ENGINEERING '

from the completed outside section of the tunnel. This

in
partition wall experiences very heavy pressure and
has to be designed and constructed strong enough to
resist it. It is generally constructed of thick concrete
or steel, and well keyed into the arch lining of the

ot.
tunnel as a protection against slipping. The lock is
fixed with the inn er end flush with the bulkhead
face on the working side to avoid compression due
to compressed air pressure inside of the tunnel.
sp
3. Blow line: It consists of a 4" dia. pressure
pipe running from the tunnel-heading to the outside.
It is provided with a valve near the inner end and is
normally used to exaust fouled air from the heading.
In case water collects on the floor of the working face
log

(due to insufficient air pressure), it could be collected

and blown out, by suitably placed well points connected
to the blow line (see fig. 16).
.b
tas

Well-point blow line arrangement.

FIG. 16
4. Air compressors: They are usually situated
outside the tunnel and are connected to the locks by
da

proper pipes, control arrangements and pressure indi-

cators. A pressure of about 15 [Link]". to 20 -lb. Jsq".
may have to be maintained during working periods.
Man locks and material locks: In large
diameter t unnels, separate locks are provided on the
vil

same bulkhead, one to convey the excavated muck

called material lock and the other exclusively for the
passage of labourers, called man lock. The former
should be capable of accommodating trucks and
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

OTIlER METIIODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT SOILS 27

in
locos running on track, to assist transport of material
and removal of excavated material from the heading.
The latter is generally made large enough to hold the
passage of one full shift labour in or out of the working

ot.
face to conserve the use of compressed air.

Duration of work in compressed air for

labourers: (a) For pressures upto 18 lb./sq". the
working period could be about 8 hours with at least
sp
. ~ an hour in free air.
(b) For pressures from 20 lb./sq". to about
30 Ib. /sq". the working period is reduced to 4 hours
with at least 2 hours in free air.
log

Precautions to be observed are:

(i) The regulation working period based on
the compressed air pressure should never be ex-
ceeded.
.b

(ii) Decompression back to normal air pressure

should be gradual.

(iii) Suitable refreshments and sufficient rest are

tas

essential to recoup the miner after work.

Compressed air pressure: Theoretically

0·43Ibs./sq". air pressure is required to support 1 ft.
head of water. In porous soils, there will be
resistance of soil particles to the flow of water,
da

thus tending to reduce the supporting air pressure,

to an extent of 15% to 25%. But if an impervious
soil overlies a porous soil, it will prevent escape of
air coming through the porous soil and tends to build
vil

a reverse pressure adding to the hydrostatic head.

Under such circumstances the soil surrounding the
tunnel section has to be drained by well points con-
nected to the blow line, in order to reduce the hydro-
static pressure.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
28 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
In large tunnels, it could be observed (fig. 17)
that if P is~the pressure at the tunnel axis and the air
pressure in;the tunnel is made equal to it, then there
A

ot.
I
~ I
P·3
f_.,
L?4 ' ~-+
I
1
I-!:_' ~
sp
p
,--
1
I P. l

I p
I-~P
I P+l
log

1- - -
p
I P+z
1----
L _ ~+3'
-' -~

P+3
Pressure distributi on diagram
.b

(showing inadequate p ressure on tunnel floor and

excess air pressure on the roof.)
FIG. 17
tas

will be an excess of air pressure over the hydrostatic

head at the crown equal to P - Pa and an equivalent
insufficiency of air pressure at the floor. A numerical
. example win make it clear. Consider the diameter
of the tunnel to be 20 ft. and the over burden. at the
crown to be 60 ft., equivalent hydrostatic head. Then
da

the supporting pressure actually required for this

will be 60 X ·43 or 25·8 [Link]". Next c'onsider
the tunnel axis, where the head will be 70 ft. and air
pressure required will be 30·1 [Link]".; similarly the
air pressure required at the floor will be 34·4 lb. Jsq".
vil

Thus, if the supporting air pressure is made equal

to the pressure at the axis, the crown will have an
excess pressure over the hydrostatic head , causing
loss of air, due to the unbalanced pressure of 4·3
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT SOILS 29

in
[Link]". and due to a similar excess of the hydrostatic
head or the air pressure at the floor, there will be an
inflow into the tunnel under a head of 10 ft. The
main objective is to conserve the air pressure and

ot.
generally enough air pressure to support at the crown
is us.e d, while the percolation, due to the unbalanced
pressure is dealt with by well points and other means.
sp
.b log
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

C HA P T E R IV

in
COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING IN
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS

ot.
1. Clay: This is an ideal soil for tunneling
by compressed air methods. As the tunnel work
proceeds the lining work should follow in its wake to
minimise the effect of subsidence. For a tunnel
driven at a depth of h ft. below surface level, the crown
sp
pressure will be wh lb./sq. ft. if w is the wt. of the
overburden clay per [Link]. To support this we would
.
reqUIre 44 Ib . /sq ". aIr
Twh . pressure IllS
··d I e t h e tunne.I
log

But owing to the natural arch of the soil which aids

in supporting and with judicious use of liner plates
the air pressure required may be got reduced to 75 %
of the theoretical pressure. No timbering need be
used (fig. 18).
.b
tas

Compressed air in clay.

FIG. 18
2. Gravel: The worst soil for tunneling by
this method is gravel, as it is very porous and permits
escape of air, and makes it difficult to sustain suffi-
da

cient working pressure inside the tunnel. _ Good

clay is used fo1' plugging the leaks and liner plates
are used for the face and roof.
3. Sand : Sand is a very pervious material,
vil

but if the grains are small has some cohesion. The

compressed air penetrates a short distance into the
mass, when a point of equilibrium is reached, where
a surface called bulb of support is formed. Breast
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS 31

in
boards are used for the face work and liner plates in
conjunction for the crown and floor, while concreting
follows as a permanent lining (fig. 19.)

ot.
sp
Compressed air in saturated sand.
FIG. 19
log

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING

Volume of air required: The actual

volume of air required depends on the quality of
the soil to retain air. A common rule is to
provide 20 [Link]. free air per minute per sq. foot
of face area. This presupposes a perfectly air tight
.b

lining, with joints properly plugged with clay. Air

compressors with a capacity of 40,000 [Link]. free air
per minute at a max. of 50 lbs. per sq. inch pressure
are usually specified for tunnels of ordinary size.
tas

Airholding: Air escapes through porous soils

taking the line of least resistance. One of the best
methods to conserve air is to do the concrete lining
close to the heading. A coat of neat cement wash
applied to the concrete, stops air leaks through the
da

pores of the fresh concrete lining.

Blows: This is one of the worst dangers that
could happen and occurs when the air creates a direct
escape to the surface. This will cause an instantane-
vil

ous pressure drop within the tunnel, and the whole

atmosphere becomes fogged. This danger is gene-
rally fou ght both from within and without. In I
subaqueous work, large loads of clay, kept ready in
scows for such emergencies are dumped on the river
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
32 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
bed forming a blanket, about 150 ft. wide and 10 ft.
to 12 ft. thick, over the affected area and some distance
ahead of it. Within the tunnel, [Link] effort should
be made to concentrate on maintaining full air supply

ot.
by directing all supply into the tunnel. The escapes
should then be methodically tackled and plugged
which of course is a very hard and laborious job.
Fire hazard: The excess oxygen in compressed
air greatly increases this danger, which becomes very
sp
difficult to control, once it starts. Inflamable materi-
als going into the tunnel should be a minimum, and
smoking should be strictly prohibited. 'Velding
operations should be well controlled. Proper fire
fighting apparatus should be installed and in sufficient
log

numbers to meet bad fires.

Pre draining tunnel ground: As air pressure
in the ground region will generally be inadequate to
completely stop ground percolation, drainage of the
ground area by a system of well points will consid-
erably reduce this trouble, if not completely eliminate
.b

it. In compressed air tunneling the well points can

conveniently be connected to the blow line (fig. 16).
This method affords good drainage in porous ground
tas

like gravel and also helps to lower the subsoil water

table in the surrounding area.
Working conditions for labour: The period
of work in compressed air is regulated by law. The
duration of work under different pressures is indi-
da

cated under the chapter dealing with compressed air

tunneling. The decompressing rate is also . an im-
portant factor and varies with the working pressures.
Safe decompression rates are as follows:
For 15 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. 2 lbs. per minute.
vil

20 Ibs. to 30 lbs. 1·5 1bs. per minute.

Men having a cold should not be allowed to work
as they are liable to become afflicted by "blocking"
which causes severe pains.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

CHAPTER V ~
TUNNELING IN ROCK

in
..,.,General: Tunneling in rock is mostly an opera-
tion that has to be carried out at considerable depth
below the natural ground surface, the work being carri-

ot.
ed out in hilly tracts. The economics of such a means
of communication is obvious as it greatly reduces
costly rock cutting and reduces distances. Such
tunnels have been constructed with advantage for
carrying railway, water, highway and for diversion
sp
of water from one valley to another across the inter-
vening ridge. Compared to soft soil tunneling, the
operation is very costly and it is imperative that great
care has to be exercised in accurately carrying out the
log

work. Even the slightest deviation will entail enor-

mous waste of money. Also any over cutting will
entail great expenditure in re-sectioning .
. Rock is a material which is self supporting and
does not require much timbering or other types of
supports of a cumbersome nature, except occasionally
in regions where loose rock is met with. Thus, it
.b

admits of operations in many sections along the

length of the tunnel, which greatly helps to expedite
the work.
/ Faces of operation: These faces of operation
tas

or attack are opened up by:

(1) A system of vertical shafts.
(2) A system of pilot tunneling.
da
vil

A. B. C. D . are additional faces of' attack.

Faces of attack.
FIG. 20
_., (1) System. of vertical shafts: On the tunnel
line at suitable points shafts are sunk (see fig. 20).
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
34 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

It could be seen that if n is the number of shafts that

in
are possible 2n plus 2 faces of attack are available.
/ (2) System. of pilot tunnels: Sometimes it
may be found that a lateral or horizontal approach

ot.
to the tunnel line may be closer and shorter com-
pared to the deep vertical shafts (fig. 21 ). In such
circumstances a tunnel of small size called a pilot
sp
log

Pilot tunnel method.

FIG. 21
tunnel is driven parallel and close to the proposed
main tunnel, and short cross connecting tunnels are ./
.b

driven from it to reach the proposed main tunnel

to create operational faces (fig. 21 ).
Methods of tunneling in rock:
tas

/ The popular methods are:

( 1) Drift method.
(2) Heading and bench method.'
(3) Full face method .
.fi. Drift [Link]: It consists in driving a small
da

sized heading, centrally at top or bottom of the face,

which is later enlarged, by widening and benching.
The top drift method is popular and the main opera-
tions involved are:
vil

(a) Boring or blasting a top centre heading or

drift, end to ' end.
(b) Widening and enlarging the drift.
(c) Benching in stages.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUNNELING IN ROCK 35

in
The sequence IS illustrated in fig. 22.
t- '-f 7

[Link]'' :' '1].T

ot.
TOP

I-~
" 2
I
,
1
.
1 ' \j
2 '0 \

, ,
: I
I 3 I
I '
sp
I I
I_ - - - - - - - - - - __ -'
CRoss SEC TION
Drift method.
FIG. 22
log

Briefly described, a drift of 7' X 7' min.) size <2E-

sufficient to accommo ate the tunne mg mac mery
abour, and mucking equipment is first driven end to
~ of the tunnel. As_ the heading work proceeds, the
£_entre line is checked and acurtely ~ marked on iron
ci9gs fixed to- the roof. Once the drift is accurately
.b
tas

,
..I
,r
r -l
,,
_L ____ _ _______ ____ _

LONGI TUDINAL SECTION

da

Benching,
FIG. 23

tunneled out, the widening o_Eeration is commenced

bv blasting tlie SI es 0 t e' art t to the required
vil

~ectlOn. This com letes the tQP heading. The

benchin IS carried out in $tages (fig. 23) and lowered
down to grade in a series of sl~ing ana horizontal
cuts. The disadvantage of this method lies in the
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
36 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

~
fact that as the enlarging and benching work com-

in
mences, mucking tracks have to be shifted fre uently
from bench to bench. But the advan ages are tHat
elaborate supporting platforms are not necessary for

ot.
drilling operations, and during heading work, muck-
ing work goes on undisturbed. The main feature I

of this method is that a small preliminary section

for the full length has been accurately driven, which
will cOJ?siderably economise the excavation work .
sp
../' 2. Heading and bench tnethod : This
method involves, the driving of the top portion in
advance of the bottom portion as illustrated in fig. 24.
log

CRoss SfS110N lO~G'TUD ' MAL 5ECTIO.K

Heading and Bench method of tunneling.

.b

FIG. 24
If the rock is hard and self supporting the top heading
advances ahead, by one round over the bottom, so
tas

that heading and benching follow each other. But

in case the rock is badly broken, the top heading will
\ need support, and the bench will afford the platform
for this. In this method also, the advantages and
\ disadvantages are similar to the Drift method.
_/' 3. Full face tnethod: This method is con-
da

veniently adopted for tunnels of small cross sectional

area. The full face is opened out once for all and
driven. Tunnels upto 10ft. dia. could be conveniently
handled by i etliod. As the full section has to
be tackled, extra units of tunneling equipment will
vil

become necessary, but the method has the advantage

of expeditious completion. Also mucking tracks
could be laid once for all on the tunnel floor and pro-
gressively extended.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

TUNNEUNO IN ROOK 37

in
/Mucking: uckin means of the
~ blasted debris from !he tunnel jnt r' a_gooQ_
distance outside the tunnel ent nee n all · ig
tunnel constructions this is to be reckoned as a m~

ot.
item of expenditure ,an ex_peditious and efficient _
remova of muck, considerably minimises the working
~ Tippmg waggons run on temporary tracks,
carry the blasted material from or near the 'working
face', to the entrance through the formed tunnel.
sp
Loading and unloading these waggons are carried
out by mannual labour. Self tipping waggons, in
conjunction with modern muck handling machinery
like power shovels are also employed in recent practice.
log

Other aspects.
1. Drilling: Preliminary to charging and
firing the blast for rock excavation, effective pattern
of blast holes have to be drilled . On this pattern
depends the yield.
A drill hole l!_ormal to face will break out ~ gap
.b

inclined a_t 45 ~ to the face (fig. 25 ). Two adjacent

holes fired simultaneously remove sections ·A and B.

~Ii .& __
tas
da

Theory of blasting and breaking,

FlO. 25

In order to achieve satisfactory results it is

vil

important to create an opening by a concentrated

blast over a small section and break the surrounding
area in sequence. Such holes which initiate the
process are called 'cut holes'. A good blast with
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

38 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
a good yield results by a cut hole inclined at 45 0 to
the face. A pair of such holes act as if actually
grabbing the material in between and pulling
it out. In short the cut holes start the break and

ot.
the burden is gradually loosened and breaks up with
the help of other holes, called "easers" and "lifters".
In positioning the holes another important factor to
be borne in mind is that if a charge is placed equi-
distant from two faces at right angles, it will break
sp
out 2·25 times as much as on a single face. If
three faces are involved the yield will be 3t times
that on one face. The foregoing factors are very
important in devising the pattern for the drill holes.
Two important patterns, based on these facts are
log

indicated here.
Drill-hole patterns:
(1) Pyramidal cut pattern.
(2) Centre cut pattern.
I. Pyramidal cut: It is shown in fig. 26. The
.b

cut holes (i) are inclined inwards from the face

roughly forming the side edges of a pyramid. These
are closely assisted immediately by the '~a or
tas

relievers, (ii) spaced between. Further from these

da

60TrOM RIM HOLt

vil

Pyramidal cut method.

FIG. 26
are the "lifi rs" at the bottom and back holes at top,
(iii) both of which are called "~'. - On the
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

TUNNELINO IN ROOK 39

in
sides the "side holes", (iv) assist the break. The se-
quence of firing is denoted by these numbers, the
interval being a few seconds.
2. Centre cut 'V'-type cut pattern: In

ot.
this pattern the cut holes are a series of parallel holes
horizontally drilled and slightly inclined (fig. 27 ).

~
0 0 0
3 ;l.
~ ~
0
sp
t I
40 2. a :.":) eDt. Q4
01 t 0
.t. 0::"" c::D 2.-
01 1 0
40 [Link]> <": :1> 04
0
Z
3 . ~ ~ 3
0 0 0
log

Centre Cut method.

FIG. 27
The other holes are placed as in the pyramidal pattern
to assist in the break.
Depth of bore holes: With the present day
.b

high speed drills, 8' to 10' depth of bore holes is quite

common. Coupled with high explosives this gives
a very good yield.
tas

Precaution in locating drill holes: Drill

holes should not cut through faults or seams in the
rock, as this will cause the gases of explosion to escape
along the least line of resistance viz., through these
joints and cause no breakage of the rock.
da

Types of drills and their use: The standard

types of 'rock drills are:
(1) The drifter
(2) The jack hammer.
vil

They operate on compressed air at a pressure

of about 60 lb. per sq. inch to 80 lb/sq". The drilling
speed is about 1 ft. per minute. The drill bits, have
cutting edges of tungsten carbide steel, a very hard
metal. '
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
40 TUNNEL ENGINEE1UNO

Support for drills: As these drills are very

in
heavy and very fast, they need rigid and strong supports,
on which they are mounted and directed. These
columns are fabricated out of telescopic steel tubing

ot.
3" to 4t" in diameter and are called 'jumbos' (fig 28).
sp
Use of Jumbos for mounting drills.
FIG. 28
log

They are fixed in, the tunnel horizontally or vertically

. like tunnel braces and the drills are mounted on them
and worked in any direction conveniently.
The drills are also equipped with devices to work
'dry' or 'wet'. In the wet type water is passed through
.b

the drill to the drill hole, to minimise dust nuisance.

The compressed air used to work the drills helps to
ventilate the tunnel working face as it passes out of
the drill. Compressors used should be capable of
tas

maintaintng an air pressure of 100 IbsJsq". constantly.

Explosives: odem practice 'eli nite' is
the ex losive popularly used. As a measure of safety
electnc blasting is done1_-using 'in~taeus caps'
for the cut holes and'CIe a caps ' for_Qther_holes. The
da

avera e ield of blasted- roc per pound of ,explosive

'is 100 c. t. .
- Safety precautions in rock tunneling:
flunneling being an underground operation, is a hazar-
dous one and measures to protect the workers against
vil

accidents, sometime fatal, are essential. In rock

tunnels, blasting leaves loose or shattered rocks not
completely detached. This causes rock falls, during
·d rilling on account of vibration.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

TUNNELING IN ROCK 41

in
In soft soils, huge earth slides take place without
warning, trapping the workmen. Fire inside the
tunnel is another serious hazard. The principal
measures to increase safety are:

ot.
(I ) Removal of rock protrusions by hammering
immediately in the wake of blasting, known as 'scaling'.
The hammer stroke should sound hard and not hollow;
Hollow sound indicates loose rock.
sp
(2) Isolated big blocks, loosened, but tempo-
rarily perched should be promptly propped up, and
afterwards safely cleared.
(3) If soft strata is traversed, the roof should
log

be supported in the wake of the excavation.

(4) Open flames, electrical short circuiting etc.
should be scrupulously avoided inside the tunnel.
(5) Good first aid equipment should be near
at hand and excellent fire fighting equipment with
.b

adequate water supply if possible should also be made

readily available.
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

CHAPTER VI

in
SHAFTS

/ Shafts are vertical tunnels, reaching from the

ot.
ground surface down to the tunnel roof. They afford
manifold advantages and uses in constructing tunnels.
When the position and course of the tunnel are correctly
aligned and accordingly set out on the surface, shafts
are sunk at suitable points on this tunnel line to aid
sp
tunneling operations.
Advantages of shafts:
./
(l ) They greatly expedite the work by adding
log

two faces per shaft for driving.

(2) They afford outlets for excavated material
and means of access into the tunnel for building
materials.
(3) They could be used as pumping shafts in
case of large influx of water.
.b

(4) They help correct alignment and help carry

the centre line into the tunnel proper.
(5) In long tunnels they afford ventilation and
tas

are useful for exhausting smoke and foul air out of the
tunnel.
Shafts in rock: The operation consists of
(i) drilling and blasting and (ii) mucking. Themethod
of excavation conforms to that of tunneling in hard
da

rock.
1. DrilliDg: The centre cut or pyramidal cut
pattern of drill holes is adopted. In the case of large
shafts stepping is resorted to, to facilitate mucking
and drilling to go on simultaneously. Fig. 29 indicates
vil

these details.
2. Mucking: Generally done by hand and
loaded into buckets and lifted up. A simple method
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
SHAFTS 43

in
is shown in fig. 30. Twin buckets could be used so
that as one rises the other descends. The explosive

,,
.>------ ot.
sp
Stepping in shafts.
FlO. 29
charge should be so controlled that the blasted pieces
log

weigh between 20 lb. and 200 Ibs. for easy handling.

.b
tas

Hoisting muck from shaft.

FIG. 30
Timbering: Though there is generally no
horizontal pressure exerted, in rock shafts, timbering is
found necessary, to carry guides for the cages and
support lagging. Lagging is used to prevent small
da

pieces of rock breaking loose and falling on and

injuring workmen.
Timb~r 'sets' are frames made of two side plates
and a pair of end plates. This is divided into two
vil

compartments, for a ladder way and a hoist way (see

fig. 31). The sets are spaced at 5 ft. centres and each
'set is hung from the one above by means of 'hanging
bolts'. The sets are made about 4" less alround and
fixed to the s~aft sides by blocks and wedges.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUNNEL ENGINEERING

Pumping: Shafts are usually wet. The wet seams

in
are sealed off by cement grouting. When pumping
has to be resorted to, "sinking pump" is used, slung
from the lowest timber set. The pump should be
dIsconnected and hoisted up before commencing

ot.
blasting.
sp
log

PLAN
.b

,"
11 Iii , 1m mel ~.
~

II ,I
, ,.T, ~
tas

I' 'i
I

1
I~ ~I
. I, ~ ~nI:.: ,
SECTION
da

Timbering for shafts in rock.

FIG. 31

Raising: If the rock is of a good variety, shafts

are also "raised" from the tunnel heading, instead of
vil

being sunk from above. This has the advantage that

the blasted muck drops into the tunnel and pumping
will not be necessary. Both these make this method
cheaper. The initial size of shaft that is raised is not
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
SHAFTS 45

in
more than about 5 ft. diameter. This is subsequently
enlarged.
Shaft sinking in soft ground: The shafts
are not usually very deep, except when driven for

ot.
foundations. Broadly these could be divided into
(i) shallow shafts and (ii ) deep shafts.
(i) Shallow shaft: Method of sinking (fig. 32) :
An open excavation to a suitable depth is first made
sp
\
, 11111111 ,'lijIIlRI
'W"~

",riot<
log

' 'CO (,.

ING - ~ -

I
,,--

I
.b

I
Shallow shafts in soft soil.
FIG. 32
at the site. In this excavation are placed two "timber
tas

sets" at proper interval and braced with a diagonal

piece of timber.
The sheeting consisting of Ii" to 3" thick board
is placed around the sets and kept in position by the
back filling.
da

The sheets are driven into the ground and

simultaneously digging below the sheets, is carried
oqt, taking care to see that the sheets are kept vertical.
After this first set of sheeting is fully driven, the
vil

frames are properly strutted and wedged.

A slight benching or margin is given and the
second stage of excavation is commenced and com-
pleted similarly.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
46 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

As sheets are driven, the timber sets should be

in
located and fixed at predesigned depths to withstand
the side pressures.

(ii) Deep shafts: Where the depth is great a

ot.
modified system of vertical forepolling is resorted to.
Short poling sheets of 5' to 6' are used and driven
flaring out from timber sets and keeping the sheets in
position by double wedges. The arrangement of
sheeting and sets is illustrated in fig. 33.
sp
.b log

Deep shaft in soft soil.

tas

FlO. 33

Design of shaft supports: I t is based' on the

horizontal pressure at several depths. This IS gIven
da

by the formula,
H = K.W.D.
where
H is the horizontal pressure in lbsJsq. ft.
vil

W is the weight of soil in pounds per cubic ft. and

D is the depth in feet below the surface. K is a
constant depending on the type of soil. The value
of K for different soils is given in the table below:
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

SH~ 47

in
Soil Value of K
- - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - -
Damp clay. ·16

ot.
Moist sand and gravel. ·22
Wet sand. ·34
Coarse gravel. ·60
Water. 1
sp
For deep foundation work, caissons or wells
have to he sunk in situ.
Precautions in shaft sinking work in soft soils:
1. Avoid general movement of earth behind the
log

. sheeting by keeping sheets tightly against the surface

of the soil.
2. Deflection of sheets should be prevented as
this will tend to cavity formation behind the sheets.
3. Top set near the ground surface should be
.b

strongly strutted and of heavy section, (though

theoretically, such strength is not required ) to
withstand, considerable amount of surcharge due to
live loads, like cranes, material heaps and machinery
tas

usually placed at the month of the shaft.

Protection round the shaft opening: I t is
usual to construct a 3' high wall round the edge of
the shaft opening, to form a protective fencing. This
also prevents the surface water flowing down the shaft.
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

CHAPTER VII

in
,~ UNEL LINING

ot.
The objects of providing a tunnel with permanent
II mg are manifold.
( ] ) I t gives correct section to the tunnel.
(2) It withstands soil pressure when driven 111
soft soils.
sp
(3) It reduces losses in friction and erosive action,
and ensures stream line motion, when the
tunnel has to carry water by providing a
smooth passage at good velocity, free from
log

turbulance.
(4) J.t forms a good protective covering to
certain types of rocks prone to air slaking.
(5) It keeps the inside of the tunnel free from
water percolation.
.b

(6) It supports large slabs of rock which might

have become loosened during blasting.
Materials for lining,'
tas

. / ' Masonry: Brick masonry was the standard

material for tunnel lining, but is now rapidly going
out of use, except in the case of underground sewers,
as bricks are more acid resisting and suitable 'to carry
sewage.\ A great disadvantage in using brick lining is
da

the difficulty in back packing the space between the

tunnel roof and the extrodas of the arch which at
best has to be hand packed and is imperfect. At a later
stage this may cause uneven pressures on the arch
lining. The packing material employed is usually spalls,
vil

sand and brick bats, well rammed . On account of so

many indeterminate factors in design, a very heavy
section may be necessary the construction of which
becomes cumbersome and costly.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

TUNNEL LINING 49

in
..../'"Stone masonry: It has more or less the same
disadvantages as brick lining and in addition is very
heavy necessitating very strong centres. But is still
used for lining the sides .

ot.
Cement concrete has become the standard
material for tunnel lining in both rock and soft soils.
Its main advantage lies in its plasticity which allows
it to be well packed between the form and the soi l.
The waterproof qualities of cement concrete, makes
sp
for a first class watertight lining. It could be used to
form an unbroken ring right round, forming a shell.
If unusual soil pressures have to be reckoned with,
the thickness could be controlled and reinforced,
log

suitably.
,_,/' Timber: IS one of the oldest lining materials
l' ough of late, it is slowly yielding place to concrete.
It is used both as a temporary support during construc-
tion and as a permanent support later.
.b

Modern practice is to use either timber for semi-

permanent lining and cement concrete as a standard
practice. An attempt will be made to describe these
two types of linings in detail. Masonry linings more
tas

or less follow the same modus operandi as concrete,

like erection of centring, construction of the arch,
easing of centres etc., except that the material is
different.
~ Design of thickness of lining: Stresses in
da

tunnel lining primarily originate in earth pressure.

The laws of action of earth pressures at least are only
approximate and involve indeterminate factors. The
designer is therefore well advised to primarily depend
vil

on judgement and precedent, guided by theoretical

analysis, which may indicate the nature of the stresses.
The empirical formula commonly applied to
obtain a working sectio n is
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
50 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

T = 1)

in
where T = Thickness of lining in inches
and D = Diameter of tunnel in feet.
But this thickness is restricted to a mInImUm of

ot.
9", irrespective of the material used for lining.
Good hard rock is of course self supporting and
needs a nominal lining if properly scaled.
Firm soil is usually considered to exert only a
downward pressure on the arched roof and though
sp
the sides are lined no great consideration is attached
to the side or horizontal pressures in designing. As
a long tunnel generally passes through varied geological
strata, no hard and fast rule could be prescribed. The
nature and geological structure of the soil met with
log

should be the primary guide in designing the lining

and method of its construction. General practices of
providing linings are indicated in (fig. 34).
.b
tas

General lining practice.

FIG. 34
(a) In firm soil only a roof arch is provided,
resting on benches cut in firm rock at the
sides.
da

(b) If rock is less solid, side walls of" masonry

are also added.
(c) In soft or treacherous soil an invert is added
in addition, to protect the side walls from
vil

moving in as also to resist the upward

pressure of the soil.
J. TiIDber lining: The lining consists of a regular
timber arch, formed of straight segments connected
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUNNEL LINING 51

in
together, and approximating to the intended curvature.
At the springing the segments are carried on wal
plates of heavy timber, and supporting posts. The
segments are arranged in three, five or seven piece

ot.
sets and are spaced about .1 feet centre to centre longi-
tudinally. A timber toggle is used between adjacent
sets as a lateral spacer. The whole arrangement is shown
in fig. 35.
sp
.b log

-rOGL~ DETAIL .
tas

Typical arch set of five piccrs.

FIG. 35
da

'arts of timber lining: _

(i) Segments: They should not be too long, as it
is safer to carry the roof load under arch action rather
than beam action.
vil

(ii) Wall plate: It supports the arch rib at the

springing line and is the weak link in the lining system
as it has to be bear compressive load across the grains,
the safe load not exceeding about 300 Ibs. per sq. inch.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
52 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

/ '(iii) Posts: They arc usually set vertical under the

in
Wall plates one under each arch rib. Their tops are
connected to the wall plate by dowels and at the foot
they arc supported on double wedges on blocks .

ot.
../ (iv) Collar braces: These are introduced at
each joint of the arch segment, in the form of toggles
to prevent the segment twisting out of line. The posts
are also provided with horizontal braces, generally in
the centre. The sizes of these braces should not be
sp
less than 4"x6" .
/ (v) Laggings: These are of 3" to 4" thick
planking laid on top of segments. They should be
placed close, to retain the fill .
log

.../ Packing: As soon as the timber arch is erected,

it is 'blocked' from the roof by using wooden blocks
for the purpose. Then the wedges at the foot of posts
are driven tight. Dry packing with muck, or lean
cemen t concrete ( 1 : 3 :6) shot in to the space, fills
the gap between lagging and the roof. If concrete is
.b

used, it should be of a stiff consistency.

This type of lining, lasts for about 10 to 15 years,
especially if the tunnel atmosphere has constant
humidity. It is customary to make a thorough inspec-
tas

tion of this construction at least once in six months to

see if the timber has started to decay in any place.
Timber arch is a serious fire hazard and fire fighting
measures become an obligatory equipment ' in such
tunnels. A good principle would be to gradually replace
da

the timber lining by concrete, as the timber .starts to

decay. Miners, mostly prefer timber lining temporarily
or permanently, on account of the warning the timber
gives by 'groaning' when subjected to unforseen forces,
tending to cause collapse.
vil

Concrete lining:
Work: Concrete lining is done using proper
form-work. The form should show the true outline
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUN:-IEL LINING 53

of the finished tunnel section .. s tunnel lining work

in
is divided into three operations corresponding forms
or moulds are used. Thus:
(11 Ground mould is used for Ooor lining or
invert concreting (fig. 36).

ot.
sp
Ground mould.
log

FIG . 36
(2) Leading frame is th name applied to
the side wall form (fig. 37).

1/' / I TOPlEVELf 0

, :~ :r ~"C
.b

~ :1'~,
tas
da

Leading frame.
FIG. 37
(3) Trusses are used as centres for the roof
arch (fig. 38).
1. Ground :mould: It consists of wooden frame
vil

or pattern exactly the form and dimension of the cross-

section of the floor lining. The frame is made out of
3" thick plank to fit the floor curvature correctly.
The mould is made in two halves joined together during
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
54 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

use by a splice plate. This helps handling the mould

in
in a restricted space like the tunnel interior.
LAGGING

ot.
sp
log

Types of centres.
FIG. 38

Two moulds are used at a convenient distance

apart and chords are stretched across from one to
the other to give the true profile of floor surface and
to which the concrete is laid. The moulds are placed
.b

exactly at right angles 10 the tunnel axis, the level

and positions properly checked by a transit. Some-
times only one mould may be enough in the forward
position, the finished lining furnishing the back mould.
tas

2. Leading frame: It is made of planks of good

thickness one edge cut to the curve of the side excava-
tion and the other edge to conform to the inper face
of the finished side wall. The frames are set with the
lower end resting on the finished invert or a quoin
da

provided for the purpose. The top of the frames after

alignment is correctly checked with a spirit level and
adjusted horizontally.
Short heights of the wall section are blocked and
co~re .ted
vil

over the sides and brought up to the

sprmgmg.
3. Centres: These are constructed similar to
the form work used for arches but are so designed as
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUNNEL LINING 55

to leave sufficient head room in the centre for con-

in
venience of working (fig. 38). Centres may have to
support roof pressures also in addition to the weight
of the lining and are therefore constructed very
systematically, and properly trussed. Any standard

ot.
method of easing these centres, could be employed,
the more popular one being the use of double wedges.
The curing period for the arch should never be less
than 7 days to 10 days, and easing should never take
place before this period.
sp
Steel forms and their use:
Two principal types will be explained, VIZ.,

(i) Separate side wall and arch forms.

log

(ii) Telescoping forms.

(i) Separate side wall and arch forms:
This is a standard arrangement of tunnel forms for
large tunnels. In this method the invert is first laid
(fig. 39). On this is laid a track for carrying form
.b
tas
da

Use of separate side wall and archform system.

FIG. 39(a)

units for the sides and the arch, one following the
vil

other. Side wall concreting is shown in fig. 39(a ) when

from a platform (to which concrete is hoisted by a
ramp) concrete is poured down into the side forms.
As this form unit is moved forward, it is followed by
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

56 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

the arch form unit shown in fig. 39 (b). The arch forms

in
are filled by concrete placers. The form unit in this
method are of the non-telescopic type.

ot.
sp
FIG. 39(b)
(ii) Telescoping forms: The roam ribs are
log

made up of sections hinged together, so that a back

unit could be collapsed and moved forward under
form units erected and in use, without disturbing,
concreting. This type is very suitable for tunnels upto
20 ft. to 25 ft. diameter. As the tunnel size increases
.b
tas
da

TELE.5COPING S [Link] FORM .

vil

Telescoping steel form. FIG. 40

the hinged sections become too heavy for handling,
and erecting. The traveller carries jacks for erecting
and collapsing the rib sections. Fig. 40 illustrates the
use of this type of form.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUNNEL LINING 57

Placing concrete: For small tunnels 4 ft. to

in
10 ft. in diameter hand placing is quite satisfactory.
The laggings are arranged wais.t high and the sides
are concreted first. Then gradually the concrete is
lifted for the regions near the crown. The gap in the

ot.
crown section is concreted in the longitudinal direction
or by pressure method. To assist in this, temporarily
a detachable key plate is inserted at the crown, of
sufficient size, with a knock out block at the bottom
(fig. 41 ).
sp
.b log

Hand placing in small tunnels.

FIG. 41
For bigger jobs the modern practice is to place
concrete by the help of pneumatic concrete placers
tas

which force concrete through a pipe into the space

above the centering. The discharge pipe leads to the
far end of the crown, feeding the concrete,
over the crown; the concrete slides down the sides
da

C' TR I!;S
SET
vil

Placing concrete by a gun.

FIG. 42
of the form. The pipe is gradually withdrawn as
concreting proceeds. The near end is blocked by a bulk
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
58 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
head of steel, through which. the pipe IS passed.
Fig. 42 clearly indicates the process.
Curing concrete: Generally if the humidity
inside the tunnel provides enough moisture for this

ot.
purpose, no further curing may be needed . Otherwise
perforated pipes are fixed to the tunnel roof, through
which water under pressure is sprayed on to the con
crete. If water is not easily procurable in the vicinity
owing to arid conditions, the best method is to spray
sp
paint the concrete surface with bituminous paints or
other ready made asphaltic compounds immediately
on stripping.
~E ON THE SEQUENCE OF LINING A TUNNEL:
log

The sequence of placing the , lining around

depends on various factors . The more popular methods
are:
( I ) Placing the entire lining in one opera-
/ ' tion: This method is conveniently adop-
.b

ted in the case of small circular tunnels,

in which concreting is done in short lengths.
(2 ) Placing the invert first, and the rest of the
lining next: This method provides a rigid
tas

/ base on which the formwork for the sides

and roof could be supported. A good
procedure would be to commence concret-
ing the invert from the most interior section
towards the portal; this will save the newly
da

laid concrete from being used as a hauling

floor before it sets.
(3) Placing the invert first, the sides next and
finally the roof: This is especially suitable
/ ' for large tunnel sections, where it may be
vil

advisable to separately pour the three

sections as a matter of constructional con-
venience. This is the most convenient
method and is very popular.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
C 11 APT E R VIII

DRAINAGE OF TUNNELS

ot.
In tunnel driving, water comes from two sources;
wash water, used for washing drill holes and ground
water, from the ground through which the tunnel is
driven. Controlling this water consists in preventing
excessive quantities from hindering work and remov-
sp
ing all the water by suitable means, out of the tunnel.
An exploding charge may open up a ground water
source, unexpectedly admitting a very large quantity
of water into the tunnel.
log

Pre-drainage: Where seepage is small and

comes down from the tunnel roof, it is made to flow
over a temporary pitched roof of corrugated sheets
on to longitudinal side drains and so led out (see
fig. 43 ) .
.b

ORRUGATED
SH~E T ~ O OF
tas
da

Corrugated sheet to drain roof see page.

FIG. 43
Ground water is subject to great variation and
it would be advisable to drill exploratory holes ahead
of and deeper than the face to be removed, to investi-
vil

gate whether the ground is badly broken up and

estimate the quantity of the ground water ahead.
If this exploration successfully indicates the existence
of ground water, it may be possible to grout off heavy
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

60 TUNNEL ENGINEERfNG

in
discharges and stabilise the formation before tunnel-
ing ,approaches this difficult zone.
Removal of water: The quantity of water
that accumulates is collected in sump wells and

ot.
pumped out of the tunnel. When the tunuel is long
it may be necessary to have more than one sump well,
so that from the face, the water could be pumped
into sumps of increasing capacities by a system of
"gathering pumps" and ultimately pumped out of
sp
a sump well located near the portal. The sump
wells also help in the settlement of solid materials.
Any type of centrifugal pump could be used,
and stand by pumps may have to be provided to
cope up with unexpectedly large inflows. In design-
log

ing the pipe line, only, frictional force has to be pro-

vided for. But in the system of gathering pumps,
long delivery lengths are split to suitable or economic
lengths to accommodate normal sizes of pipes. Steel
pipes of diameter varying from 3" to 6" ar.:: generally
used, without sacrificing, floor working space.
.b

Permanent drainage: The completed tunnel

section has to have some kind of permanent drainage
arrangement. A very simple method of drainage is
-
to construct drainage ditches (fig. 44) longitudinally,
.
tas
da
vil

Central drainage duct.

FIG. 44
sloping towards th e portals or shafts, from where
they could be pumped out of the tunnel by suitable
pumps.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
CHAPTER IX

TUNNEL VENTILATION AND DUST

PREVENTION

ot.
Object: It is necessary to provide proper venti-
lation during tunnel construction; the main objects
are threefold,
sp
( 1) To supply fresh air to the working crew.
(2) To remove injurious and obnoxious fumes
and gases of explosion.
(3) To safely remove the dust caused by drill-
log

ing, blasting and mucking.

Natural and Mechanical ventilation: When
a drift is driven from portal to portal, it provides
fair ventilation during the enlarging operations, parti-
cularly when the tunnel is a short one. In long
tunnels this natural ventilation is inadequate, and
.b

mechanical ventilation becomes necessary.

Volume of air considerations: During work-
ing, each worker should be supplied with 200 c. ft.
tas

to 500 c. ft. of fresh air constantly. Any compressed

air used for the drills is usually contaminated with
oil and dust when released from drills and should not
be expected to be helpful. After each explosion the
air near the face is filled with fumes and dust and is
unfit for breathing. This foul air has to be exhausted
da

and replaced with fresh air, before the workmen

start removing the debris from the explosion. The
time lapse between exploding the charge and com-
mencing mucking will be about 30 minutes within
vil

which time, the ventilating system, should clear the

tunnel and supply fresh air. Generally the following
conditions determine th e form and capacity of the
ventilating system.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
62 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

(1) Length and size of tunnel.

in
(2) Amount of explosive and frequency of
blasting.
(3) Temperature and humidity inside the tunnel.

ot.
Mechanical ventilation : Mechanical ventila-
tion is provided by one or more electric fans or
blowers, which may blow fresh air into a tunnel or
exhaust the dust and foul air from the tunnel. There
sp
are three systems of ventilation viz:
(1) Blowing.
(2) Exhausting.
log

(3) Combination of blowing and exhausting.

Blowing:
Fresh clean air is blown through pipes near to
the working face and as it flows back to the portal
through the tunnel, it moves the dust and gases
.b

with it. This system has the advantage of supplying

fresh air right near the working face, but the
disadvantage lies in that the foul air, smoke and
dust slowly move out, fogging the atmosphere
tas

inside the tunnel , especially in long tunnels.

Exhausting:
In this method the foul air and dust, an:! drawn
into an exhausting duct near the working face, there
da

by creating a flow of fresh air into the tunl)el from

the enterance or portal. This method has the
special advantage of quick removal of dust, and
smoke from the working face.
vil

Combination of blowing o;nd exhausting:

Many recent systems have tried to combine
both blowing and exhausting, utilising the advan-
tages in either system. Immediately after the
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
TUNNEL VENTILATION AND DUST PREVENTION 63

blasting operation, the exhausting system is operat-

in
ed for 15 to 30 minuites, to immediately remove
the objectionable air, after which, the blowing
system operates for the rest of the working period
to supply fresh air. The reversal of operations

ot.
can be carried out by a valve and duct arrange-
ment as shown in fig. 45. The fan rotates only
in one direction, but the valves A, Band C could
be so [Link] either to exaust from or blow
into the tunnel.
sp
t
...J
UJ
Z
Z.
log

::J
r-
.b

E)(A.U5TII-IG . BLOWING .
Combination of blowing and exausting.
FIG. 45
Dust prevention : The various operations in-
tas

volved in tunnel excavation, such as drilling, blasting

and handling muck cause dust accumulation in the
tunnel atmosphere. This dust laden air constitutes
a serious health risk, unless the dust concentration is
limited. In rock tunnels particularly, this hazard is
da

very serious, as extended breathing of the silica dust

causes a dangerous lung decease known is "silicosis",
which often proves fatal.
In fact, state laws control tunneling practices and
are designed to safeguard workers, by permitting a
vil

limited dust concentration inside the tunnel, which

could be safe.
Dust control ntethods: The various methods
used to minimise dust accumulation are:
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

64 TUNNEL ENGINEERING

in
(1 ) Wet drilling.
(2) Use of vacuum hood.
(3) Use of respirators.

ot.
Wet drilling: Modern drilling machines carry
arrangements by which water could be used to wet
and remove the cuttings, from the drilled holes. This
prevents dust flying, to a considerable extent.
Use of vaCUUDl hood : A hood is fitted around
sp
the drill steel at the rock face, which is connected to
an exaust pipe, through which the drilled rock dust
is sucked and removed safely out of the tunel (Fig. 46).
.b log
tas

Vacuum hood .
FIG. 46
da

Use of respirator : Well designed respirators

worn by the miners offer the best and most uptodate
protection against dust inhalation. It is a method
which is becoming increasingly popular in modern
vil

tunneling practice.
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

SYLLABUS

in
Docks and Harbours:
Action of waves and wind, currents, and br akwaters;
construction of docks and quay walls; construction of wet and

ot.
dry docks. Lock and Jock gates. Transit shed and ware houses.

Tunnel Engineering:
Excavation for deep trenches in waterlogged soils for pipes and
sewers. Tunneling in rock and soft soils. Shield tunneling;
sp
use of compressed air in tunneling. Shafts and headings. Lining
of Tunnels. Drainage and ventilation of tunnels.
log

,, !
,: i' • ., . .LUll

" ". ,
~p

, . .......
• II" t I
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
I [Link] [Link] c~ L SCI ENCES
log

OF
Ui,I\ Eh_'!TY lI JIl..HY . MN 1AlOHE
AccesSlOn oN .'? J,t1 . ~ ...... .
[Link] ...................................... .
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
INDEX
(Section I)

ot.
A Dredging, maintenance 64
Advantages of tidal basins 30 Dry docking construction 41
Advantages of wet docks 30 Dry docking 39
Air breakwater 9
Air compression 15 E
sp
Artificial harbour I Entrance locks 49
Artificial roadstead 3 Entrance width of harbour 6
B
F
Barge method 22
log

Bonded ware house 62 Floating docks, types 42, 43

reak waters 17 - advantages and
-Classification ]7 disadvantages 46
-heap or mound 17 -design consideration of 45
-method of protection 18 -off shore type 44
-method of formation 19 - rigid type 43
-self docking type 43
.b

C
Forces on a graving dock 39
Commercial harbour 5 Form and arrangements of
D basin and docks 30
tas

Design and Construction of

Basin or Dockwalls 33 G
ocks 29,30 Graving or dry dock 37
Dock entrances 35
-caissons for 35 H
-ship caisson 35 Harbours
da

-sliding caisson 35 Height and length of waves

-sizes of 36,39 10,11,14
Dock floor design 41
Dredges, types 64 K
vil

-dipper 65 Keel and bilge blocks 42

-grapple 66
-continuous bucket or L
ladder 66 Lift dry dock 48
-hydraulic or suction. 67
- Littoral drift 7
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

68 INDEX

in
Lock foundation 49 Requirement'> of
Lock gates 51,52 - fishing harbour !)
-forces on 52,53 - harbour of refuge 4-

ot.
-shape of 54 - transit sheds 61,62
-working of 55 River ports 30
M s
Marine railway 46 Shape of docks and basins 31
--diamond shape 31
sp
Mound construction
methods 21 - inclined quays 32
Mound ,,-ith superstructure 19 - rectangular shape 31
Stablility of mounds 21
N Staging method 23, 27
log

Natural roadstead T
Natural phenomena 7 Tides, spring and neap 8
o Transit sheds 61

Open berths 29 W
\,yalJ breakwater advantages
.b

Q. and disadvantages of 26
~uays 5G - bonds in 28
~uay wall, design 56, 57, 58 --forces on 24, 25
-types and construction of Wall on concrete bag
tas

58,59,60 foundation 27
-joints in 60 Ware houses 61 , 62
Water hammer 15
R 8
"Vater waves
Repair docks classification 37 Water action 12
da

Requirements of - dynamical effect of 13

commercial harbour 5 Waves and wincl 8
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
INDEX 69

in
(Section If)

A Cross-sections, shape of 9

ot.
Advantages of tunneling 3 Curve, Central line on 6
Air holding 31
Air lock 25 D
Air pressures 27 Design of thickness oflining 49
sp
Alignment and grade 4 Ditch for drainage 60
American method of driving Drainage of tunnels 59
10,15 Drift method 34
Approach 4 Drill hole pattern 38
Army method of tunneling 14 Drill types 39
log

Drill supports 40
B
Dust prevention 61
Bar drill mounting 40 - Respirator 64
Belgian method of - Vacuum hood system 64
tunneling I7 - Wet drilling 64
Benching
.b

Blowers 62 E
Bulkhead 25
English method of tunneling 16
c Economics of tunneling 3
tas

Case method of tuneling 14-

Cast Iron lining 2:1 F
Centre Cut 39 Faces of operation 33
Cen tre drift 34 ' Fans (see blowers)
Centre line transfer 7 Fire hazaards 32
Column drill mounting 40
da

Fiv(; piece timber set 51

Compressed air tunneling 24 Fore poling method 11
- in clay 30 Form for concrete lining 53,54
- in gravel 30 Full face tunneling 36
- in sand 30
vil

Compressor requirement
H
of air 26,3 I
Concrete lining form work Head frame in shafts 43
-hand placing 57 Heading and benching 36
-pumping 57 Hydraulic jacks for shield 23
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]
70 INDEX

in
I Rib stiffening 19
Invert lining and mould 53 Rock tunneling methods 33

J s

ot.
Jumbos, for drills 40 Safety precautions 111
tunneling 40
L Shaft sinking in rock 42
Labour in compressed air 27,32 - in soft ground 45
Liner plate method 19,20 - raising 44
sp
Lining of tunnels 48 -Shaft supports design of 46
-Cast iron or primary 23 Shield
-Concrete lining 52 -construction 22
-Masonry -48 -steering 24
Rules for design of thickness49 Size and shape of tunnels 8
log

Timber 49,50,51 Soft ground tunneling 8 to 17

Lock (see air lock) Spiles use of in fore poling 11 ,12
Steel liner plates 19
M Steel forms for lining 55,56
Man lock and material lock 26 Surveying tunnel 5
Methods of tunneling (soft
.b

soils) 10 T
Mucking 37,42
Telescoping form 56
N Timber lining 49
tas

Top heading 34
Needle beam method of
Tunneling methods
tunneling 13
-soft ground 14
p R~ck- 33,34
Trimsfering centre line 7
Pattern for drill holes 38
da

Pilot tunnel method 34 v

Plenum process (see compressed
air tunneling) 24 Vacuum hood 64
Predraining 32 Ventilation of tunnel 63
Primary lining 23
w
vil

Pyramidal cut 38
Water removal (see
R Drainage)
Raising shafts 44 Wet drilling 64
Respirator use of 64 Well point drainage 26
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

r- -;~ ~:;-l

in
For students preparing for Engineering Degree examinations
and for the examinationJ of the various professiollal bodies ,'

I •
<
~
S. B. JUNNARKAR:
ELEMENTS OF APPLIED MECHANICS : Rs. 12·50
MECHANICS OF STRUCTURES Vol. IRs. 15·00
MECHANICS OF STRUCTURES Vol. II Rs . 20·00
ot.
sp
~ V. B. PRIYANI :

I
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING Rs. 15·00
HYDRAULICS Vol. I Rs . 12'50
ROAD ENGINEERING Rs. 7·00
log

~ R. SRINIVASAN:
HARBOUR , DOCK & TUNNEL
ENGINEERING Rs . 6·25
J. S. ALAGlA:
BRIDGE ENGINEERING Rs. 6·25
.b

C. H. KHADILKAR:
BUILDING MATERIALS Rs. 3·00
R. K. AMIN :
tas

ELEMENTS OF ECONOMICS
(For Engineering Students) Rs. 7·50
~ L. B. PANDYA :
\ MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY R e. 1·00
da

I
!
£i I
vil

CHAROTAR BOOK STALL

~ AN AND (W. R.) INDIA.
~
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da

"

,". ':)LltoE, "

• • t
vil

HEW' ,' L, 0,'\1 I

~.,- ..... __ -;--' -
I L•
':'_
r;i.-:t',y
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b
tas
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]
 Visit : [Link]

in
ot.
sp
log
.b

,
· ...· ···,, 1.... .
,( ,.....
tas

Nl\.lf:lS AN
da
vil
Ci

Visit : [Link]