5/17/2021

1. Hydraulic turbines
Introduction
 Hydraulic turbines are prime movers which convert water

Hydropower Engineering-II power in to shaft power.

(HE-4163) for G4HWRE  The shaft power developed is used in running electricity
generators directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine (Novak

Chapter #1 et al., 2007).

Hydraulic turbines  Turbine has vanes, blades or buckets that rotate about an axis
by the action of the water.
Mesele Markos
[Link]@[Link]  The rotating part of the turbine or water wheel is often
mese16mark@[Link]
referred to as the runner.
May 2021
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
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Hydraulic turbines… Classification . . .

Pelton
Impulse Turgo
Crossflow
According to
energy type Francis
at inlet Kaplan
Reaction
Propeller

Hydraulic Bulb
turbines Tangential
Pelton
flow
According to
flow direction Radial flow Francis
in the runner
Kaplan
Axial flow
Propeller

Mixed flow Modern

Francis
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Hydraulic turbines… Hydraulic turbines…

Francis Kaplan Turbine.mp4

Kaplan

Pelton 5 6

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Characteristics of turbines Characteristics of turbines . . .

 Specific speed: is speed at which a geometrically similar runner  Speed of a turbine is an important parameter of design.
would rotate if it was so proportioned that it would develop 1 KW ◦ The higher the speed, the smaller the diameter of the turbine
when operating under a head of 1m, and expressed as (from runner & the cheaper the generator.
dimensional analysis).
◦ High speed, however, makes a turbine more susceptible to
𝑃 cavitation.
𝑁𝑆 = 𝑁
𝐻5 4  Speed factor or peripheral coefficient,  : the ratio of the
 N = rotational speed (rpm) peripheral speed, u, of the bucket or vanes at the nominal
 P = power developed (kW) diameter D, to the theoretical velocity of water under the effective
head, H, acting on the turbine.
 H = effective head (m)
𝑢 𝜔𝑟
 Turbine or synchronous speed: since turbine & generator are ∅= =
2𝑔𝐻 2𝑔𝐻
fixed, the rated speed of the turbine is the same as synchronous
speed of the generator. 2𝜋𝑁 𝐷
 But ω in rad/sec; 𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 =
𝑁 = 120 𝑓 𝑝 60 2

 f = frequency cycle/sec (50-60 cycles/sec.)

𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝐷𝑁
 p = number of poles (divisible by 4 for head ≤ 200 m &  Therefore, ∅ = =
60 2𝑔𝐻 84.6 𝐻
divisible by 2 for head > 200 m)
7  Where: D and H are in m; N in rpm 8

Characteristics of turbines . . . Characteristics of turbines . . .

 Thus in general:
 The following table suggests the values of , which give the ◦ Pelton turbines are used for high heads & low discharges
◦ Francis types are used for medium & high head plants
highest efficiencies for each turbine, the head & specific speed
◦ Propeller & Kaplan (Kaplan has adjustable blades) types are
ranges & the efficiencies of the three main types of turbine used for low head plants with large discharges.
(Novak et al, 2007).

Type of  Ns H (m) Efficiency (%)

runner
Impulse 8-17 85-90
0.43 – 0.48 17 >250 90
17-30 90-82
Francis 40-130 90-94
0.6 – 0.9 130-350 25-450 94
350-452 94-93
Propeller 1.4-2.0 380-600 <60 94
600-902 94-85 9 10

Characteristics of turbines . . . Preliminary selection

 From design discharge, Q and head, H, calculate approximate
 Runaway speed: if the external load on the machine suddenly
power, P that can be generated,
drops to zero (sudden rejection) and the governing mechanism
𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑄𝐻) = 𝜂𝛾𝑄𝐻
fails at the same time, the turbine will tend to race up to the
 Calculate N (or assume) & compute Ns then from this, the
maximum possible speed.
type of turbine can be suggested.
 This limiting speed under no-load, maximum-flow must be  Calculate D from equation
considered for safe design (Novak et al, 2007). 𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝐷𝑁
∅= =
Type of Runaway speed Acceptable head variation 60 2𝑔𝐻 84.6 𝐻
runner (% of normal speed) (% of design head)  If D is found to be too large, either N can be increased or more
Minimum Maximum units may be adopted.
 To estimate turbine diameter, it is necessary to depend on
Impulse 170 - 190 65 125
empirical equations or experience curves that have been
(Pelton)
developed from statistical studies of existing units.
Francis 200 - 220 50 150
 It is customary to relate the variable of diameter to the
Propeller 250 - 300 50 150 universal number, the specific speed, Ns, N, 𝜔 or ∅.
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Preliminary selection… Preliminary selection…

 The work of de-Siervo and de-Leva (1976) shows the following  For Pelton turbines, de-siervo and Lugaresi (1978) show that
the following equations can be used for estimating the turbine
equation for the Francis runner:
diameter:
𝐻 𝐷3
𝐷3 = (26.2 + 0.211𝑁𝑠 ) = 1.028 + 0.137𝑁𝑠𝑗
𝑁 𝐷2
 Where: D3 = discharge or outlet diameter, in (m). (Note: This is 𝐷𝑗 𝑁𝑠𝑗
=
different from throat diameter.) 𝐷2 250.74 − 1.796𝑁𝑠𝑗
𝑃 0.5
 For propeller turbines, de-Siervo and de-Leva (1977) show 𝑁𝑠𝑗 = 𝑖
𝐻 1.25
the following equation for determining design diameter:  Where: Nsi = Specific speed for impulse runner per jet
i = Number of jets used by impulse turbine
𝐻
𝐷𝑀 = (66.76 + 0.136𝑁𝑠 ) D2 = Wheel pitch diameter, m
𝑁
D3 = Outer wheel diameter, m
 Where: DM = outer diameter of propeller, m. (This is throat Dj = Jet diameter, nl
diameter minus clearance). P = Turbine rated capacity, kW
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Preliminary selection… Example1.1

 Hydraulic turbines (runner) are designed for optimum speed &
maximum efficiency at design head.  A proposed hydropower development has a net head of 250 ft
 But in reality, head and load conditions change during and design discharge of water flow of 580 ft3/sec. Assume η =
operation & it is extremely important to know the performance
91%.
of the unit at other heads.
 This is furnished by manufacturer’s curve.  Determine the type of turbine to be used, the normal plant
capacity, the operating speed, the suitable specific speed, and
the estimated turbine diameter.
Given
H = 250ft = 76.2m (1ft = 0.3048m)
Q = 580ft3/s = 16.42377m3/s (1ft3/s = 0.0283m3/s)
η = 0.91

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Example1.1… Example1.1…

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Example1.2 Unit number optimization

Unit number optimization is complex decision process embracing:
 A Kaplan turbine develops 10,000kW under a head of 12m
when the following conditions prevail. Speed ratio = 2, flow ◦ Minimum number of units are mostly cost effective

ratio = 0.65, diameter of hub = 0.3 times the external ◦ More smaller units give advantage of the power generation
diameter of the vane, f = 50hz and the overall efficiency = 94 during the maintenance of one unit
percent. Estimate: ◦ The efficiency of the turbine considerably decreases at low
(a) The speed, N flow ratios

(b) The diameter of the runner and ◦ In case of lower total flow or lower load demand, a certain

(c) The specific speed number of the machines under optimal flow conditions can be
used.

◦ More number of units has higher importance by the case of

run‐of-river plants.
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Turbine scroll case

 A scroll case is the conduit directing the water from the
intake or penstock to the runner in reaction turbine.
 In case of impulse wheels it is provided only to prevent
splashing of water & lead water to the tail race.
 A spiral shaped scroll case ensures even distribution of water
around the periphery of the runner with the minimum possible
eddy formations.

(a) Steel scroll case (b) RC scroll case

Francis turbine with steel spiral case Propeller turbine with partial spiral
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Turbine scroll case… Cont’d…

 The design of the shape of the spiral case is governed by the

flow requirements.

 Initial investigation should be based on the following

assumptions:

− Spiral case of constant height

• In the Fig.(a) the discharge in section of spiral case defined
− An evenly distributed flow in to the turbine by angle θ is:
𝑄𝜃
− No friction losses 𝑞=
2𝜋
• Where: Q is the total discharge to the runner
𝑘
𝑣𝑡 =
𝑟
𝜂𝑔𝐻
• Where: 𝑘 = 30 (from the basic Euler equation for the
𝑁𝜋
power absorbed by the machine)
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Cont’d… Cont’d…
 And the discharge through the strip dq is given by:
𝑕 = 𝑕𝑜 + 𝛼 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑜
𝑘
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑕𝑜 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑕 𝑑𝑟  Where: 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽2
𝑟 𝑜
 Therefore:
𝑟1 𝑅
𝑄𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑅
𝑑𝑟 𝑄𝜃 𝑅 𝑄𝜃 = 𝑕 + 𝐻𝑜
𝑞= 𝑘𝑕𝑜 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑘 𝑟0 𝑟 𝑟1 𝑟
𝑟𝑜 𝑟 2𝜋 𝑟𝑜 2𝜋𝑘𝑕𝑜
 By replacing and integrating
 This shows for given vortex strength, k, a definite relationship
exist between Q & R. 𝑄𝜃 𝑟1 𝑅
= (𝑕𝑜 −𝛼𝑟𝑜 )𝑙𝑛 + 𝐻𝑜 − 𝑕𝑜 + 𝐻𝑜 𝑙𝑛
 The most economical design of a power station substructure 2𝜋𝑘 𝑟𝑜 𝑟1
and the narrowest spiral case can be obtained by choosing a
 Knowing r1 from
rectangular section adjoining the guide vanes (entrance
ring) by steep transition (symmetrical or asymmetrical) 𝐻𝑜 − 𝑕𝑜
𝑟1 = + 𝑟𝑜
𝛼
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Cont’d… Draft tubes

 The value of R defining the shape of the spiral case can be  A draft tube is a conduit discharging water from the turbine
determined. runner to the tailrace in reaction turbines.

 The height H0 at any angle θ may be assumed to be linearly  Purposes:

increasing from h0 at the nose towards the entrance. − To recover the velocity energy of the water leaving the
 Shape at various θ is determined by assuming existence of runner as much as possible.
uniform velocity equal to entrance velocity, − To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and
𝑣𝑜 ≅ 0.2 2𝑔𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 the tail-water level, called the static draft head. In other
words, to allow the turbine to be set at higher elevation
𝑄𝜃𝑖
𝑞𝑖 = , 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃𝑖 𝑖𝑠: without losing the advantage of elevation difference.
2𝜋
 The most common is elbow type which minimizes the depth of
𝑞𝑖 𝑄𝜃𝑖
𝐴𝑖 = = 0.18 substructure compared to vertical cone.
𝑣𝑜 𝐻
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Cont’d… Cont’d…
 The straight conical draft tubes are the simplest in design
and the most efficient type, but they are rarely used in actual
Elbow-type practice.
draft tube  This is because, for effective recovery of velocity head, the
outlet section has to be many times the inlet section of the
draft tube.
 For smooth eddy-free flow (flow with no separation), the angle
of flare of the tube has to be limited to 4 to 8 degrees.
 Hence, a considerable long tube is necessary to achieve the
desired result.
Straight
 This increases the depth of excavation of the substructure,
conical draft
tube making it uneconomical and unsuitable from cavitation view
point.

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Cont’d… Cont’d…
 The elbow-type draft tube is often adopted, because of the
following advantages it offers over the conical type:

− Minimizes the required depth of excavation

− Directs the flow in the direction of the tail-water flow

− Allows the provision of gate at the outlet of the tube which

can facilitate the de-watering of the turbine for repairs.

 However from constructional point of view, the elbow draft

tube presents more problems.

 Furthermore, the change of shape in the elbow naturally

increases the turbulent losses in the draft tube.
Recommended dimensions of an elbow-type draft tube
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Cont’d… Cavitation in turbine & turbine setting

 Elbow type divided in to 3 – parts: vertical, bend, and almost
 Cavitation results pitting, vibration & reduction in efficiency
horizontal sections. Between sections 1 & 3 & is certainly undesirable.
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃𝑎 𝑣22  Cavitation may be avoided by suitably designing, installing,
𝑌𝑠 + + = + + 𝐻𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 and operating the turbine in such a way that the pressures
𝑃1 𝑃𝑎 2
𝑣1 𝑣22 with in the units are above the vapor pressure of water.
= − 𝑌𝑠 − − − 𝐻𝐿
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔  Ys is the most critical factor in the installation of reaction

 Therefore, turbines.
𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑣 − 𝑌𝑠
𝑣12 𝑣22 𝜎=
𝐻𝑑 = 𝜂𝑑 − 𝐻
2𝑔 2𝑔  Where:
 Where: d = efficiency of the draft tube σ = Cavitation coefficient or Plant Sigma
 In order to avoid cavitation at the exit from the runner the Ha - Hv = Hb = barometric pressure (10.1 at sea level)
condition H = effective head.
𝑃1 𝑃𝑣 Ys max = Hb - σ c H
>
𝛾 𝛾 (Thoma’s formula, bottom of turbine setting)
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Cont’d… Cont’d…
 If Ys is negative runners must be below TWL. Where σc is the
minimum (critical) value of σc at which cavitation occur.  The preliminary calculation for the elevation of the

Francis runners Propeller distributor above the TWL, Yt is

runners
Ns 75 150 225 300 375 600 750 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑌𝑡 = 𝑌𝑠 + 0.025𝐷𝑁𝑠0.34

σc 0.025 0.10 0.23 0.40 0.64 0.8 1.5 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑌𝑡 = 𝑌𝑠 + 0.41𝐷

 Where: D is the nominal diameter of the runner

 The above value of σc may be approximated by
2
𝑁𝑠
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝜎𝑐 = 0.0432
100
3
𝑁𝑠
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝜎𝑐 = 0.28 + 0.0024
100
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Generators and turbine controls Cont’d…

 Generators transform mechanical energy into electrical  These generators cannot generate when disconnected from the
energy. grid because they are incapable of providing their own
excitation current.
 Nowadays three-phase alternating current generators are
used in normal practice.  Synchronous generators are more expensive than
 Asynchronous generators are simple squirrel-cage induction asynchronous generators and are used in power systems
motors with no possibility of voltage regulation and running where the output of the generator represents a substantial
at a speed directly related to system frequency. proportion of the power system load.
 Synchronous generators equipped with a DC excitation  Asynchronous generators are cheaper and are used in large
system (rotating or static) associated with a voltage regulator, grids where their output is an insignificant proportion of the
frequency and phase angle control before the generator is power system load.
connected to the grid.
 Their efficiency is 2 to 4 percent lower than the efficiency of
 Synchronous generators can run isolated from the grid and
synchronous generators over the entire operating range.
produce power since excitation is not grid-dependent.
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Turbine controls Cont’d…

 Turbines are designed for a certain net head and discharge.  In the first approach once a gate opening is calculated, the
 Any deviation from these parameters must be compensated actuator gives the necessary instruction to the servomotor.
by opening or closing control devices such as the wicket-gate  This results in an extension or retraction of the servo’s rod to
valves to keep constant. control the flow.

 The parameter to be controlled is the runner speed, which  To ensure that the rod actually reaches the calculated position,
feedback is provided to the electronic actuator. These devices
controls the generator frequency irrespective of load
are called speed governors.
variation.
 A governor is a combination of devices and mechanisms, which
 The two approaches to control the runner speed are:
detect speed deviation and convert it into a change in
1. by controlling the water flow to the turbine or
servomotor position.
2. by adjusting the electric load by an electric ballast load
connected to the generator terminals.  A speed-sensing and amplified to excite an actuator, hydraulic
or electric, that controls the water flow to the turbine.
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Cont’d… Cont’d…
 In the second approach it is assumed that, at full load,
 In a Francis turbine, where to reduce the water flow you need
constant head and flow, the turbine will operate at design
to rotate the wicket-gates a powerful governor is required to
speed.
overcome the hydraulic and frictional forces and to maintain
 So maintaining full load from the generator; this will run at a
the wicket-gates in a partially position.
constant speed. If the load decreases the turbine will tend to
increase its speed.  Several types of governors are available varying from purely
mechanical to mechanical-hydraulic to electro-hydraulic.
 An electronic sensor, measuring the frequency, detects the
 The purely mechanical governor is used with fairly small
deviation and a reliable and inexpensive electronic load
turbines, because its control valve is easy to operate and does
governor, switches on preset resistances and so maintains the
not require a big effort.
system frequency accurately.
 These governors use a fly ball mass mechanism driven by the
 The controllers that follow the first approach do not have any turbine shaft.
power limit.
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Cont’d… Cont’d…

 The output from this device the fly ball axis descends or
ascends according to the turbine speed- directly drive the
valve located at the entrance to the turbine.
 The most commonly-used type is the oil-pressure governor
that also uses a fly ball mechanism lighter and more precise
than that used in a purely mechanical governor.
 When the turbine is overloaded, the fly balls slowdown, the
balls drop, and the sleeve of the pilot valve rise to open access
to the upper chamber of the servomotor.
 The oil under pressure enters the upper chamber of the
servomotor to rotate the wicket-gates mechanism and increase
the flow, and consequently the rotational speed and the
frequency.
Oil-pressure governor
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Cont’d…

Thanks!

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