MODULE - 4

RELIABILITY AND QUALITY

1. Reliability Models
A power grid is plan and operated in a coordinated manner to perform reliable
under normal and abnormal conditions as per the grid code.
1. For reliable power-system operation, the two monitoring systems (SCADA
and WAMS) are necessary.
2. Personnel responsible for planning and operating interconnected bulk power
systems are trained, qualified, and have the responsibility and authority to
implement actions in the form of an independent body.
3. Cost-effective demand response resources have the potential to enhance
electric-system reliability while also increasing the system’s ability to absorb
intermittent renewable resources.
4. Energy efficiency, in addition to energy savings, can reduce peak demand and
defer the need for new investments. This increases system reliability.
5. The energy system is more reliable and resilient because energy storage,
distributed and modular renewable systems are less prone to large-scale
failure.

2. System Reliability
The probability of consumers being disconnected, however, can be reduced by
increased investment on a power system by providing high-quality equipment or
redundancy and better maintenance. The economic and reliability constraints are
conflicting in nature and make the planning decisions difficult.
The most typical causes of outages are
1. Power-utility equipment failure
2. Consumer equipment failure
3. Dig-in-for-cables
4. Trees
5. Pollution
6. Storm
7. Flood
8. Lightning
9. Ageing
[Link]
[Link] shortage
[Link] inadequacy
[Link] of power
3. Reliability and Quality Planning
To increase consumers’ willingness to pay for greater level of reliability, there are
two ways: provide more redundancy of supply to one consumer than to
another. In the event of a disturbance or insufficient capability, disconnect or
interrupt the consumer who doesn’t pay a premium rate for electricity.
However, there is an emerging recognition that the traditional practice of
providing all users with a uniform and a good level of service reliability and
power quality merits a re-examination. Given the changes in the electric utility
industry’s cost structure in recent years, there is a growing feeling that
investments related to the provision of electric service reliability/quality should
be more explicitly evaluated as regards to their cost and benefits implications.
Cost-benefit analysis provides the basis for answering the fundamental economic
question in reliability/quality planning: How much reliability is adequate? A key
related question is how and where should a utility spend its “reliability rupees”.
Reliability levels are inter-dependent with economics, since more investment is
necessary to increase reliability or even maintain it at current and acceptable
levels.
This concept creates the investment reliability characteristics as shown in
figure.
4. Functional Zones
The three basic functional zones are generation, transmission and distribution.
Another subdivision of an electric power system is that obtained by combining
the functional zones into hierarchical levels. Adequacy studies can be performed
on each of the hierarchical levels. Three hierarchical levels (HL) are the
following:
1. HLI consists of the generation facilities alone. The total system generation is
examined to determine its adequacy to meet the system load demand.
2. HLII includes both generation and transmission facilities in order to assess the
system adequacy to meet the demand at major area load centres. Adequacy
analysis at HLII is also termed bulk-power system-adequacy assessment.
 3. HLIII studies are not usually done directly because of the enormity of the
problem in a practical system as it involves starting at the generation points and
terminating at the individual consumer loads. As a result, the distribution
functional zone is usually a separate entity with the assumptions that adequate
supplies of energy are always available at the major load centres (load buses) in
the system.

5. Generation Reliability Planning Criteria

Generation capacity requires regular maintenance, which means during some period
of the year, they are not available to serve the load. The generation units can be out
of service due to unforeseen equipment failure. These are called forced outages,
which also contribute to reduced availability of the generation plant.
1. Reserve Margin
The required capacity reserves are determined using probability approach that
examines the probabilities of simultaneous outages of generating units and
compares the resulting remaining capacity with system peak load. In generating
system expansion planning, such reserves are generally identified as percentage of
predicated maximum annual hourly demand for energy.
2. Loss-of-Load Expectation (LOLE)
Loss-of-load probability characterizes the adequacy of generation to serve the load
on the system. The Loss of Load Expectation (LOLE) is a reliability index that
identifies the likelihood that generation will be insufficient to meet peak demand
during a part or all of a year. It is obtained by calculating the probability of daily
peak demand exceeding the available capacity for each day and adding these
probabilities for all the days in the year.

3. Energy Not Supplied (ENS)

Any outage of generation capacity exceeding the reserve will result in curtailment of
system power. Therefore, another power-related reliability index, known as the
expected power-related reliability index, known as the expected power not served
summation (ENS) in MWh per year, is also used to complement the LOLE index,
and can be defined as
∑ (ENS) = ∑8760Lipi
Where
L= load curtailment in the system state i
p= probability of system state i

6. Transmission Reliability Criteria

1. N-1 criterion is used in transmission planning. This is single contingency.
 2. As a national approach, N – 2 criteria may be adopted for large generation
complexes (300 MW or above) and multiline corridors (3 D/C lines or more),
on case-to-case basis.
3. Any congestion in transmission [7], i.e., energy not supplied (ENS) MWh/year
∑(ENS) = ∑8760Lipi

CEA Reliability Planning Criteria [16]

The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) uses the following reliability criteria
ondeterministic basis. However, probability criteria are desirable for better realistic
application.
1. Lines
Loading Under Normal Operating Conditions for Lines
400 kV S/C LINE: 360-800 MW
220 kV S/C LINE: 160-200 MW
132 kV S/C LINE: 50-70 MW
2. Generation
For the transmission system configurations, transmission planning studies are carried out
depending on the generation scenarios worked out by the CEA.
(a) Thermal and Nuclear Plants The norms for deciding overall peaking capability
is
Rated capacity minus
(Maintenance @ 5%
+ Partial outage rate @ 15%
+ Forced outage rate @ 17%
+ Auxiliary consumption @ 10%
+ Spinning reserve @ 5%)
(b) Annual Energy Generation
500 MW units – 6000 kWh/Kw
200/210 MW units – 5500 kWh/kW
Units with ratings less than 200 MW
-5000 kWh/kW
(c) Availability from New Units The peaking capability and annual energy
generation capability of newly commissioned thermal and nuclear units would be
taken as below:
Peaking Capability
 During first three months of commissioning – NIL
Next nine months – 50%
After one year – 100%

Energy Generation
1st year 2500 kWh/kW
2nd year 4000 kWh/kW
3rd year 5000 kWh/kW
4th year 6000 kWh/kW
(d) Hydro Plants Norms for deciding overall peaking capacities of hydro units
would be as under:
Rated capacity minus
(Maintenance @ 3%
+ Forced outage rate @ 9.5%
+ Auxiliary consumption @ 0.5%)
3. Scheduled Maintenance
The periods of scheduled maintenance in the year for hydro, thermal and nuclear
units is assumed as follows:
Number of days
 Hydro units 30
 Conventional thermal units up to and including 250/210 MW units 45
 500/600 MW thermal units 60
 Nuclear
- 200/235 MW units 45
- 500 MW units 60
- 1000 MW units 75
7. Distribution Reliability
Distribution system fault immediately affect the consumer. Distribution system
account for up to 90% of all consumer reliability problems. Distribution improves
reliability.
1. System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI) is the average total
duration of supply per annum that a consumer experiences in the period.
2. System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI) is the average number of
interruptions of supply in the year for consumer who experiences interruption of
supply in the period.
3. Consumer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI) is the average duration
of an interruption of supply in the year for consumers who experience
interruption of supply in the period.
4. MAIFI is the average number of momentary interruptions that a consumer would
experience during a given period (typically a year). Electric power utilities may
define momentary interruption differently, with some considering a momentary
interruption to be an outage of less than 1 minute in duration while others may
consider a momentary interruption to be an outage of less than 5 minute in
duration. MAIFI is calculated as
MAIFI = Total number of consumers interrupted less than defined time
Total number of consumers served
ASAI (Average Service Availability Index) is
= Consumer hours service availability
Consumer hours service demand
System Configuration
1. Grid network
2. Spot network
3. Secondary selective
4. Primary selective
5. Primary loop
 6. Radial

8. Reliability Evaluation

The power system reliability studies are conducted for two purposes.

1. Long term reliability studies evaluation may be performed to assist in long-range

system planning.
2. Short-term reliability predictions may be undertaken to assist in day-to-day
operating decisions including system security. Improvement in system reliability
can be effected by using either better components or a system design
incorporating more redundancy. The main steps in reliability studies are the
following:
a) Define the system: List the components and collect the necessary components
failure data from field survey available.
b) Define the criteria for system failure.
c) List the assumption to be used.
d) Developing the system model.
e) Perform failure-effects analysis and compute the system reliability indices.
f) Analyse and evaluate the results.

8.1 Reliability Data

The scope of reliability engineering in power system depends upon the following:

1. The collection and evaluation of component failure data and load curve model of
the system.
2. The definition of reliability measures and the determination of reliability
requirements or standards for the various application.
3. The development of mathematical models for system reliability, and the solution
of these models.
4. The verification of the results.
5. The evaluation of results, and the preparation of recommendation.
8.2 Reliability Programs

A Commercial Power-system planning computer program i.e., WASP, ISPLAN,

EGEAS, which are equipped with several solution techniques, have been used by the
Central Electricity Authority for evaluating HLII adequacy.

8.3 Sensitivity Studies

Several sensitivity studies are carried out to examine the effect of the variations in
the various power-planning parameters, namely, (i) variations in the electricity demand
projection by 10% and 20%; (ii) low level of hydro development; (iii) improvement in
performance of thermal power plants; and(iv) improvements in the system-load factor
by employing available load-management techniques, etc.

8.4 System Reliability Analysis

The essence of total system analysis is simulation of system operation with respect
to both reliability and economy of electric power supply. The simulation is carried out
over a period of time which is estimated to include most of the economic impacts of the
alternatives being [Link] way of defining an adequate length of study is that which
will produce, among alternatives, differences in present worth of final-year costs which
are small compared to differences in present worth of costs for the total study period.
The requirement is usually met by study of no more than twenty years’ length. The
simulation of future system operation is repeated for each alternate case, the present
worth of the total system cost of each simulation being the basis of comparison.
1. Generation
There are two basic methods to evaluate generation reliability.
a) Reserve Capacity
The basic quantity to be determined is the amount of installed reserve capacity
required for keeping the risk of not being able to supply the load at any time
below a predetermined level. These studies, therefore, assist system-planning
engineers in scheduling unit additions to meet the load demand as it grows over
the years. In other studies, the risk of some load being left unsupplied in the
interval between the unit failure and start-up of a reserve unit is examined and
the amount of operating reserve (spinning or quick-starting units) is determined
which keeps the risk bellow an acceptable level.
The failure probability of a generating unit is given by its unavailability (A), i.e.,
A= 
+µ
Where  = failure rate and µ = repair rate.
b) Probability of capacity Deficiency: Loss-of-Load Method
 The overall probability that the load demand will not be met is called the
Loss-of-Load Probability (LOLP) and is given by the equation
LOLP = ∑iP (C = Ci)p(L>Ci) = ∑i pi t i / 100
Where
C i= available generating capacity
ti = percentage of time during which load demand (L) exceeds Ci

2. Generation Expansion Planning

An important application of generation reserve studies is the planning for unit
additions in the future. The determination of such a schedule is based on a
acceptable level of risk expressed in one of the reliability indices and on the rate
of load growth expected for a number of years ahead. Several schedules can be
derived, based on different projections for the capacities risk levels and best of
these is then selected by consideration of economy.
3. Transmission
Broadly speaking, transmission planning studies may involve one or more issues
that may have a bearing on system reliability;
(a) Determining how many circuits will be required
(b) Selecting the voltage level
(c) Selecting the route(s) for new lines
(d) Selecting the type of tower
(e) Selecting the location of switching stations
(f) Selecting the single-line diagram for all affected stations
(g) Selecting the type of relaying to be used
(h) Selecting the communication facilities
(i) Selecting the number of circuits on a right-of-way
(j) Determining how many auto-transformers will be required
(k) Use the special protection schemes
(l) Up-rating of circuits
 (m) Reinforcement of transmission interfaces

(n)400/220 kV transformer stations

9. Grid Reliability
The National Reliability Council for Electricity was constituted by the Central
Electricity Regulatory Commission on 21 February 2014, which is looking into all
aspects of reliability of the National Power Grid.
1. The reactive-power flow is increasingly getting attention nowadays for system
voltage stability. From the consumer point of view, MVArhs are not given not
consideration.
The following general planning criteria for reactive power compensation need to
be observed [11]:
(a) Reactive power should not be transported over long distances.
(b) In normal intact network situations, reactive power should be produced and
consumed locally.
(c) The network should be operated at upper voltage limits in high load
conditions to achieve higher stability margins and to reduce active- and
reactive-power transmission losses.
(d) The amount of reactive-power resources should be sufficient to ensure
acceptable transmission capabilities in the network during system distributed
conditions.
(e) Voltage Stability.
10. Reliability Target
1. Due to lack of financial resources, many utilities planners are facing a new
situation as new lines and stations are not being to the same extend as planned.
Instead, the emphasis is on renewal of existing installations which calls for new
strategies.
2. Not all consumers are dissatisfied with the supply and many,such as agriculture
consumers, would accept a lower level of reliability if the price was reduced. It
 is, therefore, clear that is still a lot of work to do to find optimum level of
reliability for different consumers and adopt standard measurements for
reliability in our systems.
11. Security Requirement
The security levels differ from utility depending upon the policy of quality of
supply. In order to ensure proper quality and continuity of power supply to
consumers, power-system security requirements broadly fall under three stages:
1. Power-system planning
2. Power-system operating planning
3. Power-system control
At the planning stage, i.e., reinforcements/ expansions for utilities need long-
term studies of the system requirements in the terms of the following:
1. Analysis of demand and energy forecasts/past power cuts during peak
conditions. The system must be strengthened to meet the peak of agriculture
load and other rural loads. The annual load-duration curve is drawn from the
data of daily average power peaks collected for the year. From this curve, the
energy-not-supplied ratio can be found.
2. Reserve margin planning in generation and transmission.
3. Protection system design to ensure fault clearance. This is an aspect of short-
term planning.
4. Automated capability for system segregation-division and restoration.
5. Fast-acting load-shedding system which should be based not only on
frequency but also on other system-operating conditions.
6. Reinforcements of reactive power devices (capacitors, etc.) wherever required.
7. Interconnected power system planning
a) Evaluation of power-exchange capabilities
b) Joint operating studies
c) Coordinated planning of facilities
12. Disaster Management
 Disaster occur as Natural Calamities (earthquakes, flood, storms etc.) and human
acts (terrorist attack, sabotage etc.). A culture of preparedness and prevention
require planning. Prevention may be building better standards, creating warning
system for floods or storms etc., making risk insurance. Planning involves:
1. Disaster-management groups should be constituted at the power-utility level.
2. Controls rooms shall have a list of minimum manpower required for continuous
operation and maintenance of a particular utility on 24-hour basis with 2- or 3-
shift operation. A complete list of personnel/experts for operation and
maintenance of the utilities shall be maintained so that in case of emergency, the
experts may be sent for quick fault finding and restoration of power supply.
3. Availability of all the resources meant for tackling the disasters/restoration
process should be listed and the same should be available to the concerned
members.
4. Alternate feedpoints should be identified for traction, defence locations, and
other important areas.
5. The power back-up facilities like DG sets and inverters should be maintained
properly and checked periodically for readiness of operation in case of any
emergency.
6. The transportation arrangements in case of any emergency should be decided in
advance.
7. Spares available with various power utilities and their locations should be
identified so that these could be pressed into service within the shortest possible
time.
13. Quality of Supply [14]
Reliable and clean power is necessary for 21st century consumers on account of
sensitive digital control and communications in all sectors. Almost half the
PQ(Power Quality) problems result from the transmission and distribution system
and other 50% arise from consumers, causing voltage irregularities that feedback a
power system.
Modern grids with advanced sensing and measuring technologies can deliver power
of grades from standard to premium. The environment is becoming harsh and we
need to make the system more resilient.
1. Different consumers have different power-quality needs. A distribution system
that one type of consumer may consider high quality may not be adequate for
another. Also, consumer needs change over time. A distribution system that may
be considered high quality today may not be acceptable tomorrow.
2. Acceptable power quality for electronic loads combines all of the elements of
reliability with the additional factors of voltage regulation, voltage disturbances,
and wave-shape distortion. In the computervoltage tolerance envelope
developed by the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association
(CBEMA) in USA, power disturbances are subcycle voltage disturbances in the
form of transient spikes or notches.
3. Voltage disturbances are frequently caused by weather-related problems.
Lightning strikes are the principal caused of overvoltage transient (Type I
disturbances). Contact between a phase conductor and the neutral may create
voltage spikes or sags.
4. Waveshape distortions are the result of harmonics superimposed on the
fundamental-frequency sine wave. The fifth, seventh, eleventh, and thirteenth
harmonics can cause resonance in capacitor banks and are a source of noise in
communication circuits.
13.1 Quality Problems
For a consumer, quality problems are caused by the following:
1. Distribution System
2. Other Consumer
3. Consumer’s Own Equipment
13.2 Power-Quality Metering
Power-quality instruments measure
1. Transient detection on all V and I inputs
 2. Inrush current
3. Calculation of crest factors for current and voltage
4. Calculation of the K-factor for transformers
5. Calculation of short-term flicker for voltage
6. Calculation of the phase unbalance for voltage and current (3-phaseonly)
7. Measurement of harmonic angles and rates (referenced to the
fundamental or RMS value) for voltage, current or power, up to 50th
harmonic
8. Display of harmonic sequencing and direction and calculation of overall
harmonics
9. Real-time display of phasor diagrams including values and phase angles
[Link] of the average value of any parameter, calculated over a
period running from 1s to 2 h
11. Measurement of active, reactive, and apparent power per phase and their
respective sum total
12. Calculation of power factor, displacement power factor, and tangent
factor
13. Recording, time stamping and characterization of disturbance (swells,
sags and interruptions, exceedance of power and harmonic thresholds)
[Link] and recording of power-system quality (kW, VA, VAR)
15. Energy metering (kVAh, VARh, kWh)
16. Determine harmonic contents origination from source or load
[Link] phase unbalances
14. Reliability and Quality Roadmap
1. Improvements

2. Outages cost

3. Cost-Effective and Achievable Reliability/Quality Targets

4. Target to improve by 10% per year until it becomes comparable with

world-class power utilities.
5. Develop and enforce standards to ensure reliability/quality of the power

systems.