Jurnal Kejuruteraan 34(6) 2022: 983-998

[Link] 983

Structural Crack Detection System using Internet of Things (IoT) for Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM): A Review
Abdul Hadi Abdul Razaka*, Nur Shuhada Abdullaha, Syed A. M. Al Junida, Abdul K. Halima, Mohd F. M. Idrosa, Fairul N. Osmana &
Faisal Nazamuddinb

a
Electronic Architecture and Application Research Group (EArA), School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Invicom Test & Measurement Sdn Bhd

*Corresponding author: hadi@[Link]

Received 15 September 2021, Received in revised form 23 May 2022

Accepted 27 June 2022, Available online 30 November 2022

ABSTRACT

Monitoring the state of civil engineering infrastructure is critical for a country’s economic development since structures
with long service life and timely maintenance have lower reconstruction costs. Crack occurrence is the most important
element that influences the performance and lifespan of civil infrastructures like bridges and pipelines. As a result, several
fracture detection and characterization approaches have been explored and developed in the domains of Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM) throughout the last few decades. The major goal of implementing the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm
is to enable the Internet-based connectivity extension of various typical SHM devices. As a result, connected devices can
communicate and process data, opening new possibilities in the design of acquisition systems in various disciplines of
research and engineering. The researchers have extended the application of the IoT paradigm to the SHM crack detection
because of the advances, ensuring that the tests done in this framework can produce good results with promising future
improvements. Thus, this paper reviews structural crack detection based IoT for SHM as reported by previous research in
the literature. The strengths and limitations of current systems are discussed. This paper is aimed to serve as a reference
for crack detection and characterisation researchers as well as others who are interested in SHM in general. In addition,
several case studies on real structures, as well as laboratory experiments for monitoring structural crack health of civil
engineering structures, are also presented.

Keywords: Structural crack; structural health monitoring; sensors; internet of things

INTRODUCTION The need for structural health monitoring comes from

the initiatives of engineers around the globe to monitor the
Structural health monitoring has become an essential aspect conditions of erected buildings and structures. Although
of civil engineering. This scenario is because all human- during the design phase of the building construction, all
made structures are not perfect and have many flaws that the safety regulations and requirements are followed to
will, at one time or another fails whether due to normal the letter, real-world experience for the building is still
wear and tear, natural disasters, or not following proper considered the actual test of performance and integrity for
regulations and testing during construction. The degree of said building. Nevertheless, in some cases, the worst-case
failures might vary from one structure to another, but the scenarios controlling the design do not occur. Therefore, the
most catastrophic failures are when it involves the loss of true structural design is never fully verified (Collins et al.
human life. For example, a disaster that happened recently is 2014). To remedy the problem, in-situ monitoring is needed
the Charles de Gaulle Airport Collapse in Paris in 2004. Six to verify and assess the condition of the structure. Bischoff
modules which consist of ready-built concrete and external et al. proposed a monitoring application using a wireless
metal structures of the roof structure of the boarding area sensor network that was performed on a 95-year-old riveted
in Terminal 2E at the airport collapsed, killing six persons steel railway bridge, and its operation is in the event-based
while injuring three others (Torres 2004). Investigators mode for energy efficiency (Bischoff et al. 2009). After
found that the roof was not strong enough to hold the heavy processing the raw data acquired and eliminating the noises
metal modules although there are external reinforcements and unwanted readings, the result obtained by the system is
added to them. However, the external reinforcements did sufficiently good for fatigue assessment. Another approach
not pass the optimum location needed to support the roof by Wang et al is by designing a wireless system for detecting
and rendering them ineffective (Kaljas 2017). vibrations from a distance (Wang 2014). The system is
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implemented in a multi-storey building to predict the initial information continuously and remotely. Hence this paper
stage of an earthquake. The results obtained are satisfactory is aimed to serve as a reference for crack detection and
because of the use of multiple sensors across each level of characterisation researchers as well as others who are
the building, providing a precise data acquisition. interested in SHM in general. In addition, several case studies
Most individuals are curious about the causes behind on real structures, as well as laboratory experiments for
concrete cracks. Cracks of concrete only can be minimized monitoring cracks and structural health of civil engineering
with the correct foundation at the first stage of the job site, structures, are also presented.
and they cannot be avoided as almost of homes or buildings The paper is divided into six sections. Section 2 presents
based on concrete happen to have cracks. The major issue the different structural health monitoring parameters. The
of this project is cracks, which arise because of foundation review methodology will be discussed in Section 3. Section
difficulties and result in a range of crack forms. Vertical, 4 will describe and review the IoT based structural health
horizontal, and diagonal cracks are the three types of cracks monitoring for crack detection in detail. Section 5 documents
that may occur on a structure, with the horizontal crack the detailed discussion on the advantages and disadvantages
being the most hazardous. This is due to it can reduce the of the available IoT based structural health monitoring for
cross-section of a structure as well as lower its structural crack detection in the literature. Finally, Section 8 concludes
capability (Yao et al. 2014). Concrete cracks are caused the article.
by a variety of factors, which can be described as concrete
shrinking and expanding due to the heavy load applied, due
STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING PARAMETERS
to temperature differences, the improper cover provided
during concreting and some cause due to corrosion of
reinforcement steel (Rahman 2016) Structural health monitoring, or SHM, is known as
Conversely, inspections are carried out in accordance the process of implementing a damage identification
with construction specifications, and it is a responsibility to strategy for aerospace, civil, and mechanical engineering
determine when a project is ready for inspection. All type infrastructure (Farrar and Worden 2007). The process
of foundation cracks is serious and should be inspected involves the observation of the structure material and its
continuously and remotely (Lifetech 2021) However, behaviours throughout the monitoring period. From there,
humans are prone to forgetfulness and do not run away an assessment is made to determine the current structure
from committing errors or making mistakes. Some of the performance and predict its future behaviour. Furthermore,
time, human does not act fast as they should to prevent Manson, Worden, and Allman believe that the information
major home or building damage due to unnoticeable type system for structural health monitoring includes a sensor,
of cracks. Visual inspections that are usually done by data acquisition devices, computers, software, and a database
structural engineers are difficult and risky, especially after (Manson 2003). Moreover, the structural health monitoring
an earthquake, because the building may collapse, or the process has been defined as a four-step statistical pattern
structures may be inaccessible due to rubble. (Donelli & recognition paradigm for a general guideline, that includes
Viani 2017) Therefore, it is preferable if the inspection is operational evaluation, data acquisition, normalization and
carried out by a system instead of the human itself. cleansing, feature selection and information condensation,
Contrariwise, the embedded system may have created and statistical model development for feature discrimination
a detailed wireframe and a mock-up for a more detailed (Farrar et al. 2001). However, it should be noted that the
exploration, but neither of these methods allows the design process of structural health monitoring data acquisition
to be thoroughly tested in the real world. There is no standard is application-specific, and maybe the stated paradigm
testing protocol to test an SHM IoT based system. The needed some adjustment in its process. In structural health
testing can be beneficial in the process, but if the concepts monitoring, the assessment of the infrastructure is usually
bring to life, they can fail. Failure is an important element done by damage identification. According to the Oxford
of success since it allows you to learn from your mistakes. Dictionary, the damage is defined as physical harm that
Developers may detect the design’s flaws and solve them impairs the value, usefulness, or normal function of
quickly by testing them with a functional prototype that something. Therefore, damage in this context means any
connects with IoT (Suroso 2022)(Salis 2021)(Singh 2020). physical changes, either inside or outside the structure, that
If these flaws are discovered later, they become significantly deteriorates its durability in the long run, while also may
more costly blunders, and any cost saved during the testing harm the occupants inside the structure. Every material
process will be wasted anyway (Nexus 2017) Eventually, used in a building structure has predetermined boundary
in the end, everyone must agree that monitoring the width conditions. For example, for reinforced concrete, crack
of foundation cracks is ultimately the best way to avoid formation on its surface is an indication that its structural
costly foundation repairs as well as can extend the life of integrity is deteriorating, usually due to excessive load on
the structure. certain points on the concrete. Therefore, by definition,
Thus, we could conclude that SHM will be a major it can be said that the concrete structure is damaged. The
technological advancement in civil engineering structures structural health monitoring objective is to find this damage
to assist civil engineers to monitor significant structural automatically and predicts it before it is happening. In this
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way, countermeasures can be taken swiftly to avoid more the expansion due to the internal stress of the concrete from
structural deformities from happening that can render the the results of the corrosion of the steel rebar. When there
building inhabitable by humans. are visible cracks on the concrete, it is usually the result of
Structural Health Monitoring can be divided into months or years of interior micro-crack formation. If left
three main parameters: Corrosion, Strength, and Cracking. unattended, the cracks will grow larger and larger every day
However, recently these parameters have extended into which will result in a catastrophic failure of the integrity of
more detailed boundaries. This paper will focus on the 3 a structure, which in turn will increase the probability of the
main parameters. structure collapsing.

CORROSION
METHODOLOGY
Corrosion in the context of structural concrete is when
the steel rebars in the reinforced concrete are exposed to The literature search was carried out via academic search
elements that are harmful to them such as carbon dioxide engines as follows; SpringerLink, ScienceDirect, Emerald
(CO2), chloride from salt, which are commonly used to Insight, and Google Scholar. The literature search was
de-icing a structure typically during the winter season, and conducted with terms relevant to the subject area keywords;
the surrounding humidity. The exposure from said elements “Structural Crack”, “Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)”,
will result in a formation of rust around the steel rebar, and “Internet of Things (IoT). In achieving a more accurate
which in turn will increase the volume of the steel by two search specific to the structural crack detection system, a
or four times its original volume while owning none of the manual filtration is conducted to comb through the search
beneficial mechanical properties. Steel rebar is fundamental results achieved from the academic search engines. The
in structural concrete as it provides the tensile properties result was analysed based on the crack sensing method. From
that are needed to prevent the failure of concrete structures, the review the crack sensing method can be divided into 8
which are subjected to tensile and flexural stresses due to methods; Distributed Optical Fiber Sensor (DOFS), MEMS
traffic, winds, dead loads, and thermal cycling (Vavpetic Sensors, Wire-based Triboelectric Resonator (WTER),
2008). Digital Sampling Moire (DSM), RF Power Detector, Crack
Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD), Fiber Optic Sensors,
STRENGTH Plastic Optical Fiber Sensors, and Fiber Bragg Grating
(FBG).
Another parameter in structural health monitoring is
strength. The strength of concrete is very important as it is
mainly judged for its quality. Although other properties to STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING: IOT BASED CRACK
DETECTION
improve concrete durability are not necessarily dependent
on strength, concrete strength remains one of the considered
aspects. Certain building designers have specified that the Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) aims to provide sensing
concrete strengths of 5000 to 6000 psi, or even higher are and diagnostic capability of the state of the component
needed for certain structural elements. However, strengths materials of the various parts, as well as the whole assembly
in the range from 15,000 to 20,000 psi have also been of these elements that make up the structure, at any time
produced for lower-floor columns in high-rise buildings during its life. Although normal ageing due to usage,
(Neville 2015). Concrete that fails to develop the strength environmental action, and unintentional events can all
as expected is probably deficient in other respects as well. affect the structure’s state, it must remain within the domain
Two kinds of strength are considered for structural concrete, defined in the design (Balageas 2010). SHMs are most used
which is compressive and flexural. Compressive strength in civil engineering to monitor the state of concrete. They
is usually the maximum stress or load that concrete can are, however, manually employing equipment to monitor
withstand before it is starting to crack or breaks in half. the condition of a structure. They must use a tape measure
Flexural strength is a bit similar, in that it is the maximum to determine the length of a crack. However, the crack
degree of bending of concrete when there are loads exerted continues to expand, and there is no way that an engineer
onto them before they are starting to break. Bending or those in charge of the operation will keep track of the
occurred when the bottom part of the concrete experienced information distance of a concrete crack. People nowadays
tensions while the upper part experienced compressions. choose simple methods of monitoring, thus there has been
an improvement in the measurement of crack distance in
CRACKING
civil engineering, which will include electrical engineering
workers. To keep up with technological advancements,
Cracking, as defined by Committee 201 of the American automatic structural health monitoring is being researched
Concrete Institute is a complete or incomplete separation, of and developed to make their jobs easier.
either concrete or masonry, into two or more parts produced A new sort of monitoring can be done in structural
by breaking or fracturing (ACI Committee 1997). In health monitoring. For example, crack detection, corrosion
structural concrete, one of the common causes of cracking is detection, score, and seismic damage detection (Hui &
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Jinping 2011). A crack can be discovered both on and in

concrete. There have also been a few studies that show that
cracks can occur in aluminium, aircraft, and bridges for a
variety of reasons. Aside from that, the cracks themselves
are divided into three types: vertical cracks, diagonal cracks,
and horizontal cracks (Lifetech 2021). All these patterns
FIGURE 1. Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors (DOFS)
are useful for the life of a structure in structural health
(Barrias et al. 2018)
monitoring if cracks are detected. The next point is to search
for corrosion. This sort of structural health monitoring
CRACK SENSING METHOD: MEMS SENSORS
is most associated with the oil and natural gas industries.
Due to specific obstacles, such as stability and durability in Apart from DOFS, Asfana et al. utilized MEMS sensors to
extreme and hard conditions such as high pressure inside do a Wireless Sensor Network based Crack Detection on
subsurface wellbores and high temperature (Wright et al. Concrete Bridges or Buildings (Asfana et al. 2018) They
2019) only a few papers were discovered to do this project. discuss highway bridges that connect roadways in both
urban areas and rural, and how to monitor the structural
CRACK SENSING METHOD: DISTRIBUTED OPTICAL FIBER health of highway bridges using an autonomous wireless
SENSOR (DOFS)
sensor network system to check for deterioration due to
external and internal variables. As the operator, they can
Every project that has been developed to assess structural
view the bridge’s data in real-time via a smartphone. The
health has used a different type of sensor. This can be seen in
bridge crack detection is identified based on angle altering
the fact that the papers that were examined used a distributed
and the crack is detected with the position in the vibration
optical fiber sensor (DOFS), MEMS sensor, WTER sensor,
of the bridge utilising MEMS sensor, vibration sensor, and
ADNS-3080 sensor, RF power detector sensor, fiber optic
GSM as an input to the microcontroller. When the bridge
sensor, Plastic Optical Fiber sensor, FBG sensor, the sensor
is cracked, the values are delivered through a GSM modem
that detect COD or CTOD, and RFID sensor. The article
and monitored via web pages on the internet. The bridge
Embedded Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors in Reinforced
crack identification and angle position are traced using a
Concrete Structures (Barrias et al. 2018) uses DOFS sensors
Raspberry Pi microcontroller as in Figure 2.
as in Figure 1 to achieve the protection need, the robustness
of the sensor formation, and measurement accuracy both in
the uncracked and cracked stages, as well as during loading,
unloading, and reloading process. Using the DOFS method
and the technique Rayleigh Optical Frequency Domain
Reflectometry (OFDR) approach, the optical fiber is bonded
crossing the cracks and to the rebar delivered good results
even in the case of unloading and loading of the specimen.

CRACK SENSING METHOD: MEMS SENSORS

Apart from DOFS, Asfana et al. utilized MEMS sensors to

FIGURE 2. Interfacing GSM and Raspberry Pi (Asfana et al. 2018)
do a Wireless Sensor Network based Crack Detection on
Concrete Bridges or Buildings (Asfana et al. 2018) They
CRACK SENSING METHOD: WIRE-BASED TRIBOELECTRIC
discuss highway bridges that connect roadways in both
RESONATOR (WTER)
urban areas and rural, and how to monitor the structural
health of highway bridges using an autonomous wireless Next, Yeonseok Jung, Hee Jae Hwang, Jiseop Yu, Divij
sensor network system to check for deterioration due to Bhatia, and Kwun Bum Chung used a wire-based triboelectric
external and internal variables. As the operator, they can resonator (WTER) for the self-powered crack monitoring
view the bridge’s data in real-time via a smartphone. The system (Jung et al. 2020) The WTER sensor detects a
bridge crack detection is identified based on angle altering crack by vibrating on a dielectric film of metal wire, which
and the crack is detected with the position in the vibration produces a resonant frequency. By combining a WTER with
of the bridge utilising MEMS sensor, vibration sensor, and an Arduino board, a self-powered crack monitoring device
GSM as an input to the microcontroller. When the bridge was created as in Figure 3. This setup successfully observed
is cracked, the values are delivered through a GSM modem 100 Um elongation with resonant frequency change of
and monitored via web pages on the internet. The bridge around 30Hz, with monitored frequency values errors of
crack identification and angle position are traced using a less than 1%.
Raspberry Pi microcontroller as in Figure 2.
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CRACK SENSING METHOD: WIRE-BASED TRIBOELECTRIC CRACK SENSING METHOD: RF POWER DETECTOR
RESONATOR (WTER)
RF Power Detector, which used a four-channel
Next, Yeonseok Jung, Hee Jae Hwang, Jiseop Yu, Divij complementary split-ring resonator (CSRR) loaded array
Bhatia, and Kwun Bum Chung used a wire-based triboelectric has three CSRRs per channel (Salim et al. 2020). A voltage-
resonator (WTER) for the self-powered crack monitoring controlled oscillator (VCO) that three frequencies were
system (Jung et al. 2020) The WTER sensor detects a generated successively for each channel using a single-pole
crack by vibrating on a dielectric film of metal wire, which four-throw (SP4T) switch. A microcontroller interprets the
produces a resonant frequency. By combining a WTER with transmitted RF signal as in Figure 5, which is transformed
an Arduino board, a self-powered crack monitoring device to a DC voltage level. Aluminium sheets that have cracks
was created as in Figure 3. This setup successfully observed embedded in the surface are used to demonstrate the
100 Um elongation with resonant frequency change of detection of cracks of various shapes, locations, and sizes.
around 30Hz, with monitored frequency values errors of
less than 1%.

CRACK SENSING METHOD: DIGITAL SAMPLING MOIRE (DSM)

Chen et al. present an Optical Crack Growth Sensor Using

the Digital Sampling Moire (DSM) Method. This study
(Chen et al. 2018) used an ADNS-3080 sensor to monitor
two-dimensional (2D) crack propagation as in Figure 4. To
achieve accurate 2D displacement and improved sensitivity
at a lower computing cost, the DSM requires no prior
calibration. It is also more resistant to changes in imaging
distance, which is determined by the difference in height
between the two sides of cracks’ concrete. FIGURE 5. Complete system design to detect multiple cracks,
positions, and sizes (Salim et al. 2020)

CRACK SENSING METHOD: CRACK TIP OPENING

DISPLACEMENT (CTOD)

A guide for recommended practices to perform crack tip

opening displacement (CTOD) tests in high strength low
alloy steels were presented (Ávila et al. 2016). The purpose
of this work as in Figure 6 is guidance for fracture toughness
in metallic materials that feature cracks. It not only improves
the structure’s architecture but also its service life. This
research focuses on several practical concerns surrounding
the use of the CTOD parameter to assess crack toughness in
FIGURE 3. Concept of WTER used to crack monitoring high strength low alloy steels (HSLA), specifically pipeline
(Jung et al. 2020) steels for oil and gas transportation.

CRACK SENSING METHOD: FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

As previously stated, the SHM makes extensive use of fiber

optic sensors in their work, including optical fiber sensors,
plastic optic fiber, and FBG. Therefore, the papers on optical
fiber sensors are explained in this section.
There are several papers reported about optical fiber
sensors that have been reviewed. Lin Cheng et al state
presents the sensing principle that has a linear macro-
bending loss for optical fiber’ new type of crack sensor
and its experimental research (Cheng et al. 2018) This
research discussed the relationship between COD and
the fiber’s macro-bending loss, which poses a number of
FIGURE 4. Digital Sampling Moire (DSM) (Chen et al. 2018) challenges. To tackle this difficulty, this study establishes a
linear relationship between the COD and the fiber’s macro-
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bending loss by regulating the fiber winding shaft to keep measurement on large scale for ultrafast strain measurement
the bending radius constant. A crack sensing principle for or potential operational load monitoring on a small scale for
optical fiber is developed based on this linear connection. A potential damage detection as in Figure 9. The method used
validation experiment was carried out as in Figure 7 using in this paper is using a hybrid fiber optic system embedded
three groups of fiber winding shafts with varying diameters in composite materials and it is necessary to monitor the
and three groups of working light sources with different structural health of the most vulnerable structures as it has the
wavelengths to evaluate the feasibility of this crack-sensing possibility of barely visible damage occurring on their outer
principle. The macro-bending loss is linearly related to the surfaces. The monitoring techniques using optical fibers are
COD, according to the experimental results. A unique type used to monitor the structure from the inside. Thus, hybrid
of optical fiber crack sensor is built based on the suggested optical fiber sensors embedded in composite materials show
crack sensing technique to monitor the COD of pre-existing the ability to discriminate between temperature, strain,
fractures and contraction joints of structures. stress, vibration and mechanical defects.

FIGURE 6. CTOD Test (Ávila et al. 2016)

FIGURE 8. Fiber optic splitters and fiber optic tilt sensors on the
top of the sewerage pipe (Bremera et al. 2016)

CRACK SENSING METHOD: PLASTIC OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS

Aside from fiber optical sensors, plastic optical fiber sensors

are also used on SHM. A Plastic Optical Fiber Sensing
System for Bridge Deflection Measurement (Zhang et al.
2020). In this study, a sensing system based on variations in
optical fiber intensity is suggested to assess bridge deflection
in various positions using connected pipes as in Figure 10.
FIGURE 7. Experimental device diagram of the sensor size The suggested system is made up of three components:
parameter (Cheng et al. 2018) connected pipes that connect the measurement spots along
with the structure, the liquid that fills the connected pipes,
Fiber optic sensors for the SHM of building structures and a sensing unit that detects level changes. The designed
(Bremera et al. 2016) discussed detection of the moisture system’s sensing element is a plastic optical fiber sensor
ingress into the concrete use two types of fiber which are based on intensity change. The results reveal that this system
fiber optic humidity sensors and a fiber optic crack sensor has a precise linear response and a high level of reliability
as in Figure 8. Furthermore, the properties of mechanical’s in a variety of environments. The sensor’s measurement of
optical glass fiber sensors degrade, and thus their long-term the test beam deflection coincides with the linear variable
reliability and stability, due to the chemical and mechanical differential transformer (LVDT) within a 2.1 percent error
impact of the concrete environment, as well as the benefit margin. The proposed technology has a lot of potential for
of using a fiber optic sensor system for SHM of sewerage long-span bridge health monitoring in the future.
tunnels are discussed. As a result, the fiber optic sensor can
detect a crack with a dimension of 1.4mm in this paper.
Karolina Bednarska, and et al review Hybrid Fiber Optic
Sensor Systems in Structural Health Monitoring in Aircraft
Structures (Bednarska et al. 2020). In this paper, the modern
aircraft structure is said to use a material with high strength
as it reduces the weight of structural elements. In addition,
aircraft structure is exposed to numerous damages and
failures. Complex construction causes difficulty to monitor
FIGURE 9. Hybrid fiber optic sensor system in aircraft structure
during impacts. Therefore, it is made to perform strain
(Bednarska et al. 2020)
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CRACK SENSING METHOD: FIBER BRAGG GRATING (FBG)

Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) is used more on SHM. Three

papers have been revised as well. One of them is Fiber Bragg
Grating (FBG) Based Sensing System: Early Corrosion
Detection for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) (Tan et
al. 2016). Most construction structures are supported by
rebar, which leads to damage or collapses due to corrosion
and during the concrete casting on the rebar surface, the
formation of a passive film from the alkaline cement is
pasted to protect the layer against corrosion. However,
corrosion will still take place at the rebar surface due to the
penetration of Chloride (Cl-) ions. Rebar corrosion within
concrete structures as in Figure 12 is one of the primary
reasons which make an entire construction weakened.
Therefore, this paper studied using the method of FBG
sensor with and without coating to fulfil the objective of
this paper which is to detect early corrosion on rebar. The
FIGURE 10. Equipment used for POF sensing (Zhang et al. 2020)
protection of the FBG sensor is believed very important for
the long-term monitoring of a composite structure in SHM.
Fatigue crack monitoring in train track steel structures
using plastic optical fiber sensor (Yang et al. 2017) that
practicality of utilizing POF sensors in conjunction with a
signal-processing method to identify and monitor fatigue-
induced cracks in rail track steel structures in real-time. The
POF sensor system is made up of low-cost components (LED
light sources, photodetectors, and data collecting units)
that are simple to mount on the host structure. The results
reveal that all three types of sensors demonstrate remarkable
similarities in terms of fracture initiation and propagation
identification, demonstrating the potential of the proposed
sensor for crack initiation detection and subsequent fracture
propagation monitoring. Track steel structures using a POF FIGURE 13. Environmental Testing of a FBG Sensor System
sensor is depicted in Figure 11. (Čápová et al. 2019)

Environmental Testing of an FBG Sensor System for

Structural Health Monitoring of Building and Transport
Structures (Čápová et al. 2019) is about standard strain
gauges that are commonly used to monitor the mechanical
stresses of wooden or concrete structures placed on a
beam surface in Figure 13. However, mechanical damage,
electromagnetic interference, or unfavourable influences
on the recorded data during the measurement, such as
temperature changes or probable data loss due to an
explosive environment, make these sensors vulnerable. The
FIGURE 11. Track steel structures using POF sensor
paper by Kristýna Čápováa et al. has a fiber optic sensor
(Yang et al. 2017)
system that provides a more suitable and reliable solution
since the sensor may be integrated into the load-bearing
structure during its construction and therefore protected
from ambient environmental conditions by the construction
material.
Matveenko et al. published a work titled Measurement of
stresses using optical fiber Bragg grating sensors integrated
FIGURE 12. Corrosion on rebar (Tan et al. 2016) into polymer composite material (Matveenko et al. 2018).
The experimental results of strain measurements made
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using fiber Bragg grating sensors embedded in polymer solution for this problem using a method of a new technique
composite materials are presented in this work (PCMs). for crack depth sensing by using a passive UHF RFID
The capabilities of fiber optic sensors to measure strains tag as a sensor which is interrogated by the Thingmagic
in the situation of prominent gradient distribution inside M6e platform in Figure 16 as the objective of this paper
the material, under compression and tension, during cyclic is to detect the crack range accuracy at stainless steel and
variation of strains with time, and at different temperatures ferromagnetic materials. As the result, the stainless steel has
is demonstrated through a series of tests. The findings of high accuracy which detects crack depth range between 0.5
strain measurements taken during the preparation of PCM, to 1.3mm meanwhile ferromagnetic detected crack depth
as well as residual process-induced strain measurements, range between 8 to 8.55mm.
are discussed. The findings of strain measurements using
fiber optic strain sensors (FOSS) are compared to numerical
modelling results using the finite element approach and
independent measurement data collected using a digital
optical system Vic3D and other experimental instruments.
This study derives an interrelation model between Bragg
wavelength peak shift and optical fiber strain in the fiber
Bragg grating region for a sensor that is not impacted by the
environment. The Various specimens used based on the FBG
sensor are depicted in Figure 14. FIGURE 15. Setup for characterization and crack detection based
on LF RFID sensing system (Zhang et al. 2018)

FIGURE 14. Various specimens were used based on the FBG FIGURE 16. The sample under test and reader measurement
sensor (Matveenko et al. 2018) platform (Omer et al. 2018)

CRACK SENSING METHOD: RFID SENSORS Jun Zhang et al addressed wireless passive ultra-
high frequency RFID antenna sensors for surface crack
There are three types of RFID sensors. Low-frequency monitoring and quantitative analysis (Zhang et al. 2018)
passive RFID, ultra-high RFID, and the RFID sensor itself about the problem crack detection sensitivity and reliability
are all used. This is a paper regarding passive low-frequency are highly dependent on crack position in relation to antenna
RFID. In the paper Feature Extraction for Robust Crack
mode and the size of metal to be installed. The goal of this
Monitoring Using Passive Wireless RFID Antenna Sensors
(Zhang et al. 2018) the problem statement that robustness to
measurement variation, including environmental variables,
is a practical concern for permanently fixed monitoring
to achieve. The objective of this project is to enhance the
robustness of the low-cost RFID sensing system as the
purposed method is validated by a case study in open crack
detection and characterization under varied measurement
conditions as in Figure 15. As result, the crack growth
decreases the resonant frequency of the tag coil and the
coupling between the reader and tag coils is improved which
means the crack develops, the tag coil’s self-inductance and
mutual inductance between the reader and tag coils both
rises.
Omer et al discussed passive Ultra-high frequency
(UHF) RFID tags as a tag sensor to detect crack depths (Omer
et al. 2018) The problem identified in this paper is due to a
small crack on the metal material surface that affects the
FIGURE 17. The UHF RFID sensing system test setup
performance of the mechanical structure. Therefore, the
(Zhang et al. 2018)
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paper is to investigate the reliability of fracture detection

and characterization using an antenna’s mode analysis by
using the method in Figure 17 using an antenna sensor that
can monitor the evaluation of already existing cracks or
junctions prone to cracks. The result of this research is that
crack growth reduces the quality factor with time, increasing
the antenna’s realized gain, where the profile is a significant
factor in determining the trade-off between sensing and
communication.
Wireless Passive RFID Crack Width Sensor for
Structural Health Monitoring (Caizzone & DiGiampaolo FIGURE 19. Simulation of surface defects on the metal surface
2015) focuses on reducing maintenance costs by avoiding (Li et al. 2020)
needless inspections. For this goal, a variety of technologies
and systems can be utilized; among them, those proposing
S.G.N. Murthy’s paper Batteryless Wireless RFID
the use of wireless passive crack meters have a high impact
based Embedded Sensors for Long-Term Monitoring of
potential in terms of ease of installation and measurement
Reinforced Concrete Structures. This paper (Murthy 2015)
in Figure 18, as well as low cost. As a result, the current
presented Embedded RFID based sensors that can measure
study presents a crack width wireless radio frequency
and store temperature, humidity, and corrosion rate in
identification (RFID) sensor, which has been designed for
reinforced concrete structures with minimal power supply.
use on a variety of materials (including concrete and metal)
These tiny, embedded sensors run on a few microwatts of
and can detect sub-millimeter deformations on the item on
electricity extracted from an interrogating RF signal and use
which it is installed. This paper uses a design strategy based
an inductive link to receive power and data converted from
on high sensitivity phase detection.
their attached sensors, making them wireless in Figure 20.
Improved Metal Surface Defect Detection Sensor
As a result, they can stay inside the structure for the duration
Research based on a 3D RFID Tag Antenna (Li et al. 2020)
of their life cycle, requiring no maintenance and posing no
discussed the foregoing issues are solved using a mix
risk of damage. The RFID-based embedded sensors, hand-
of wireless sensor technology and intelligent detection
held reader, and data gathering software are all discussed in
technologies. As a result, the tag antenna smart sensor is
depth in this study.
investigated in this study, which is used to characterize the
A new wireless sensor network module for health
extension of metal flaws in SHM. The antenna is then shown
monitoring of civil structures (Carosso et al. 2017) The
as a wireless passive three-dimensional sensing antenna in
prototypal implementation of an innovative low-cost
Figure 19, with simulations proving its viability. The antenna
module for SHM that would allow the measurement of
can characterize the two extension directions of depth and
internal displacements inside civil structures was discussed
width of the metal surface structure smooth imperfection,
in this work. These sensors could be part of a larger Wireless
according to the simulation findings. Simultaneously, the
Sensor Network (WSN) and placed as in Figure 21. The Hall
antenna may determine the position of smooth flaws on the
Effect is the sensor’s basic functioning mechanism. This
surface of metal structures in relation to the antenna and
effect occurs when a magnetic field is applied to a conductor,
then implement the smooth defect positioning.
causing electrons to migrate toward one of the conductor’s
extremes, resulting in an electric signal. The Hall Effect
sensor detects voltage variations caused by differences in

FIGURE 18. RFID reader wirelessly interrogates a couplet of

RFID tags that were placed on the cracked wall (Caizzone &
DiGiampaolo 2015)

FIGURE 20. RFID Reader and sensors on steel (Murthy 2015)

992

the distance between two equal sensors put in a deforming DISCUSSION

structure. The sensor is described, along with an explanation
of the sensor’s possible installation style. The findings of the This paper has reviewed major SHM crack detection
tests are presented, along with a discussion of how sensors systems using IoT reported in the current literature. Firstly,
might be used in the real world. it discussed the different SHM parameters usually civil
Finally, the literature review is a significant element structure monitor. Then, a thorough literature review was
of this project because it reveals a lot of commonly used conducted to review different methods of detecting a crack
sensors as well as many applications for each sensor, such in civil structures. The review focused on the strength
as RFID sensors, distributed optical fiber sensors (DOFS), and weaknesses of each method. Table 1 summarises
MEMS sensors, WTER sensors, ADNS-3080 sensor, RF power the different structural crack detection system using IoT
detector sensor, fiber optic sensor, Plastic Optical Fiber methods. It can be summarised that FBG, and RFID sensors
sensor, FBG sensor and sensor that detect COD or CTOD. A have better compromises when the advantages outweigh
literature search was conducted to determine all the related the disadvantages. What the authors could suggest based on
previous research related to SHM crack detection using IoT. accuracy, convenience, and cost-effectiveness.
The search queries are to crack sensors specifically optical, FBG sensors exhibit linear response in the measurement
FBG and RFID sensors and the search is conducted in the of strain, pressure and temperature and thus can offer more
IEEE Explore, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Scopus accurate crack reading compared to RFID. When FBG
databases. A detailed search is further defined as monitoring sensors are used with high power tuneable laser, they can
using the Internet of Things (IoT). The targeted articles are perform measurements over long distances with little or no
from 2015 to 2020 namely the last five years duration. loss in signal integrity this provides reading effectiveness
however with additional hardware the cost would also
increase. RFID sensors are very convenient since it is
available off the shelf, with mass production the cost for
each module is very affordable and easily interfaces with
any embedded system thus making it a more attractive
option for fast prototyping. It could be concluded that for
accuracy purposes and efficient sensor reading researcher is
recommended to use FBG sensors, otherwise, for low-cost
and fast prototyping solution it is recommended to utilise
RFID sensor.

FIGURE 21. Three possible configurations (Carosso et al. 2017)

 TABLE 1. Summary of Structural Crack Detection System using Internet of Things Methods Currently Reported in the Literature

Articles Crack Sensing Method Content Details

Wireless Sensor Network based Crack Detection on MEMS Sensors Problem statements As the operator, they can view the bridge’s data in real-time via a smartphone
Concrete Bridges or Buildings
(Asfana 2018) Objectives To monitor the structural health of highway bridges using an autonomous wireless sensor network
system to check for deterioration due to external and internal variables
Method The bridge crack detection is identified based on angle altering and the crack is detected with the
position in the vibration of the bridge utilising MEMS sensor, vibration sensor, and GSM as an
input to the microcontroller
Conclusion Values are delivered through a GSM modem and also monitored via web pages via the internet.
The bridge crack identification and angle position are traced using a Raspberry Pi microcontroller

Wire-Based Triboelectric Resonator (WTER) To Self- Wire-Based Problem statements To self-powered for crack monitoring system and detect the resonant frequency
Powered For Crack Monitoring System Triboelectric Resonator Objectives The WTER sensor detects a crack by vibrating on a dielectric film of metal wire, which produces a
(Jung 2020) (WTER) resonant frequency
Method Combining a WTER with an Arduino board, a self-powered crack monitoring device
Conclusion Observed 100 Um elongation with resonant frequency change of around 30Hz, with monitored
frequency values errors of less than 1%
Optical Crack Growth Sensor Using the Digital Sampling Digital Sampling Moire Problem statements Accurate 2D displacement and improved sensitivity at lowa er computing cost
Moire (DSM) Method (DSM) Objectives To monitor two-dimensional (2D) crack propagation
(Chen 2018)
Method Used an ADNS-3080 sensor
Conclusion Resistant to changes in imaging distance, which is determined by the difference in height between
the two sides of cracks’ concrete
Complementary Split-Ring Resonator (CSRR) Loaded RF Power Detector Problem statements To demonstrate the detection of cracks of various shapes, locations and size
Sensor Array To Detect Multiple Cracks: Shape, Size And
Objectives Three frequency is generated for each channel using single-pole four-throw (SP4T) switch
Position On Metallic Surface
(Salim 2020) Method A microcontroller interprets the transmitted RF signal which is transformed into a DC voltage
level
Conclusion Aluminium sheets that have cracks embedded in the surface are used to demonstrate the detection
of cracks of various shapes, locations and size
The Sensing Principle That Has Linear Macro-Bending Fiber Optic Sensors Problem statements The relationship between COD and the fiber’s macro-bending loss, poses several challenges
Loss For Optical Fiber’ New Type Of Crack Sensor And
Its Experimental Research Objectives To establishes a linear relationship between the COD and the fiber’s macro-bending loss
(Cheng 2018)
Method A validation experiment was carried out using three groups of fiber winding shafts with varying
diameters and three groups of working light sources with different wavelengths to evaluate the
feasibility of this crack-sensing principle
Conclusion A unique type of optical fiber crack sensor is built based on the suggested crack sensing technique
to monitor the COD of pre-existing fractures and contraction joints of structures
continue ...
993
 994
... continued
Fiber Optic Sensors For The SHM Of Building Structures Fiber Optic Sensors Problem statements The properties of mechanical’s optical glass fiber sensors degrade, and thus their long-term
(Bremer 2016) reliability and stability, due to the chemical and mechanical impact of the concrete environment
Objectives Detection of the moisture ingress into the concrete use two types of fiber
Method Using a fiber optic sensor system for SHM of sewerage tunnels
Conclusion The fiber optic sensor can detect a crack with a dimension of 1.4mm in this paper
Embedded Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors in Fiber Optic Sensors Problem statements The uncracked and cracked stages, as well as during the loading, unloading, and reloading process
Reinforced Concrete Structures
Objectives To achieve the protection, need, the robustness of the sensor formation, and measurement
(Barrias 2018)
accuracy
Method DOFS method and the technique Rayleigh Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry (OFDR)
Conclusion The optical fiber is bonded crossing the cracks and to the rebar delivered good results even in the
case of unloading and loading of the specimen.
A Plastic Optical Fiber Sensing System for Bridge Plastic Optical Fiber Problem statements A sensing system based on variations in optical fiber intensity
Deflection Measurement Sensors Objectives To assess bridge deflection in various positions using connected pipes
(Yang 2020)
Method The designed system’s sensing element is a plastic optical fiber sensor based on intensity change
Conclusion This system has a precise linear response and a high level of reliability in a variety of
environments
Fatigue Crack Monitoring In Train Track Steel Structures Plastic Optical Fiber Problem statements Structural health monitoring when POF sensor system is made up of low-cost components in use
Using Plastic Optical Fiber Sensor Sensors Objectives To identify and monitor fatigue-induced cracks in rail track steel structures in real-time
(Yang 2017)
Method POF sensors in conjunction with a signal-processing method
Conclusion All three types of sensors demonstrate remarkable similarities in terms of fracture initiation and
propagation identification, demonstrating the potential of the proposed sensor for crack initiation
detection and subsequent fracture propagation monitoring
Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Based Sensing System: Early Fiber Bragg Grating Problem statements Most construction structures are supported by rebar, which leads to damages or collapses due to
Corrosion Detection for Structural Health Monitoring (FBG) corrosion and during the concrete casting on the rebar surface
(SHM) (Tan 2016) Objectives To protect the layer against corrosion
Method Method of FBG sensor with and without coating to protect the layer against corrosion
Conclusion The protection of FBG sensor is believed very important for the long-term monitoring of a
composite structure in SHM.
Environmental Testing of a FBG Sensor System for Fiber Bragg Grating Problem statements Mechanical damage, electromagnetic interference, or unfavourable influences on the recorded data
Structural Health Monitoring of Building and Transport (FBG) during the measurement, such as temperature changes or probable data loss due to an explosive
Structures environment, make these sensors vulnerable
(Čápová 2019) Objectives To monitor the mechanical stresses of wooden or concrete structures placed on a beam surface
Method Has fiber optic sensor system provides a more suitable and reliable solution since the sensor may
be integrated into the load-bearing structure during its construction
Conclusion Protected from ambient environmental conditions by the construction material.
continue ...
... continued
Measurement Of Stresses Using Optical Fiber Bragg Fiber Bragg Grating Problem statements The ability of smart materials to fulfil actuation and sensing functions
Grating Sensors Integrated Into Polymer Composite (FBG) Objectives To measure strains in the situation of prominent gradient distribution inside the material, under
Material compression and tension, during cyclic variation of strains with time, and at different temperatures
(Matveenko 2018)
Method The findings of strain measurements using fiber optic strain sensors (FOSS) are compared to
numerical modelling results using the finite element approach and independent measurement data
collected using a digital optical system Vic3D and other experimental instruments
Conclusion An interrelation model between Bragg wavelength peak shift and optical fiber strain in the fiber
Bragg grating region for a sensor that is not impacted by the environment
Wireless Passive RFID Crack Width Sensor for Structural RFID Problem statements A variety of technologies and systems can be utilised
Health Monitoring Objectives Reducing maintenance costs by avoiding needless inspections
(Caizzone 2015)
Method The use of wireless passive crack meters has a high impact potential in terms of ease of
installation and measurement
Conclusion The current study presents a crack width wireless radio frequency identification (RFID) sensor,
which has been designed for use on a variety of materials (including concrete and metal) and is
capable of detecting sub-millimetre deformations on the item on which it is installed
Improved Metal Surface Defect Detection Sensor RFID Problem statements Detection efficiency, long term monitoring and unreliable systems
Research based on a 3D RFID Tag Antenna Objectives To characterise the extension of metal flaws in SHM
(Li 2020)
Method Using a mix of wireless sensor technology and intelligent detection technologies
Conclusion The antenna may determine the position of smooth flaws on the surface of metal structures about
the antenna, and then implement the smooth defect positioning
Batteryless wireless RFID based Embedded Sensors for RFID Problem statements The durability of the reinforced concrete structure depends on the use but environmental
Long-Term Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete Structures conditions based on geographical location are needed.
(Murthy 2015) Objectives Embedded RFID based sensors that can measure and store temperature, humidity, and corrosion
rate in reinforced concrete structures with minimal power supply
Method Tiny embedded sensors run on a few microwatts of electricity extracted from an interrogating RF
signal and use an inductive link to receive power and data converted from their attached sensors,
making them wireless
Conclusion Stay inside the structure for the duration of its life cycle, requiring no maintenance and posing no
risk of damage
The Prototypal Implementation Of An Innovative Low- RFID Problem statements The prototypal implementation of an innovative low-cost module for SHM
Cost Module For SHM
(Carosso 2017) Objectives To measurement of internal displacements inside civil structures
Method A larger Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and placed and the Hall Effect is the sensor’s basic
functioning mechanism. This effect occurs when a magnetic field is applied to a conductor,
causing electrons to migrate toward one of the conductor’s extremes, resulting in an electric signal
Conclusion The Hall Effect sensor detects voltage variations caused by differences in the distance between
two equal sensors put in a deforming structure.
continue ...
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... continued
Passive UHF RFID tags as a tag sensor to detect crack RFID Problem statements Due to a small crack on the metal material surface that affects the performance of the mechanical
depths structure
(Omer 2018) Objectives To detect the crack range accuracy at stainless steel and ferromagnetic materials
Method A new technique for crack depth sensing by using a passive UHF RFID tag as a sensor which
interrogated by Thingmagic M6e platform
Conclusion The stainless steel has high accuracy which detects crack depth range between 0.5 to 1.3mm
meanwhile ferromagnetic detected crack depth range between 8 to 8.55mm.
Wireless passive ultra-high frequency RFID antenna RFID Problem statements Crack detection sensitivity and reliability are highly dependent on crack position antenna mode
sensor for surface crack monitoring and quantitative and the size of metal to be installed
analysis Objectives To look into the reliability of fracture detection and characterisation using an antenna’s mode
(Zhang 2018) analysis
Method An antenna sensor that can monitor the evaluation of already existing cracks or junctions prone to
cracks
Conclusion The crack growth reduces the quality factor with time, increasing the antenna’s realised gain

Feature Extraction for Robust Crack Monitoring Using RFID Problem statements That robustness to measurement variation, including environmental variables, is a practical
Passive Wireless RFID Antenna Sensors concern for permanently fixed monitoring to achieve
(Zhang 2018) Objectives To enhance the robustness of the low-cost RFID sensing system as the purposed method is
validated by a case study in open crack detection and characterization under varied measurement
conditions
Method The crack develops, the tag coil’s self-inductance and mutual inductance between the reader and
tag coils both rise using a low-cost RFID sensing system
Conclusion The crack growth decreases the resonant frequency of the tag coil and the coupling between the
reader and tag coils is improved
 997

CONCLUSION Bischoff, R., Meyer, J., Enochsson, O., Feltrin, G., & Elfgren,
L. (2009, July). Event-based strain monitoring on a railway
In conclusion, a review of the SHM crack detection using bridge with a wireless sensor network. In Proceedings of the
4th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring
IoT that focused on crack sensors specifically FBG and
of Intelligent Infrastructure, Zurich, Switzerland 2224: 7482.
RFID sensors was conducted. It was found that using
(doi: 10.1002/stc.1934)
different types of sensing methods offers its strength and Bremer, K., Wollweber, M., Weigand, F., Rahlves, M., Kuhne,
limitation. It can be summarized that FBG, and RFID sensors M., Helbig, R., & Roth, B. 2016. Fiber optic sensors for the
have better compromises when the advantages outweigh structural health monitoring of building structures. Procedia
the disadvantages. From the literature search, it can be Technology 26: 524-529. doi: 10.1016/[Link].2016.08.065
concluded that the selection of the sensing method depends Caizzone, S., & DiGiampaolo, E. 2015. Wireless passive RFID crack
on the preferences of the researcher. It is suggested that an width sensor for structural health monitoring. IEEE Sensors
experiment can be conducted to compare the two-method Journal 15(12): 6767-6774. doi: 10.1109/jsen.2015.2457455
Čápová, K., Velebil, L., Včelák, J., Dvořák, M., & Šašek, L. 2019.
based on a specific type of crack whether it’s concrete, or
Environmental testing of a FBG sensor system for structural
beam just to name a few. To summarise, the authors could health monitoring of building and transport structures.
conclude that for designers who prefer an accurate, efficient Procedia Structural Integrity 17: 726-733. doi: 10.1016/j.
system and don’t mind the hefty cost it is best to implement prostr.2019.08.097
their system designs with FBG sensors. However, the Carosso, L., Allegretti, M. & Bertoldo, S. 2017. A new wireless
designer who prefer fast-prototyping capabilities and low- sensor network module for health monitoring of civil
cost system designs the authors suggested applying RFID structures. In 2017 IEEE-APS Topical Conference on Antennas
sensors as their solution for crack detection IoT systems. and Propagation in Wireless Communications (APWC) (pp.
The last word from the authors, it is hoped that this review 8-11). IEEE. doi:10.1109/apwc.2017.8062226
Chen, X., Chang, C. C., Xiang, J., Zhang, C., & Liu, M. 2018. An
article would assist designers and researchers in selecting
optical crack growth sensor using the digital sampling moiré
sensors for exclusive SHM purposes. method. Sensors 18(10): 3466.
doi:10.3390/s18103466
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Cheng, L., Li, Y., Ma, Y., Li, M. & Tong, F. 2018. The sensing
principle of a new type of crack sensor based on linear
The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA macro-bending loss of an optical fiber and its experimental
for their financial support. investigation. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 272: 53-61.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2018.01.056
DECLARATION OF COMPETING INTEREST Collins, J., Mullins, G., Lewis, C., & Winters, D. 2014. State of
the practice and art for structural health monitoring of bridge
None substructures (No. FHWA-HRT-09-040). United States. Federal
Highway Administration. Office of Infrastructure Research
and Development. doi:10.1201/9781003078876-9
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