Unit-2

ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM

Statement of economic dispatch problem

Input and output characteristics of thermal plant
Heat rate curve
Cost Curve
Incremental fuel and Production costs
Constraints-optimal operation of thermal units without and with
transmission losses
Statement of unit commitment (UC) problem
constraints on UC problem
solution of UC problem using priority list and Dynamic programming.
• A power system has several power plants. Each power plant has several generating units.
• At any point of time, the total load in the system is met by the generating units in different power
plants. Economic dispatch control determines the power output of each power plant and power
output of each generating units within a power plant, which will maximize the overall cost of the
fuel needed to serve the system load.
• The factors considered by the load dispatcher are when to interchange energy from one station to
another station, how much energy to interchange, the cost of supplying energy to the
interconnection, the cost of received energy from the inter-connection. The other factors affecting
the economy of operation are variation fuel cost, labour cost, and weather conditions, normal and
emergency equipment rating, reserve requirements, voltage limitations, characteristic's of prime
movers, transmission losses etc.,
• The main economic factor in power system operation is the cost of generating real power.
• The main factor controlling the most desirable load allocation between the various generating units
is the total cost. Interconnected power system is the more reliable, convenient to operate and
offers economical operating cost.
For the purpose of economy interchange so it is necessary to consider not only the incremental fuel
cost but also the incremental transmission loss for the optimum economy.
The economic system operation is necessary because In many cases economic factors and the
availability of primary essentials such as coal, water etc., it indicates that new generating plants is
located at greater distances from the load Centres.
Power systems are in interconnecting for purpose of economy interchange and reduction of
reserve capacity In a number of areas of the country, the cost of fuel is rapidly increasing.
 Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem:
• The complexity of interconnections and the size of the areas of electric power systems that are
• controlled in a coordinated way is rapidly increasing.
• This entails optimal allocation of the outputs of a large number of participating generators.
• Whether a generator should participate in sharing the load at a given interval of time is a problem
of unit commitment.
• Once the unit commitment problem has been solved, it becomes a problem of optimal allocation of
• the available generations to meet the forecasted load demand for the current interval.
At a modern-day energy management center, highly developed optimization techniques are used to
determine not only the optimal outputs of the participating generators, but also the optimal settings
of various control devices such as the tap settings of load tap changers (LTCs), outputs of VAR
• compensating devices, desired settings of phase shifters etc.
• The desired objective for such optimization problems can be many, such as
• the minimization of the cost of generation, minimization of the total power loss in the
• system, minimization of the voltage deviations, and maximization of the reliability of
• the power supplied to the customers.
• One or more of these objectives can be considered while formulating the optimization strategy.
• Determination of the real power outputs of the generators so that the total cost of generation in the
• system is minimized is traditionally known as the problem of economic load dispatch (ELD).
Input and Output Characteristics of Thermal Plant
• In analyzing the economic operation of a thermal unit, input–output modeling characteristics are
• significant. For this function, consider a single unit consisting of a boiler, a turbine, and a generator
• as shown in Fig
• This unit has to supply power not only to the load connected to the power system but also to the
• Local needs for the auxiliaries in the station, which may vary from 2%to 5%.
The power requirements for station auxiliaries are necessary to drive boiler feed pumps, fans and
condenser circulating water pumps, etc
• The total input to the thermal unit could be British thermal unit (Btu)/hr or Cal/hr in terms of heat
• supplied or Rs./hr in terms of the cost of fuel (coal or gas).
The total output of the unit at the generator bus will be either kW or MW
• To analyze the power system network, there is a need of knowing the system variables. They are:
• 1. Control variables - real and reactive-power generations
• 2. Disturbance variables - real and reactive-power demands
• 3. State variables - bus voltage magnitude V and its phase angle δ
• Scheduling is the process of allocation of generation among different generating units.
• Economic scheduling is a cost-effective mode of allocation of generation among the different units in such a
way that the overall cost of generation should be minimum. This can also be termed as an optimal dispatch
Incremental cost curve
• From the input–output curves, the incremental fuel cost (IFC) curve can be obtained. The IFC is
defined as the ratio of a small change in the input to the corresponding small change in the output
• Incremental Fuel Cost =𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡/𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = Δ𝐹/Δ𝑃𝐺
• where Δ represents small changes. As the Δ quantities become progressively smaller, it is seen that
the IFC is 𝑑(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)/𝑑(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) and is expressed in Rs./MWh.
• A typical plot of the IFC versus output power is shown in Fig
• The incremental cost curve is obtained by considering the change in the cost of generation to the
change in real power generation at various points on the input–output curves, i.e., slope of the
input– output curve as shown in Fig
(a) Incremental cost curve; (b) Incremental fuel cost Characteristic in terms of the slope of the input–output
curve
The IFC is now obtained as (IC) = slope of the fuel cost curve
Heat Rate Curve
• The heat rate characteristic obtained from the plot of the net heat rate in Btu/kWh or kCal/kWh
versus power output in kW
• Let 𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖) be the heat rate in kCal/kWh which is the heat energy obtained by the combustion of
the fuel in Kcal needed to generate one unit of electric energy.
• The thermal unit is most efficient at a minimum heat rate, which corresponds to a particular
generation P . The curve indicates an increase in heat rate at low and high power limits.
• Thermal efficiency of the unit is affected by the following factors: condition
of steam, steam cycle used, re-heat stages, condenser pressure, etc.
• Normally, Heat Rate = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑠/𝐻𝑟 / 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊
• Incremental Heat Rate:
• It is the ratio of change in input to the corresponding change in output at
any operating point.
• Incremental Heat Rate = Δ𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡/Δ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = Δ𝑭/Δ𝑷
• Incremental Efficiency:
• The reciprocal of the incremental fuel rate or heat rate, which is defined as
the ratio of output energy to input energy, gives a measure of fuel
efficiency for the input
• Incremental Efficiency= Δ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡/ Δ𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = Δ𝑷/Δ𝑭
Incremental production cost
• The incremental production cost of a given unit is made up of the IFC plus the incremental cost of
items such as labor, supplies, maintenance, and water.
• It is necessary for a rigorous analysis to be able to express the costs of these production items as a
function of output. However, no methods are presently available for expressing the cost of labor,
supplies, or maintenance accurately as a function of output.
• Arbitrary methods of determining the incremental costs of labor, supplies, and maintenance are
used, the commonest of which is to assume these costs to be a fixed percentage of the IFCs.
• In many systems, for purposes of scheduling generation, the incremental production cost is
assumed to be equal to the IFC.
Optimization Problem: Mathematical
Formulation(Neglecting Transmission Losses)
• An optimization problem consists of:
• 1. Objective function.
• 2. Constraint equations.
• Objective function
• The objective function is to minimize the overall cost of production of power generation. Cost in
thermal and nuclear stations is nothing but the cost of fuel. Let n be the number of units in the
system and C the cost of power generation of unit ‘i ’:
• ∴ Total cost C = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn
• i.e., C= σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖
• The cost of generation of each unit in thermal power plants is mainly a fuel cost. The generation
cost depends
• on the amount of real power generated, since the real-power generation is increased by increasing
the fuel input.
• The generation of reactive power has negligible nfluence on the cost of generation, since it is
controlled by the field current.
• Therefore, the generation cost of the i unit is a function of real-power generation of that unit and
hence the total cost is expressed as

This objective function consists of the summation of the terms in which each term is a function of
Separate independent variables. This type of objective function is called a separable objective
function.
• The optimization problem is to allocate the total load demand (P ) among the various generating
units, such that the cost of generation is minimized and satisfies the following constraints
Constraint equations
• The economic power system operation needs to satisfy the following types of constraints.
• (1) Equality constraints
• The sum of real-power generation of all the various units must always be equal to the total real-
• power demand on the system.

i.e
Or
(2) Inequality constraints
• These constraints are considered in an economic power system operation due to the physical and
operational limitations of the units and components.
• The inequality constraints are classified as:
• (a) According to the nature
• According to nature, the inequality constraints are classified further into the following constraints:
• 1. Hard-type constraints: These constraints are definite and specific in nature. No flexibility will
take place in violating these types of constraints.
• e.g.,: The range of tapping of an on-load tap-changing transformer.
• 2. Soft-type constraints: These constraints have some flexibility with them in violating.
• e.g.,: Magnitudes of node voltages and the phase angle between them.
• Some penalties are introduced for the violations of these types of constraints.
(b) According to power system parameters
1. Output power constraints: Each generating unit should not operate above its rating or below some minimum generation.
This minimum value of real-power generation is determined from the technical feasibility.

• Similarly, the limits may also have to be considered over the range of reactive-power capabilities of the generator unit requiring
• that:

and the constraint

must be satisfied, where Si is the rating of the generating unit for limiting the overheating of stator.

• Voltage magnitude and phase-angle constraints: For maintaining better voltage profile and
limiting over loadings, it is essential that the bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles at various
• buses should vary within the limits. These can be illustrated by imposing the inequality constraints
on bus voltage magnitudes and their phase angles.

• where j = 1, 2, …, m, j ≠ i, n is the number of units, and m the number of loads connected to each unit.
MATHEMATICAL DETERMINATION OF
OPTIMAL ALLOCATION OF TOTAL LOAD
AMONG DIFFERENT UNITS
• Consider a power station having ‘n’ number of units. Let us assume that each unit does not violate
the inequality constraints and let the transmission losses be neglected.
• The cost of production of electrical energy

• where C is the cost function of the I th unit.

• This cost is to be minimized subject to the equality constraint given by
• To get the solution for the optimization problem, we will define an objective function by
augmenting Equation with an equality constraint through the Lagrangian multiplier (λ) as

• The condition for optimality of such an augmented objective function is

 • Since the expression of C is in a variable separable form, i.e., the overall cost is the summation of
• cost of each generating unit, which is a function of real-power generation of that unit only:

each of these derivatives represents the individual incremental cost of every unit. Hence, the condition for the
optimal allocation of the total load among the various units, when neglecting the transmission losses, is that the
incremental costs of the individual units are equal. It a called a co-ordination equation.
• A system consists of two units to meet the daily load cycle as shown in Fig.
The maximum and minimum loads on a unit are to be 220 and 30 MW, respectively.
Find out:
1. The economical distribution of a load during the light-load period of 7 hr and during the heavy-
load periods of 17 hr. In addition, find the operation cost for this 24-hr period operation of two
units.
2. The operation cost when removing one of the units from service during 7 hr of light-load period.
Assume that a cost of Rs. 525 is incurred in taking a unit off the line and returning it to service
after 7 hr.
3. Comment on the results.
MATHEMATICAL DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM ALLOCATION OF TOTAL
LOAD WHEN TRANSMISSION LOSSES ARE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION

• Consider a power station having ‘n’ number of units. Let us assume that each unit does not violate
the inequality constraints and let the transmission losses be considered.
• Assuming that the inequality constraint is satisfied, the objective function is redefined by
augmenting Equation with equality constraint using Lagrangian multiplier (λ) and is given by

• This augmented objective function is called constrained objective function.

• In the above objective function, the real-power generations are the control variables and the
condition.
TRANSMISSION LOSS EXPRESSION IN TERMS OF REAL-
POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

• Transmission loss P is expressed without loss of accuracy as a function of

real-power generations. The power loss is expressed using B-coefficients
or loss coefficients.
• The expression is based on several assumptions as
• follows:
• 1. All the lines in the system have the same ratio.
• 2. All the load currents have the same phase angle.
• 3. All the load currents maintain a constant ratio to the total current.
• 4. The magnitude and phase angle of bus voltages at each station remain
• constant.
• 5. Power factor at each station bus remains constant.
• Derive an expression for the power loss of a system, having two generating stations,
supplying an arbitrary number of loads through a transmission network as shown in Fig.
3.2(a). To determine the current in any line, say kth line, apply the superposition
principle and determine the current passing through the line, I .The current distribution
factor of a transmission line w.r.t. a power source is the ratio of the current it would carry
to the current that the source would carry when all other sources are rendered inactive,
i.e., sources that are not supplying any current.
• Let us assume that the entire load current is supplied by generating station-1 only as
shown in Fig. 3.2(b).
Because of assumptions (i) and (ii), the current
distribution factors will be real numbers rather than
complex numbers.
And also assuming that the total load is being supplied
by both the stations as shown in Fig. 3.2(d):
UNIT COMMITMENT
• Introduction:
• In power systems, demand variation is associated with human activities. Load is always light
• during night hours and it starts increasing right from morning and usually readies its peak
• level in the evening, and again falls during late evening period. The demand is also affected
• during weekends as well as by weather. Hence, many methods have been developed for load
• forecasting. The methods for load forecasting can predict the load for period varying from as
• small as few seconds to days. Based on these load forecasts, the usual practice is to prepare
• a commitment schedule of start-up and shut-down of units. The commission of a generating
• unit means to bring it to speed, synchronize it to the system and then connect it to the
• system so that it can deliver the load reliably.
• In the early stages, the main criteria of unit commitment were efficiency of units. Units used
• to be ordered as per efficiencies. The most efficient unit used to be committed first and then
• the next unit, if necessary to meet the load demand, from priority list used to be committed.
• Soon, it was realized that optimum unit commitment may be obtained using input-output
• characteristics, termed as cost curves; and today all commitment techniques are based on
• these cost curves. Classically, unit commitment is the determination of optimal schedule and
• generation level of each unit over a specific time horizon. Time horizon may be hours or a
• week.
• Baldwin (Scientist name) was the first to report the study of economic shut down of
• generating units. Since then, many optimization techniques have been used to obtain solution
• of unit commitment problem prominent among these are dynamic programming, branch and
• bound, Lagrangian relaxation.
STATEMENT OF UNIT COMMITMENT (UC) PROBLEM

• The unit commitment problem (UC) in electrical power production is a large family
• of mathematical optimization problems where the production of a set of electrical generators
• is coordinated in order to achieve some common target, usually either match the energy
• demand at minimum cost or maximize revenues from energy production.
• The total load of the power system is not constant but varies throughout the day and
• reaches a different peak value from one day to another. It follows a particular hourly
• load cycle over a day. There will be different discrete load levels at each period.
• Due to the above reason, it is not advisable to run all available units all the time, and it is
• necessary to decide in advance which generators are to start up, when to connect them
• to the network, the sequence in which the operating units should be shut down, and for
• how long. The computational procedure for making such decisions is called unit
• commitment (UC), and a unit when scheduled for connection to the system is said to
• be committed.
• The problem of UC is nothing but to determine the units that should operate for a
• particular load. To ‗commit‘ a generating unit is to ‗turn it on‘, i.e., to bring it up to speed,
• synchronize it to the system, and connect it, so that it can deliver power to the
• Network.
• COMPARISON WITH ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
• Economic dispatch economically distributes the actual system load as it rises to the
• various units that are already on-line. However, the UC problem plans for the best set of
• units to be available to supply the predicted or forecast load of the system over a future
• time period.
• NEED FOR UC
• The plant commitment and unit-ordering schedules extend the period of optimization
• from a few minutes to several hours.
• Weekly pattern scan be developed from daily schedules. Likewise, monthly, seasonal, and
• annual schedules can be prepared by taking into consideration the repetitive nature of
• the load demand and seasonal variations.
• A great deal of money can be saved by turning off the units when they are not needed
• for the time. If the operation of the system is to be optimized, the UC schedules are
• required for economically committing units in plant to service with the time at which
• individual units should be taken out from or returned to service.
• This problem is of importance for scheduling thermal units in a thermal plant; as for
• other types of generation such as hydro their aggregate costs (such as start-up costs,
• operating fuel costs, and shutdown costs) are negligible so that the iron-off status is not
• important.
CONSTRAINTS IN UC

• Spinning reserve
• It is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available from all Synchronized units
• on the system minus the present load and losses being supplied.
• Here, the synchronized units on the system may be named units spinning on the system.

• Static reserve:
• To meet the load demand under contingency of failure of a generator or its derating
• caused by minor defect, it is made so that the total installed capacity of the
• generating station greater the yearly peak load by certain margin. This is called static
• reserve.
Thermal Unit Constraints

• Thermal units require crew to operate them especially where turned on or off. A thermal unit may
• undergo only gradual temperature changes and this translates into increased number of hours
• required to bring it on line. Therefore the various constraints that arise one.
• a) Minimum Up time
• Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately
• b) Minimum Down Time
• Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can be recommitted.
• c) Crew Constraints
• If a plant consists of 2 or more units, they cannot be turned on at the same time since there are
• not enough staff to attend all the units at a time.
• d) Start Up Cost
• A start-up cost is incurred when a generator is put into operation. The cost is dependent on how
• long the unit has been inactive. While the start-up cost function is nonlinear, it can be discretized
• into hourly periods, giving a stepwise function.
• The start-up cost may vary from a maximum ‘cold start‘ value to a very small value if the unit was
• only turned off recently, and it is still relatively close to the operating temperature.
• Two approaches to treating a thermal unit during it‘s ‘down‘ state:
• The first approach (cooling) allows the unit‘s boiler to cool down and then heat back-up to a
• operating temperature in time for a scheduled turn-on.
• The second approach (banking) requires that sufficient energy be input to the boiler to just
• maintain the operating temperature.
• Similarly, shut-down cost is incurred during shutting down generating units. In
• general, it is neglected from the unit commitment decision.
OTHER CONSTRAINTS

• A. Fuel Constraints:
• Due to the contracts with fuel suppliers, some power plants may have limited fuel or may need to
• burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time. A system in which some units have limited fuel, or
• else have constraints that require them to burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time, presents
• a most challenging unit commitment problem.
• B. Must Run Units:
• Some units are given a must-run status during certain times of the year for reason of voltage
• support on the transmission network or for such purposes as supply of steam for uses outside the
• steam plant itself. The must run units include units in forward contracts, units in exercised call/put
• options, RMR units, nuclear power plants, some cogeneration units, and units with renewable
• resources such as wind-turbine units and some hydro power plants.
• C. Must-off Units:
• Some units are required to be off-line due to maintenance schedule or forced outage.
• These units can be excluded from the UC decision.
• D. Emission Constraints:
• There are some emissions like sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide ( CO2
• ), and mercury which are produced by fossil-fueled thermal power plants. The amount of emission
• depends on various factors such as the type of fuel used, level of generation output, and the
• efficiency of the unit. The production cost minimization may need to be compromised in order to
• have the generation schedule that meets the emission constraints.
COST FUNCTION FORMULATION
Start-up cost consideration
Shut-down cost consideration
 SOLUTION’S OF A UNIT-COMMITMENT PROBLEM
• [Link] Technique or Brute Force technique
• 2. Priority List Method
• 3. Dynamic Programming
• 4. Lagrange Relaxation
• 5. Integer and Mixed integer programming
• 6. Benders decomposition
• 7. Branch and Bound
• Other non – classical approaches are
• 1. Genetic Algorithms
• 2. Greedy random adaptive search procedure
• 3. Particle swarm optimization
• 4. Simulated annealing
 Priority List Method

Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of creating a
priority list of units.

The priority list can be obtained by noting the full-load average production cost of each unit.

Full load average Production cost = { Net heat rate at full load} x Fuel cost
Assumptions

No load costs are zero.

Unit input – output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.

Start-up costs are a fixed amount

Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time

Steps to be followed or Method of solving

• Determine the full load average production cost for each units.
• Form priority order based on average production cost,(Ascending order)
• Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
• Calculate PG1,PG2,……………..PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible
• combinations only.
• For the load curve, each hour load is varying.
• Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether dropping the next unit will
• supply generation and spinning reserve.
• Determine the full load average production cost for each units.
• Form priority order based on average production cost,(Ascending order)
• Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
• Calculate PG1,PG2,……………..PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible
• combinations only.
• For the load curve, each hour load is varying.
• Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether dropping the next unit will
• supply generation and spinning reserve.
• Merits
• No need to go for ―N‖ Combinations.
• Take only one constraint
• Ignore the minimum up time and minimum down time.
• Complication reduced.
• Demerits
• Start-up cost are fixed amount
• No load costs are not considered
• Determine Priority list using full load average production cost for the data
• given.
A simple shut-down rule or priority-list scheme could be obtained after an exhaustive enumeration of
all unit combinations at each load level.
One approach called the ‘shut-down rule’ must be used to know which units to drop and when to
drop them. A simple priority-list scheme is to be developed from the ‘shut-down rule’.

Consider the example, with the load varying from a peak of 1,400 MW to a valley of 600 MW . To
obtain a ‘shut-down rule’, we simply use a brute-force
technique wherein all combinations of units will be tried for each load level taken in steps of some
MW (here 50 MW).
• 1. During the dropping of load, at the end of each hour, determine whether the next unit on the
• priority list will have sufficient generation capacity to meet the load demand and to satisfy the
• requirement of the spinning reserve. If yes go to the next step and otherwise continue the operation
• with the unit as it is.
• 2. Determine the time in number of hours ‘h’ before the dropped unit (in Step 1) will be needed
again for service.
• 3. If the number of hours (h) is less than minimum shut-down time for the unit, then keep the
• commitment of the unit as it is and go to Step 5; if not, go to the next step.
• 4. Now, calculate the first cost, which is the sum of hourly production costs for the next ‘h’ hours
• with the unit in ‘up’ state. Then, recalculate the same sum as second cost for the unit ‘down’ state
• and in the start-up cost for either cooling the unit or banking it, whichever is less expensive. If
• there are sufficient savings from shutting down the unit, it should be shut down, otherwise keep it
on.
• 5. Repeat the above procedure for the next unit on the priority list and continue for the subsequent
• unit.
 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
• Dynamic programming has many advantages over the enumeration scheme, the main advantage
being a reduction in the size of the problem.

• In the DP approach, we assume that:

• 1. A state consists of an array of units with specified operating units and the rest are at off-line.
• 2. The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time if it has been offline.
• 3. There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
• 4. There is a strict priority order and in each interval a specified minimum amount of capacity must
be operating.
 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
• Step 1: Start arbitrarily with consideration of any two units.
• Step 2: Arrange the combined output of the two units in the form of discrete load levels
• Step 3: Determine the most economical combination of the two units for all the load levels. It is to
• be observed that at each load level, the economic operation may be to run either a unit or both units
• with a certain load sharing between the two units.
• Step 4: Obtain the most economical cost curve in discrete form for the two units and that can be
• treated as the cost curve of a single equivalent unit.
• Step 5: Add the third unit and repeat the procedure to find the cost curve of the three combined
• units. It may be noted that by this procedure, the operating combinations of the third and first and
• third and second units are not required to be worked out resulting in considerable saving in
• computation.
• Step 6: Repeat the process till all available units are exhausted.
Mathematical representation

• Let a cost function F (x) be the minimum cost in Rs./hr of generation of ‘x’ MW by N number of
• units, f (y) the cost of generation of ‘y’ MW by the N unit, and F (x− y) the minimum cost of
• generation of (x − y) MW by remaining (N − 1) units.
• The following recursive relation will result with the application of DP:
• Example: A power system network with a thermal power plant is operating by four generating units.
• Determine the most economical unit to be committed to a load demand of 8 MW. Also, prepare the
• UC table for the load changes in steps of 1 MW starting from the minimum to the maximum load.
• The minimum and maximum generating capacities and cost-curveparameters of the units listed in a
• tabular form are given