CS 193A

Java Review

This document is copyright (C) Marty Stepp and Stanford Computer Science.
Licensed under Creave Commons A!ribuon 2.5 License. All rights reserved.
 Variables
●
variable: A piece of the computer's memory that is given a
name and type, and can store a value.

●
A variable can be declared/inialized in one statement.

●
Syntax:
type name = value;
x 14
– double myGPA = 3.95;
myGPA 3.95
– int x = (11 % 3) + 12;
 Java's primive types
 primive types: 8 simple types for numbers, text, etc.
 Java also has object types, which we'll talk about later

Name Descripon Examples

 int integers 42, -3, 0, 926394
 double real numbers 3.1, -0.25, 9.4e3
 char single text characters 'a', 'X', '?', '\n'
 boolean logical values true, false

• Why does Java disnguish integers vs. real numbers?

 Type casng
●
type cast: A conversion from one type to another.
– To promote an int into a double to get exact division from /
– To truncate a double from a real number to an integer

●
Syntax:
(type) expression

Examples:
double result = (double) 19 / 5; // 3.8
int result2 = (int) result; // 3
int x = (int) [Link](10, 3); // 1000
 Increment and decrement
shortcuts to increase or decrease a variable's value by 1

Shorthand Equivalent longer version

variable++; variable = variable + 1;
variable--; variable = variable - 1;

int x = 2;
x++; // x = x + 1;
// x now stores 3
double gpa = 2.5;
gpa--; // gpa = gpa - 1;
// gpa now stores 1.5
 Precedence
●
precedence: Order in which operators are evaluated.
– Generally operators evaluate le4-to-right.
1 - 2 - 3 is (1 - 2) - 3 which is -4

– But */% have a higher level of precedence than +-

1 + 3 * 4 is 13
6 + 8 / 2 * 3
6 + 4 * 3
6 + 12 is 18

– Parentheses can force a certain order of evaluaon:

(1 + 3) * 4 is 16
– Spacing does not a8ect order of evaluaon
1+3 * 4-2 is 11
 String concatenaon
 string concatenaon: Using + between a string and another value
to make a longer string.
"hello" + 42 is "hello42"
1 + "abc" + 2 is "1abc2"
"abc" + 1 + 2 is "abc12"
1 + 2 + "abc" is "3abc"
"abc" + 9 * 3 is "abc27"
"1" + 1 is "11"
4 - 1 + "abc" is "3abc"

 Use + to print a string and an expression's value together.

 [Link]("Grade: " + (95.1 + 71.9) / 2);

• Output: Grade: 83.5

 Variable scope
●
scope: The part of a program where a variable exists.
– From its declaraon to the end of the { } braces
●
A variable declared in a for loop exists only in that loop.
●
A variable declared in a method exists only in that method.

public static void example() {

int x = 3;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
[Link](x); x's scope
}
// i no longer exists here
} // x ceases to exist here
 Class constants
●
class constant: A value visible to the whole program.
– value can only be set at declaraon
– value can't be changed while the program is running

●
Syntax:
public static final type name = value;
– name is usually in ALL_UPPER_CASE

– Examples:
public static final int DAYS_IN_WEEK = 7;
public static final double INTEREST_RATE = 3.5;
public static final int SSN = 658234569;
 Passing parameters
●
Declaraon:
public void name (type name, ..., type name) {
statement(s);
}
●
Call:
methodName (value, value, ..., value);
●
Example:
public static void main(String[] args) {
sayPassword(42); // The password is: 42
sayPassword(12345); // The password is: 12345
}
public static void sayPassword(int code) {
[Link]("The password is: " + code);
}
 Return
●
return: To send out a value as the result of a method.
– The opposite of a parameter:
●
Parameters send informaon in from the caller to the method.
●
Return values send informaon out from a method to its caller.

-42 [Link](42)

42
main

2.71

3
[Link](2.71)
 Java's Math class
Method name Descripon
[Link](value) absolute value
[Link](value) nearest whole number
[Link](value) rounds up
[Link](value) rounds down
Math.log10(value) logarithm, base 10
[Link](value1, value2) larger of two values
[Link](value1, value2) smaller of two values
[Link](base, exp) base to the exp power
[Link](value) square root
[Link](value) sine/cosine/tangent of
[Link](value) an angle in radians
Constant Descripon
[Link](value)
Math.E 2.7182818...
[Link](value) convert degrees to [Link] 3.1415926...
[Link](value) radians and back

[Link]() random double between 0 and 1

 Returning a value
public type name(parameters) {
statements;
...
return expression;
}

●
Example:
// Returns the slope of the line between the given points.
public double slope(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2) {
double dy = y2 - y1;
double dx = x2 - x1;
return dy / dx;
}
 Strings
 string: An object storing a sequence of text characters.
String name = "text";
String name = expression;

 Characters of a string are numbered with 0-based indexes:

String name = "P. Diddy";

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
char P . D i d d dy

 The Erst character's index is always 0

 The last character's index is 1 less than the string's length
 The individual characters are values of type char
 String methods
Method name Descripon
indexOf(str) index where the start of the given string appears in this
string (-1 if it is not there)
length() number of characters in this string
substring(index1, index2) the characters in this string from index1 (inclusive) to
or index2 (exclusive);
substring(index1) if index2 omi!ed, grabs ll end of string

toLowerCase() a new string with all lowercase le!ers

toUpperCase() a new string with all uppercase le!ers

●
These methods are called using the dot notaon:
String gangsta = "Dr. Dre";
[Link]([Link]()); // 7
 String test methods
Method Descripon
equals(str) whether two strings contain the same characters

equalsIgnoreCase(str) whether two strings contain the same characters, ignoring upper vs.
lower case

startsWith(str) whether one contains other's characters at start

endsWith(str) whether one contains other's characters at end

contains(str) whether the given string is found within this one

String name = [Link]();

if ([Link]("Dr.")) {
[Link]("Are you single?");
} else if ([Link]("LUMBERG")) {
[Link]("I need your TPS reports.");
}
 The equals method
●
Objects are compared using a method named equals.
Scanner console = new Scanner([Link]);
[Link]("What is your name? ");
String name = [Link]();
if ([Link]("Barney")) {
[Link]("I love you, you love me,");
[Link]("We're a happy family!");
}

– Technically this is a method that returns a value of type boolean,

the type used in logical tests.
 Type char
●
char : A primive type represenng single characters.
– Each character inside a String is stored as a char value.
– Literal char values are surrounded with apostrophe
(single-quote) marks, such as 'a' or '4' or '\n' or '\''

– It is legal to have variables, parameters, returns of type char

char letter = 'S';
[Link](letter); // S

●
char values can be concatenated with strings.
char initial = 'P';
[Link](initial + " Diddy"); // P
Diddy
 char vs. String
 "h" is a String
'h' is a char (the two behave di8erently)
 String is an object; it contains methods
String s = "h";
s = [Link](); // 'H'
int len = [Link](); // 1
char first = [Link](0); // 'H'

 char is primive; you can't call methods on it

char c = 'h';
c = [Link](); // ERROR: "cannot be dereferenced"

 What is s + 1 ? What is c + 1 ?
 What is s + s ? What is c + c ?
 if/else
Executes one block if a test is true, another if false
if (test) {
statement(s);
} else {
statement(s);
}

● Example:
double gpa = [Link]();
if (gpa >= 2.0) {
[Link]("Welcome to Mars University!");
} else {
[Link]("Application denied.");
}
 Relaonal expressions
● A test in an if is the same as in a for loop.
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) { ...
if (i <= 10) { ...
– These are boolean expressions.

● Tests use relaonal operators:

Operator Meaning Example Value
== equals 1 + 1 == 2 true
!= does not equal 3.2 != 2.5 true
< less than 10 < 5 false
> greater than 10 > 5 true
<= less than or equal to 126 <= 100 false
>= greater than or equal to 5.0 >= 5.0 true
 Logical operators: &&, ||, !
●
Condions can be combined using logical operators:
Operator Descripon Example Result
&& and (2 == 3) && (-1 < 5) false
|| or (2 == 3) || (-1 < 5) true
! not !(2 == 3) true

●
"Truth tables" for each, used with logical values p and q:
p q p && q p || q p !p
true true true true true false
true false false true false true
false true false true
false false false false
 Type boolean
●
boolean: A logical type whose values are true and false.
– A test in an if, for, or while is a boolean expression.
– You can create boolean variables, pass boolean parameters, return
boolean values from methods, ...

boolean minor = (age < 21);

boolean expensive = iPhonePrice > 200.00;
boolean iLoveCS = true;
if (minor) {
[Link]("Can't purchase alcohol!");
}
if (iLoveCS || !expensive) {
[Link]("Buying an iPhone");
}
 if/else Structures
 Exactly 1 path: (mutually exclusive)  0 or 1 path:
if (test) { if (test) {
statement(s); statement(s);
} else if (test) { } else if (test) {
statement(s); statement(s);
} else { } else if (test) {
statement(s); statement(s);
} }

 0, 1, or many paths: (independent tests, not exclusive)

if (test) {
statement(s);
}
if (test) {
statement(s);
}
if (test) {
statement(s);
}
 while loops
●
while loop: Repeatedly executes its
body as long as a logical test is true.
while (test) {
statement(s);
}

●
Example:
int num = 1; // initialization
while (num <= 200) { // test
[Link](num + " ");
num = num * 2; // update
}
– OUTPUT:
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
 do/while loops
● do/while loop: Executes statements repeatedly while a condion is true,
tesng it at the end of each repeon.

do {
statement(s);
} while (test);

 Example:
// prompt until the user gets the right password
String phrase;
do {
[Link]("Password: ");
phrase = [Link]();
} while (![Link]("abracadabra"));
 The Random class
●
A Random object generates pseudo-random* numbers.
– Class Random is found in the [Link] package.
import [Link].*;
Method name Descripon
nextInt() returns a random integer
nextInt(max) returns a random integer in the range [0, max)
in other words, 0 to max-1 inclusive

nextDouble() returns a random real number in the range [0.0, 1.0)

– Example:
Random rand = new Random();
int randomNumber = [Link](10); // 0-9
 break
●
break statement: Immediately exits a loop.
– Can be used to write a loop whose test is in the middle.
– Such loops are o4en called "forever" loops because their header's
boolean test is o4en changed to a trivial true.
while (true) {
statement(s);
if (test) {
break;
}
statement(s);
}

– Some programmers consider break to be bad style.

 Arrays
●
array: object that stores many values of the same type.
– element: One value in an array.
– index: A 0-based integer to access an element from an array.

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

value 12 49 -2 26 5 17 -6 84 72 3

element 0 element 4 element 9

 Array declaraon
type[] name = new type[length];
 Example:
int[] numbers = new int[10];

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Accessing elements
name[index] // access
name[index] = value; // modify
– Example:
numbers[0] = 27;
numbers[3] = -6;
[Link](numbers[0]);
if (numbers[3] < 0) {
[Link]("Element 3 is negative.");
}
index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

value 27
0 0 0 -6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Out-of-bounds
●
Legal indexes: between 0 and the array's length - 1.
– Reading or wring any index outside this range will throw an
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.
●
Example:
int[] data = new int[10];
[Link](data[0]); // okay
[Link](data[9]); // okay
[Link](data[-1]); // exception
[Link](data[10]); // exception
index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

value 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 The length 7eld
●
An array's length Eeld stores its number of elements.
[Link]

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {

[Link](numbers[i] + " ");
}
// output: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

 It does not use parentheses like a String's .length().

 Quick array inializaon
type[] name = {value, value, … value};
 Example:
int[] numbers = {12, 49, -2, 26, 5, 17, -6};

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

value 12 49 -2 26 5 17 -6

 Useful when you know what the array's elements will be.
 The compiler Egures out the size by counng the values.
 The Arrays class
●
Class Arrays in package [Link] has useful stac
methods for manipulang arrays:
Method name Descripon
binarySearch(array, value) returns the index of the given value in a
sorted array (< 0 if not found)
equals(array1, array2) returns true if the two arrays contain the
same elements in the same order

fill(array, value) sets every element in the array to have the

given value
sort(array) arranges the elements in the array into
ascending order
toString(array) returns a string represenng the array, such
as "[10, 30, 17]"
 Arrays as parameters
●
Declaraon:
public type methodName(type[] name) {

 Example:
public double average(int[] numbers) {
...
}

 Call:
methodName(arrayName);
 Example:
int[] scores = {13, 17, 12, 15, 11};
double avg = average(scores);
 Arrays as return
• Declaring:
public type[] methodName(parameters) {
 Example:
public int[] countDigits(int n) {
int[] counts = new int[10];
...
return counts;
}

• Calling:
type[] name = methodName(parameters);
 Example:
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] tally = countDigits(229231007);
[Link]([Link](tally));
}
 Value semancs (primives)
●
value semancs: Behavior where values are copied when
assigned to each other or passed as parameters.
– When one primive variable is assigned to another,
its value is copied.
– Modifying the value of one variable does not a8ect others.

int x = 5;
x
int y = x; // x = 5, y = 5
y = 17; // x = 5, y = 17
x = 8; // x = 8, y = 17 y
 Reference semancs (objects)
●
reference semancs: Behavior where variables actually store
the address of an object in memory.
– When one reference variable is assigned to another, the object is not
copied; both variables refer to the same object.
– Modifying the value of one variable will a8ect others.

int[] a1 = {4, 5, 2, 12, 14, 14, 9};

int[] a2 = a1; // refer to same array as a1
a2[0] = 7;
[Link](a1[0]); // 7
a1 index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

value 4
7 5 2 12 14 14 9
a2
 Null
● null : A reference that does not refer to any object.
– Fields of an object that refer to objects are inialized to null.
– The elements of an array of objects are inialized to null.
String[] words = new String[5];
Point[] points = new Point[3];

index 0 1 2 3 4
words
value null null null null null

index 0 1 2
points
value null null null
 Null pointer excepon
●
dereference: To access data or methods of an object with the
dot notaon, such as [Link]().
– It is illegal to dereference null (causes an excepon).
– null is not any object, so it has no methods or data.

String[] words = new String[5];

[Link]("word is: " + words[0]);
words[0] = words[0].toUpperCase();

Output:
word is: null
Exception in thread "main"
[Link]
at [Link]([Link])
 Classes and objects
 class: A program enty that represents either:
1. A program / module, or
2. A template for a new type of objects.

 The Point class is a template for creang Point objects.

 object: An enty that combines state and behavior.

 object-oriented programming (OOP): Programs that perform their
behavior as interacons between objects.
 Fields
●
7eld: A variable inside an object that is part of its state.
– Each object has its own copy of each Eeld.
– encapsulaon: Declaring Eelds private to hide their data.

●
Declaraon syntax:
private type name;

– Example:
public class Student {
private String name; // each object now has
private double gpa; // a name and gpa field
}
 Instance methods
●
instance method: One that exists inside each object of a class
and deEnes behavior of that object.

public type name(parameters) {

statements;
}

Example:
public void shout() {
[Link]("HELLO THERE!");
}
 A Point class
public class Point {
private int x;
private int y;
// Changes the location of this Point object.
public void draw(Graphics g) {
[Link](x, y, 3, 3);
[Link]("(" + x + ", " + y + ")", x, y);
}
}
– Each Point object contains data Eelds named x and y.
– Each Point object contains a method named draw that draws that
point at its current x/y posion.
 The implicit parameter
●
implicit parameter:
The object on which an instance method is called.
– During the call [Link](g);
the object referred to by p1 is the implicit parameter.
– During the call [Link](g);
the object referred to by p2 is the implicit parameter.

– The instance method can refer to that object's Eelds.

●
We say that it executes in the context of a parcular object.
●
draw can refer to the x and y of the object it was called on.
 Kinds of methods
●
Instance methods take advantage of an object's state.
– Some methods allow clients to access/modify its state.

●
accessor: A method that lets clients examine object state.
– Example: A distanceFromOrigin method that tells how far a
Point is away from (0, 0).
– Accessors o4en have a non-void return type.

●
mutator: A method that modiEes an object's state.
– Example: A translate method that shi4s the posion of a Point
by a given amount.
 Constructors
●
constructor: Inializes the state of new objects.
public type(parameters) {
statements;
}

– Example:
public Point(int initialX, int initialY) {
x = initialX;
y = initialY;
}

– runs when the client uses the new keyword

– does not specify a return type; implicitly returns a new object
– If a class has no constructor, Java gives it a default constructor with no
parameters that sets all Eelds to 0.
 toString method
●
tells Java how to convert an object into a String
public String toString() {
code that returns a suitable String;
}
– Example:
public String toString() {
return "(" + x + ", " + y + ")";
}
●
called when an object is printed/concatenated to a String:
Point p1 = new Point(7, 2);
[Link]("p1: " + p1);
●
Every class has a toString, even if it isn't in your code.
– Default is class's name and a hex number: Point@9e8c34
 this keyword
●
this : A reference to the implicit parameter.
– implicit parameter: object on which a method is called

●
Syntax for using this:
– To refer to a Eeld:
this.7eld

– To call a method:
[Link](parameters);

– To call a constructor from another constructor:

this(parameters);
 Stac methods
●
stac method: Part of a class, not part of an object.
– shared by all objects of that class
– good for code related to a class but not to each object's state
– does not understand the implicit parameter, this;
therefore, cannot access an object's Eelds directly
– if public, can be called from inside or outside the class

●
Declaraon syntax:
public static type name(parameters) {
statements;
}
 Inheritance
●
inheritance: A way to form new classes based on exisng
classes, taking on their a!ributes/behavior.
– a way to group related classes
– a way to share code between two or more classes

●
One class can extend another, absorbing its data/behavior.
– superclass: The parent class that is being extended.
– subclass: The child class that extends the superclass and inherits its
behavior.
●
Subclass gets a copy of every Eeld and method from superclass
 Inheritance syntax
public class name extends superclass {

 Example:

public class Secretary extends Employee {

...
}
 Overriding methods
●
override: To write a new version of a method in a subclass that
replaces the superclass's version.
– No special syntax required to override a superclass method.
Just write a new version of it in the subclass.

public class Secretary extends Employee {

// overrides getVacationForm in Employee
public String getVacationForm() {
return "pink";
}
...
}
 super keyword
●
Subclasses can call overridden methods with super
[Link](parameters)
 Example:
public class LegalSecretary extends Secretary {
public double getSalary() {
double baseSalary = [Link]();
return baseSalary + 5000.0;
}
...
}
 Polymorphism
●
polymorphism: Ability for the same code to be used with
di8erent types of objects and behave di8erently with each.
– Example: [Link] can print any type of object.
 Each one displays in its own way on the console.

●
A variable of type T can hold an object of any subclass of T.
Employee ed = new LegalSecretary();

 You can call any methods from Employee on ed.

 You can not call any methods speciEc to LegalSecretary.

●
When a method is called, it behaves as a LegalSecretary.
[Link]([Link]()); // 55000.0
[Link]([Link]()); // pink
 Collecons and lists
●
collecon: an object that stores data ("elements")
import [Link].*; // to use Java's collections

●
list: a collecon of elements with 0-based indexes
– elements can be added to the front, back, or elsewhere
– a list has a size (number of elements that have been added)
– in Java, a list can be represented as an ArrayList object
 Idea of a list
●
An ArrayList is like an array that resizes to Et its contents.

●
When a list is created, it is inially empty.
[]

●
You can add items to the list. (By default, adds at end of list)
[hello, ABC, goodbye, okay]

– The list object keeps track of the element values that have been added
to it, their order, indexes, and its total size.
– You can add, remove, get, set, ... any index at any me.
 Type parameters (generics)
ArrayList<Type> name = new ArrayList<Type>();

●
When construcng an ArrayList, you must specify the
type of its elements in < >
– This is called a type parameter ; ArrayList is a generic class.
– Allows the ArrayList class to store lists of di8erent types.

ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<String>();

[Link]("Marty Stepp");
[Link]("Stuart Reges");
 ArrayList methods
add(value) appends value at end of list
add(index, value) inserts given value just before the given index,
shifting subsequent values to the right
clear() removes all elements of the list
indexOf(value) returns first index where given value is found in list
(-1 if not found)
get(index) returns the value at given index
remove(index) removes/returns value at given index, shifting
subsequent values to the left
set(index, value) replaces value at given index with given value
size() returns the number of elements in list
toString() returns a string representation of the list
such as "[3, 42, -7, 15]"
 ArrayList vs. array
String[] names = new String[5]; // construct
names[0] = "Jessica"; // store
String s = names[0]; // retrieve
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {
if (names[i].startsWith("B")) { ... }
} // iterate

ArrayList<String> list = new ArrayList<String>();

[Link]("Jessica"); // store
String s = [Link](0); // retrieve
for (int i = 0; i < [Link](); i++) {
if ([Link](i).startsWith("B")) { ... }
} // iterate
 ArrayList as param/return
public void name(ArrayList<Type> name) { // param
public ArrayList<Type> name(params) // return

●
Example:
// Returns count of plural words in the given list.
public int countPlural(ArrayList<String> list) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < [Link](); i++) {
String str = [Link](i);
if ([Link]("s")) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
 Throwing excepons
throw new ExceponType();
throw new ExceponType("message");
●
Generates an excepon that will crash the program,
unless it has code to handle ("catch") the excepon.

●
Common excepon types:
– ArithmecExcepon, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsExcepon, FileNotFoundExcepon, IllegalArgumentExcepon,
IllegalStateExcepon, IOExcepon, NoSuchElementExcepon, NullPointerExcepon, RunmeExcepon,
UnsupportedOperaonExcepon

●
Why would anyone ever want a program to crash?
 Sets
●
set: A collecon of unique values (no duplicates allowed)
that can perform the following operaons eOciently:
– add, remove, search (contains)

– We don't think of a set as having indexes; we just

add things to the set in general and don't worry about order

"the"
"if" "of"
[Link]("to") "to"
"down" "from" true
"by" "she"
[Link]("be") "you" false
"in"
"why" "him"

set
 Set implementaon
●
in Java, sets are represented by Set type in [Link]
• Set is implemented by HashSet and TreeSet classes

– HashSet: implemented using a "hash table" array;

very fast: O(1) for all operaons
elements are stored in unpredictable order

– TreeSet: implemented using a "binary search tree";

pre!y fast: O(log N) for all operaons
elements are stored in sorted order

– LinkedHashSet: O(1) but stores in order of inseron;

slightly slower than HashSet because of extra info stored
 Set methods
List<String> list = new ArrayList<String>();
...
Set<Integer> set = new TreeSet<Integer>(); // empty
Set<String> set2 = new HashSet<String>(list);

– can construct an empty set, or one based on a given collecon

add(value) adds the given value to the set

contains(value) returns true if the given value is found in this set
remove(value) removes the given value from the set
clear() removes all elements of the set
size() returns the number of elements in list
isEmpty() returns true if the set's size is 0
toString() returns a string such as "[3, 42, -7, 15]"
 The "for each" loop
for (type name : collecon) {
statements;
}

●
Provides a clean syntax for looping over the elements of a Set,
List, array, or other collecon
Set<Double> grades = new HashSet<Double>();
...

for (double grade : grades) {

[Link]("Student's grade: " + grade);
}

– needed because sets have no indexes; can't get element i

 Maps
●
map: Holds a set of unique keys and a collecon of values, where
each key is associated with one value.
– a.k.a. "diconary", "associave array", "hash"

●
basic map operaons:
– put(key, value ): Adds a
mapping from a key to
a value.

– get(key ): Retrieves the

value mapped to the key.

– remove(key ): Removes
the given key and its
[Link]("Juliet") returns "Capulet"
mapped value.
 Map implementaon
●
in Java, maps are represented by Map type in [Link]
• Map is implemented by the HashMap and TreeMap classes
– HashMap: implemented using an array called a "hash table";
extremely fast: O(1) ; keys are stored in unpredictable order

– TreeMap: implemented as a linked "binary tree" structure;

very fast: O(log N) ; keys are stored in sorted order
– LinkedHashMap: O(1) ; keys are stored in order of inseron
●
A map requires 2 type params: one for keys, one for values.
// maps from String keys to Integer values
Map<String, Integer> votes = new HashMap<String, Integer>();
 Map methods
put(key, value) adds a mapping from the given key to the given value;
if the key already exists, replaces its value with the given one
get(key) returns the value mapped to the given key (null if not found)
containsKey(key) returns true if the map contains a mapping for the given key

remove(key) removes any existing mapping for the given key

clear() removes all key/value pairs from the map
size() returns the number of key/value pairs in the map
isEmpty() returns true if the map's size is 0
toString() returns a string such as "{a=90, d=60, c=70}"

keySet() returns a set of all keys in the map

values() returns a collection of all values in the map
putAll(map) adds all key/value pairs from the given map to this map
equals(map) returns true if given map has the same mappings as this one
 Using maps
●
A map allows you to get from one half of a pair to the other.
– Remembers one piece of informaon about every index (key).
// key value
put("Suzy", "206-685-2181")
Map

– Later, we can supply only the key and get back the related value:
Allows us to ask: What is Suzy's phone number?

get("Suzy")
Map
"206-685-2181"
 keySet and values
• keySet method returns a Set of all keys in the map
– can loop over the keys in a foreach loop
– can get each key's associated value by calling get on the map
Map<String, Integer> ages = new TreeMap<String, Integer>();
[Link]("Marty", 19);
[Link]("Geneva", 2); // [Link]() returns Set<String>
[Link]("Vicki", 57);
for (String name : [Link]()) { // Geneva -> 2
int age = [Link](name); // Marty -> 19
[Link](name + " -> " + age); // Vicki -> 57
}

• values method returns a collecon of all values in the map

– can loop over the values in a foreach loop
– no easy way to get from a value to its associated key(s)
 The compareTo method
●
The standard way for a Java class to deEne a comparison
funcon for its objects is to deEne a compareTo method.
– Example: in the String class, there is a method:
public int compareTo(String other)

●
A call of [Link](B) will return:
a value < 0 if A comes "before" B in the ordering,
a value > 0 if A comes "a4er" B in the ordering,
or 0 if A and B are considered "equal" in the ordering.
 Using compareTo
• compareTo can be used as a test in an if statement.
String a = "alice";
String b = "bob";
if ([Link](b) < 0) { // true
...
}

Primitives Objects
if (a < b) { ... if ([Link](b) < 0) { ...
if (a <= b) { ... if ([Link](b) <= 0) { ...
if (a == b) { ... if ([Link](b) == 0) { ...
if (a != b) { ... if ([Link](b) != 0) { ...
if (a >= b) { ... if ([Link](b) >= 0) { ...
if (a > b) { ... if ([Link](b) > 0) { ...
 compareTo and collecons
●
You can use an array or list of strings with Java's included binary
search method because it calls compareTo internally.
String[] a = {"al", "bob", "cari", "dan", "mike"};
int index = [Link](a, "dan"); // 3

●
Java's TreeSet/Map use compareTo internally for ordering.
Set<String> set = new TreeSet<String>();
for (String s : a) {
[Link](s);
}
[Link](s);
// [al, bob, cari, dan, mike]
 Ordering our own types
●
We cannot binary search or make a TreeSet/Map of arbitrary
types, because Java doesn't know how to order the elements.
– The program compiles but crashes when we run it.

Set<HtmlTag> tags = new TreeSet<HtmlTag>();

[Link](new HtmlTag("body", true));
[Link](new HtmlTag("b", false));
...

Exception in thread "main" [Link]

at [Link]([Link])
 Comparable
public interface Comparable<E> {
public int compareTo(E other);
}

●
A class can implement the Comparable interface to deEne a
natural ordering funcon for its objects.

●
A call to your compareTo method should return:
a value < 0 if this object comes "before" the other object,
a value > 0 if this object comes "a4er" the other object,
or0 if this object is considered "equal" to the other.

• If you want mulple orderings, use a Comparator instead (see Ch. 13.1)
 Comparable example
public class Point implements Comparable<Point> {
private int x;
private int y;
...
// sort by x and break ties by y
public int compareTo(Point other) {
if (x < other.x) {
return -1;
} else if (x > other.x) {
return 1;
} else if (y < other.y) {
return -1; // same x, smaller y
} else if (y > other.y) {
return 1; // same x, larger y
} else {
return 0; // same x and same y
}
}
}
 Collections class
Method name Description
binarySearch(list, value) returns the index of the given value in a
sorted list (< 0 if not found)
copy(listTo, listFrom) copies listFrom's elements to listTo
emptyList(), emptyMap(), returns a read-only collection of the given
emptySet() type that has no elements
fill(list, value) sets every element in the list to have the
given value
max(collection), min(collection) returns largest/smallest element

replaceAll(list, old, new) replaces an element value with another

reverse(list) reverses the order of a list's elements
shuffle(list) arranges elements into a random order
sort(list) arranges elements into ascending order
 Sorng methods in Java
●
The Arrays and Collections classes in [Link] have
a stac method sort that sorts the elements of an array/list

String[] words = {"foo", "bar", "baz", "ball"};

[Link](words);
[Link]([Link](words));
// [ball, bar, baz, foo]

List<String> words2 = new ArrayList<String>();

for (String word : words) {
[Link](word);
}
[Link](words2);
[Link](words2);
// [ball, bar, baz, foo]
 Recall: Inheritance
●
inheritance: Forming new classes based on exisng ones.
– superclass: Parent class being extended.
– subclass: Child class that inherits behavior from superclass.
●
gets a copy of every Eeld and method from superclass

●
override: To replace a superclass's method by wring a new
version of that method in a subclass.
public class Lawyer extends Employee {
// overrides getSalary in Employee; a raise!
public double getSalary() {
return 55000.00;
}
}
 The super keyword
[Link](parameters)
super(parameters);

– Subclasses can call overridden methods/constructors with super

public class Lawyer extends Employee {
private boolean passedBarExam;
public Lawyer(int vacationDays, boolean bar) {
super(vacationDays * 2);
[Link] = bar;
}
public double getSalary() {
double baseSalary = [Link]();
return baseSalary + 5000.00; // $5K raise
}
...
}
 The class Object
●
The class Object forms the root of the
overall inheritance tree of all Java classes.
– Every class is implicitly a subclass of Object

●
The Object class deEnes several methods
that become part of every class you write.
For example:
– public String toString()
Returns a text representaon of the object,
usually so that it can be printed.
 Object methods
method description
protected Object clone() creates a copy of the object
public boolean equals(Object o) returns whether two objects have
the same state
protected void finalize() used for garbage collection
public Class<?> getClass() info about the object's type
public int hashCode() a code suitable for putting this
object into a hash collection
public String toString() text representation of object
public void notify() methods related to concurrency
public void notifyAll() and locking (seen later)
public void wait()
public void wait(...)

– What does this list of methods tell you about Java's design?
 Using the Object class
●
You can store any object in a variable of type Object.
Object o1 = new Point(5, -3);
Object o2 = "hello there";
●
You can write methods that accept an Object parameter.
public void checkNotNull(Object o) {
if (o != null) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
}
●
You can make arrays or collecons of Objects.
Object[] a = new Object[5];
a[0] = "hello";
a[1] = new Random();
List<Object> list = new ArrayList<Object>();
 Recall: comparing objects
●
The == operator does not work well with objects.
– It compares references, not objects' state.
– It produces true only when you compare an object to itself.
Point p1 = new Point(5, 3);
Point p2 = new Point(5, 3);
Point p3 = p2;
x 5 y 3
p1
// p1 == p2 is false; ...
// p1 == p3 is false;
// p2 == p3 is true
p2 x 5 y 3
// [Link](p2)? ...
// [Link](p3)? p3
 Default equals method
●
The Object class's equals implementaon is very simple:
public class Object {
...
public boolean equals(Object o) {
return this == o;
}
}

●
However:
– When we have used equals with various objects, it didn't behave like
== . Why not? if ([Link](str2)) { ...
– The Java API documentaon for equals is elaborate. Why?
 Implemenng equals
public boolean equals(Object name) {
statement(s) that return a boolean value ;
}

– The parameter to equals must be of type Object.

– Having an Object parameter means any object can be passed.
●
If we don't know what type it is, how can we compare it?
 Casng references
Object o1 = new Point(5, -3);
Object o2 = "hello there";

((Point) o1).translate(6, 2); // ok

int len = ((String) o2).length(); // ok
Point p = (Point) o1;
int x = [Link](); // ok

●
Casng references is di8erent than casng primives.
– Really casng an Object reference into a Point reference.
– Doesn't actually change the object that is referred to.
– Tells the compiler to assume that o1 refers to a Point object.
 The instanceof keyword
if (variable instanceof type) {
statement(s);
}
expression result
s instanceof Point false
• Asks if a variable refers s instanceof String true
to an object of a given type. p instanceof Point true
p instanceof String false
– Used as a boolean test.
p instanceof Object true
s instanceof Object true
String s = "hello";
null instanceof String false
Point p = new Point();
null instanceof Object false
 equals method for Points
// Returns whether o refers to a Point object with
// the same (x, y) coordinates as this Point.
public boolean equals(Object o) {
if (o instanceof Point) {
// o is a Point; cast and compare it
Point other = (Point) o;
return x == other.x && y == other.y;
} else {
// o is not a Point; cannot be equal
return false;
}
}
 More about equals
●
Equality is expected to be reRexive, symmetric, and transive:
[Link](a) is true for every object a
[Link](b) ↔ [Link](a)
([Link](b) && [Link](c)) ↔ [Link](c)

●
No non-null object is equal to null:
[Link](null) is false for every object a
●
Two sets are equal if they contain the same elements:
Set<String> set1 = new HashSet<String>();
Set<String> set2 = new TreeSet<String>();
for (String s : "hi how are you".split(" ")) {
[Link](s); [Link](s);
}
[Link]([Link](set2)); // true
 The hashCode method
public int hashCode()
Returns an integer hash code for this object, indicang its preferred to
place it in a hash table / hash set.
– Allows us to store non-int values in a hash set/map:

public static int hashFunction(Object o) {

return [Link]([Link]()) % [Link];
}

●
How is hashCode implemented?
– Depends on the type of object and its state.
●
Example: a String's hashCode adds the ASCII values of its le!ers.
– You can write your own hashCode methods in classes you write.
●
All classes come with a default version based on memory address.
 Polymorphism
●
polymorphism: Ability for the same code to be used with
di8erent types of objects and behave di8erently with each.
●
A variable or parameter of type T can refer to any subclass of T.
Employee ed = new Lawyer();
Object otto = new Secretary();

– When a method is called on ed, it behaves as a Lawyer.

– You can call any Employee methods on ed.
You can call any Object methods on otto.
●
You can not call any Lawyer-only methods on ed (e.g. sue).
You can not call any Employee methods on otto (e.g. getHours).
 Polymorphism examples
• You can use the object's extra funconality by casng.
Employee ed = new Lawyer();
[Link](); // ok
[Link](); // compiler error
((Lawyer) ed).sue(); // ok

• You can't cast an object into something that it is not.

Object otto = new Secretary();
[Link]([Link]()); // ok
[Link](); // compiler error
((Employee) otto).getVacationDays(); // ok
((Lawyer) otto).sue(); // runtime error