Chapter 2 Resistive Circuits Simple circuits analysis

Resistors in series
1. Simple circuits analysis.
2. Voltage-division and current-division principles.
3. Node-voltage analysis.
4. Mesh-current analysis.
5. Thévenin and Norton equivalents.
6. Superposition principle.
7. Wheatstone bridge.

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Example 2.1
Resistors in parallel

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Circuit Analysis using Series/Parallel Equivalents Example 2.2

1. Begin by locating a combination of resistances that

are in series or parallel. Often the place to start is
farthest from the source.
2. Redraw the circuit with the equivalent resistance
for the combination found in step 1.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the circuit is reduced as
far as possible. Often (but not always) we end up
with a single source and a single resistance.
4. Solve for the currents and voltages in the final
equivalent circuit.

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 Voltage Division

vtotal  v1  v2  v3

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Example 2.3: Application of the Current Division

Voltage-Division Principle

itotal  i1  i2

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Example 2.5 Application of the Current-Division

Principle

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 Exercise 2.3 Exercise 2.4

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Example
Although they are very
important concepts,
series/parallel equivalents and
the current/voltage division
principles are NOT sufficient to
solve all circuit problems.

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Node Voltage Analysis Writing KCL Equations in Terms of

the Node Voltages

▪ One of two key methods, the other is mesh analysis

▪ Based on KCL, more systematic
▪ All voltages have a common reference point
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 Example 2.6 Write equations

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Example 2.8 Different reference node

ix  ?
How about v1 , v2 , v3 ?
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Circuits with Voltage Sources

• We obtain dependent equations if we use all of

the nodes in a network to write KCL equations

Introducing super-nodes

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 Exercise 2.13

Figure 2.27 Circuit for Exercise 2.13.

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Summary: Node-Voltage Analysis

Example 2.10

1. Select a reference node and assign

variables for the unknown node voltages.
2. Write current equations for nodes and
supernodes using KCL.
3. Put the equations into standard form and solve
for the node voltages.
4. Use the values found for the node voltages to
calculate any other currents or voltages of
interest. Figure 2.28 Circuit containing a current-controlled current source. See Example 2.10.

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Exercise 2.14

Figure 2.31 Circuits for Exercise 2.14.

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 Review – Chapter 2 Mesh Current Analysis

1. Series and parallel Resistors

2. Voltage and current division
3. Node Voltage Approach
KCL, Node voltages, voltage sources (super case)
Figure 2.33 Circuit for illustrating the mesh-current method of circuit analysis.

▪ One of two key methods, the other is Nodal analysis

▪ Based on KVL, more systematic
▪ Work with imaginary currents

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Step 1: Choosing the Mesh Currents Step 2: Writing Equations to Solve

When several mesh currents flow through one
for Mesh Currents via KVL
element, we consider the current in that element to be
the algebraic sum of the mesh currents. Figure 2.34a

Figure 2.34 Two circuits and their mesh-current variables.

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Exercise 2.19 Mesh Currents in Circuits

Containing Current Sources
A common mistake made by beginning students is
I1 I2 i10  ? to assume that the voltages across current sources
are zero. In Figure 2.38, we have:
Figure 2.36 Circuit of Exercise 2.19.

Figure 2.38 In this circuit, we have i1 = 2 A.

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 More complex example Summary: Mesh-Current Analysis
1. Define the mesh currents flowing around each of
Combine meshes 1 and 2
the open areas defined by the network. For
into a supermesh. In other
words, we write a KVL consistency, we usually select a clockwise
equation around the direction for each of the mesh currents, but this is
periphery of meshes 1 and not a requirement.
2 combined. 2. Write voltage equations for the mesh loop by
Figure 2.39 A circuit with a current using the KVL.
source common to two meshes.
3. Put the equations into standard form. Solve for the
mesh currents.
4. Use the values found for the mesh currents to
calculate any other currents or voltages of
interest.
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Example 2.16 Nodal versus Mesh analysis

• Both are efficient

• Which is more efficient depends on the problem
• Nodal analysis used more often
• Nodal: KCL, Node voltages, voltage sources
(super case)
Figure 2.42 A circuit with a voltage-controlled current source. See Example 2.16.
• Mesh: KVL, Mesh currents, current sources (super
case)

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How to find equivalent circuit?

Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

Figure 2.45 Thévenin equivalent circuit with open-circuited terminals. The

open-circuit voltabe vOC is equal to the Thévenin voltage vt .

Figure 2.44 A two-terminal circuit consisting of resistances and sources can be

replaced by a Thévenin equivalent circuit.
Figure 2.46 Thévenin equivalent circuit with short-circuited terminals. The
short-circuit current is isc = Vt /Rt.
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 Example 2.18
Finding the Thévenin Resistance Directly

Figure 2.49 When the source is zeroed, the resistance seen

from the circuit terminals is equal to the Thévenin resistance.
We can find the Thévenin resistance by zeroing the sources in
the original network and then computing the resistance between
the terminals.
When zeroing a voltage source, it becomes a short circuit.
Figure 2.47 Circuit for Example 2.18. When zeroing a current source, it becomes an open circuit.
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Norton Equivalent Circuit

Example 2.19

Figure 2.53 The Norton equivalent circuit consists of an independent

current source In in parallel with the Thévenin resistance Rt.

Figure 2.54 The Norton equivalent circuit with a short circuit across
Figure 2.50 Circuit for Example 2.19. its terminals.

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Step-by-step Thévenin/Norton-
Equivalent-Circuit Analysis
2. Use the equation Vt = Rt In to compute
the remaining value.
1. Perform two of these:
a. Determine the open-circuit voltage Vt = voc.
3. The Thévenin equivalent consists of a
b. Determine the short-circuit current In = isc. voltage source Vt in series with Rt .

c. Zero the sources and find the Thévenin 4. The Norton equivalent consists of a
resistance Rt looking back into the current source In in parallel with Rt .
terminals.

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 Source Transformations Example 2.22

Figure 2.57 A voltage source in series with a resistance is externally

equivalent to a current source in parallel with the resistance, provided
that In = Vt /Rt .

The two circuits are equivalent if they have the same

current-voltage relationship at their terminals

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Maximum Power Transfer Example 2.23

Figure 2.61 Circuit for Example 2.23.

Figure 2.60 Circuits for analysis of maximum power transfer.

The load resistance that absorbs the

maximum power from a two-terminal circuit
is equal to the Thévenin resistance.
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Superposition Principle Foundation of the principle: linearity

The superposition principle states that

the total response is the algebric sum of
the responses to each of the independent
sources acting individually. In equation
form, this is

rT  r1  r2    rn
Figure 2.63 A resistance that obeys Ohm’s law is linear.

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Example 2.24 VT  V1  V2  5  6.66  11.66V Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is used by mechanical and
civil engineers to measure the resistances of strain
gauges in experimental stress studies of machines
and buildings.

ig  0

R2
Rx  R3
R1
Figure 2.64 Circuit for Example 2.24 and Exercise 2.31.
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