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Learning Objectives

1. Understand how data and programs are represented to a

Chapter 2 computer and be able to identify a few of the coding systems
The Systems Unit: Processing and Memory used to accomplish this.
2. Explain the functions of the hardware components
commonly found inside the system unit, such as the CPU,
GPU, memory, buses, and expansion cards.
3. Describe how peripheral devices or other hardware can be
added to a computer.
4. Understand how a computer’s CPU and memory components
process program instructions and data.

Original Credit and copyright

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Deborah Morley Charles S. Parker

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Learning Objectives Overview

5. Name and evaluate several strategies that can be used today • Explain how computers represent data and program
for speeding up the operations of a computer. instructions.
6. List some processing technologies that may be used in future • Explain how the CPU and memory are arranged with other
computers. components inside the system unit.
• Explain how a CPU performs processing tasks.
• Identify strategies that can be used today to create faster and
better computers in the future.

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Data and Program Representation Digital Data Representation

• Digital Data Representation – Bit

– Coding Systems • The smallest unit of data that a
binary computer can recognize
• Used to represent data and programs in a manner (a single 1 or 0)
understood by the computer
– Byte = 8 bits
– Digital Computers • Byte terminology used to express
• Can only understand two states, off and on the size of documents and other
(0 and 1) files, programs, etc.
– Digital Data Representation – Prefixes are often used to express larger quantities of
bytes: kilobyte (KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte (GB),
• The process of representing
terabyte (TB), petabyte (PB), exabyte (EB), zettabyte (ZB),
data in digital form so it can be yottabyte (YB).
understood by a computer

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NUMBER SYSTEM
• Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in
the computer system architecture, every value that you are
saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined
number system.

• Computer architecture supports following number systems.

• Binary number system
• Octal number system
• Decimal number system
• Hexadecimal (hex) number system

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Representing Numerical Data

• The Binary Numbering System

– Numbering system
• A way of representing numbers
– Decimal numbering system
• Uses 10 symbols (0-9)
– Binary numbering system
• Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all
possible numbers
– In both systems, the position of the digits determines the
power to which the base number (such as 10 or 2) is raised

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Representing Numerical Data Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

• ASCII (American Standard Code

for Information Interchange)
– Coding system traditionally used
with personal computers
• EBCDIC (Extended Binary-
Coded Decimal Interchange
Code)
– Developed by IBM, primarily for
mainframes

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Coding Systems for Other Types of Data

Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

• Unicode • Graphics Data (still images such as photos or drawings)

– Newer code (32 bits per character is common) – Bitmapped images
– Universal coding standard designed to represent text- • Image made of up of a grid of small dots called pixels
based data written in any ancient or modern language • Monochrome graphic can only be one of two colors
– Replacing ASCII as the primary text-coding system – Requires just one bit for color storage
• Images with more than two colors
– Can use 4, 8, or 24 bits to store the color data for
each pixel
– More bits = more colors

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Coding Systems for Other Types of Data Coding Systems for Other Types of Data

• Audio Data
– Must be in digital form in order to be stored on or
processed by a computer
– Often compressed when sent over the Internet
• MP3 files are 10 times smaller than their uncompressed
digital versions
• Download more quickly and take up less storage space
• Video Data
– Displayed using a collection of frames, each frame contains
a still image
– Amount of data can be substantial, but can be compressed

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Representing Software Programs Quick Quiz

• Machine language 1. Another way to say “one million bytes” is

– Binary-based language for representing computer a. one kilobyte
programs the computer can execute directly b. one gigabyte
– Early programs were written in machine language c. one megabyte
– Today’s programs still need to be translated into machine 2. True or False: MP3 files are stored using 0s and 1s.
language in order to be understood by the computer
3. The numbering system is used by computers
to perform mathematical computations.

Answers:
1) c; 2) True; 3) binary

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Inside the System Unit Inside the System Unit

• System Unit
– The main case of a computer
– Houses the processing hardware for a computer
– Also contains storage devices, the power supply, and
cooling fans
– Houses processor, memory, interfaces to connect to
peripheral devices (printers, etc), and other components
– With a desktop computer, usually looks like a rectangular
box

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Inside the System Unit Inside the System Unit

• The Motherboard • External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice, printers)

– Computer Chip • Wireless devices (e.g., Bluetooth)
• Very small pieces of silicon or other semi-conducting • Power Supply
material onto which integrated circuits are embedded – Connects to the motherboard to deliver electricity
– Circuit Board (personal computer)
• A thin board containing computer chips and other – Portable computers use rechargeable battery pack
electronic components • Nonremovable batteries more difficult and expensive
– System Board to replace
• The main circuit board inside the system unit to which
all devices must connect

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Inside the System Unit Inside the System Unit

• Drive Bays – Dual-core CPU

– Rectangular metal racks inside the system unit that house • Contains the processing components (cores) of two
storage devices separate processors on a single CPU
• Hard drive, CD/DVD drive, flash memory card reader – Quad-core CPU
• Connected to the motherboard with a cable • Contains four cores
• Processors
– Multi-core processors allow computers to work on more
– The CPU (Central Processing Unit) than one task at a time
• Circuitry and components packaged together and connected
– Typically different CPUs for desktop computers, portable
directly to the motherboard
computers, servers, mobile devices, consumer devices, etc.
• Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
• Personal computer CPU often made by Intel or AMD
• Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking
about personal computers • Media tablets and mobile phones use processors made
by other companies such as ARM

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Inside the System Unit Inside the System Unit

– The GPU (graphics processing unit)

• Takes care of the processing needed to display images
(including still images, animations) on the screen
• Can be located on
the motherboard,
on a video graphics
board, or in the
CPU package

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Inside the System Unit Inside the System Unit

• Processing Speed • Word Size

– CPU clock speed is one measurement of processing speed – The amount of data that a CPU can handle at one time
– Rated in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz) – Typically 32 or 64 bits
– Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per • Cache Memory
second – Special group of very fast memory chips located on or
– Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of close to the CPU
instructions a CPU can process per second – Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
• Megaflops (millions), gigaflops (billions), teraflops – More cache memory typically means faster processing
(trillions)
– Usually internal cache (built into the CPU)
– Benchmark tests can be used to evaluate overall
processing speed

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Inside the System Unit Inside the System Unit

• Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth • Bus width and speed determine
– A bus is an electronic path over which data can the throughput or bandwidth of
travel the bus
– Found inside the CPU and on the motherboard – Throughput/bandwidth is
– Bus width is the number of wires in the bus over the amount of data that can
which data can travel be transferred by the bus in
a given time period
• A wider bus allows more data to be transferred
at one time

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Memory Memory

• Memory
– Refers to chip-based storage located inside the system unit
– Storage refers to the amount of long-term storage
available to a computer
– Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Computer’s main memory
• Consists of chips arranged on a circuit board called a
memory module which are plugged into the
motherboard
• Stores essential parts of operating system, programs,
and data the computer is currently using

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Memory Memory

• Volatile • Each location in memory

– RAM content lost when the computer is shut off has an address
– ROM and flash memory are non-volatile – Each location
• Measured in bytes typically holds one
byte
– Amount installed depends on the CPU and
operating system being used – Computer system
sets up and
• Most personal computers use SD-RAM maintains directory
• MRAM and PRAM - non-volatile RAM under tables to facilitate
development retrieval of the data

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Memory Memory

– Registers – Flash Memory

• High-speed memory built into the CPU • Nonvolatile memory chips that can be used for storage
• Used to store data and intermediary results during • Have begun to replace ROM for storing system
processing information
• Fastest type of memory • Now stores firmware for personal computers and other
– ROM (read-only memory) devices
• Non-volatile chips located on the motherboard into • Built into many types of devices (media tablets, mobile
which data or programs have been permanently stored phones, and digital cameras) for user storage
• Retrieved by the computer when needed
• Being replaced with flash memory

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Cooling Components Cooling Components

• Fans • Cooling Systems

– Fans used on most personal computers to help cool the – Liquid cooling systems
CPU and system unit • Cool the computer with liquid-filled tubes
– Heat is an ongoing problem for CPU and computer – Immersion cooling
manufacturers • Hardware is actually submerged into units filled with a
• Can damage components liquid cooling solution
• Cooler chips run faster – Notebook cooling stand
• Heat Sinks • Cools the underside of a notebook computer
– Small components typically made out of aluminum with
fins that help to dissipate heat

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Cooling Components Expansion

• Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards, and ExpressCard Modules

– Expansion Slot
• A location on the motherboard into which expansion
cards are insert
– Expansion Card
• A circuit board inserted into an expansion slot
• Used to add additional functionality or to attach a
peripheral device
– ExpressCard Modules
• Designed to add additional functionality to notebooks

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Expansion Buses

• Bus
– An electronic path within a computer over which data travels
• Located within the CPU and etched onto the motherboard
– Expansion Bus
• Connects the CPU to peripheral (typically input and output)
devices
– Memory Bus
• Connects CPU directly to RAM
– Frontside Bus (FSB)
• Connects CPU to the chipset that connects the CPU to the
rest of the bus architecture

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Buses Ports and Connectors

– PCI and PCI Express (PCIe) Bus • Port

• PCI has been one of the most common types – A connector on the exterior of a computer’s system unit to
• Today, PCI Express bus, which is extremely fast, has which a device may be attached
replaced the PCI bus
– Typical desktop computer ports include:
– Universal Serial Bus (USB)
• Power connector, Firewire, VGA monitor, Network, USB,
• Extremely versatile
Audio, and HDMI
• Allows 127 different devices to connect to a computer
via a single USB port – Others include IrDA and Bluetooth ports, eSATA ports,
Thunderbolt ports (Apple devices)
– FireWire Bus
• Developed by Apple to connect multimedia devices to a – Most computers support the Plug and Play standard
computer

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Ports and Connectors Ports and Connectors

– Portable computers have ports similar to desktop

computers, but often not as many
– Smartphones and mobile devices have more limited
expansion capabilities
• Usually have a USB port, HDMI port, and/or flash
memory card slot
• Flash memory cards often use the Secure Digital (SD)
format
• MiniSD and microSD cars are smaller than regular SD
cards

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Ports and Connectors Trend Box

Tablet Docks
– Used to help with tablet productivity
– Some are just a stand
– Many include a keyboard
– Some include ports (USB,
monitor, etc.) to connect
peripherals
– Some contain a battery

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Quick Quiz How the CPU Works

1. Which type of memory is erased when the power goes out? • CPU (Central Processing Unit)
a. ROM – Consists of a variety of circuitry and components packaged
b. RAM together
c. flash memory – Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
2. True or False: The CPU can also be called the motherboard. • Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a switch
controlling the flow of electrons inside a chip
3. A(n) electronic path within a computer over which data travels
is called a(n) . – Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors;
the number doubles about every 18 months (Moore’s Law)
Answers:
1) b; 2) False; 3) bus

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Inside the Industry Box How the CPU Works

Moore’s Law • Typical CPU Components

– In 1965, Gordon Moore – Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
predicted that the number of • Performs arithmetic involving integers and logical
transistors per square inch on operations
chips had doubled every two – Floating Point Unit (FPU)
years and that trend would • Performs decimal arithmetic
continue – Control Unit
– Moore’s Law is still relevant • Coordinates and controls activities within a CPU core
today for processors as well as – Prefetch Unit
other computer components • Attempts to retrieve data and instructions before they
are needed for processing in order to avoid delays

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How the CPU Works How the CPU Works

– Decode Unit
• Translates instructions from the prefetch unit so they
are understood by the control unit, ALU, and FPU
– Registers and Internal Cache Memory
• Store data and instructions needed by the CPU
– Bus Interface Unit
• Allows the core to communicate with other CPU
components

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The System Clock and the Machine Cycle The System Clock and the Machine Cycle

• System Clock • Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz

– Small quartz crystal on the motherboard • Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the
– Timing mechanism within the computer system that system clock speed
synchronizes the computer’s operations • A CPU clock speed of 2 GHz means the CPU clock
• Sends out a signal on a regular basis to all computer “ticks” 10 times during each system clock tick
components • During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of
• Each signal is a cycle microcode are processed
• Number of cycles per second is measured in • A CPU with a higher clock speed processes more
hertz (Hz) instructions per second than the same CPU with a
lower CPU clock speed
• One megahertz = one million ticks of the
system clock

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The System Clock and the Machine Cycle

• Machine Cycle
– The series of operations
involved in the execution of a
single machine level instruction

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