INDEX

• INTRODUCTION TO SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
• FEATURE OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• STAMEN
• STRUCTURE OF ANTHER
• POLLEN GRAINS AND IT USES
• PISTIL
• STRUCTURE OF OVARY
• POLLINATION
• BENEFITS OF POLLINATION
• FACTORS AFFECTING POLLINATION
• TYPES OF POLLINATION
• SELF POLLINATION
• ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
SELF POLLINATION
• INBREEDING DEPRESSION
• OUTBREEDING DEVICES
• POLLEN PISTIL INTERACTION
• CROSS POLLINATION AND ITS TYPES
• ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
CROSS POLLINATION
• WAYS TO PREVENT CROSS POLLINATION
• ANEMOPHILY
• HYDROPHILY
• ZOOPHILY
• ARFICIAL HYBRIDIZATION
• EVENTS AFTER POLLINATION
• BIBILIOGRAPHY
Introduction to sexual reproduction in Plants:
This fundamental process of reproduction is DNA replication. In other
words, if an organism wants to continue its species, then they need to transfer
their traits to the next generation by DNA (genetic information) copying which
occurs during the process of reproduction.

We know asexually reproducing organisms copy their DNA and divide

themselves into new cells which are their clones. Since the process of
replication is not completely reliable, there are chances of variation, but they
are quite limited. Organisms need to adapt themselves to the changing
environment; the creation of variants needs to be hastened for this reason.
This will only happen when there is a union of two different DNAs. This
highlights the significance of sexual reproduction in organisms.
Features of Sexual Reproduction
• Two parents are involved (both male and a female).
• Gamete formation and fertilization take place.
• The whole process is slow and lengthy.
• Variation occurs; offspring are different from parents, genetically and
physically.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Reproduction in plants takes place sexually and asexually as well. But the
majority of the flowering plants reproduce sexually. The flower is the
reproductive part of a plant i.e., both male and female gametes are produced
by flowers. Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in flowers. The complete
flower typically consists of four parts:

• Petals
• Sepals
• Stamen (male reproductive part)
• Pistil/Carpel (Female reproductive part)
Stamen (male reproductive part) consists of anther
and filament.
• The anther is a sac-like structure that products and stores pollen.
• The filament supports the anther.

Structure of Typical Anther:

The male reproductive part of the flowering plant has stamens. These
stamens are filamentous structures that support the anther that produces the
pollen grains. These anthers have two lobes and are termed bilobed anthers.
The transverse section of the anther helps to distinguish this bilobed structure.

The two lobes of the anther are formed by a septum. Each lobe of a bilobed
anther has two theca and two microsporangia. There are hundreds of
microspores produced by each microsporangium. The anthers are lobbed so
that they can accommodate more spores.

• The filamentous stamen supports the knob-like anther on its top. A

typical anther is always a bilobed and dithecous structure.
 • Theca is a chamber on the anther lobes. Usually, each lobe has two
theca and is hence named as dithecous.
• The transverse section of the anther shows two microsporangia in each
lobe. Thus, they have four microsporangia in total.
• The microsporangia or the pollen sac consists of the pollen grains.

Pollen Grain:
Pollen grains are microscopic structures, which bear androecium – a
male reproductive organ of a flower. The interior section of pollen grain
contains cytoplasm along with the tube cell, which converts into a pollen tube
and the generative cell releases the sperm nuclei.

Layers of Pollen Grain:

The outer thick wall of pollen grain is called exine and the inner thin wall
is called intine.

Exine:
The hard outer layer called the exine is made up of sporopollenin which
is one of the most resistant organic materials known.
Intine:

Intine is the inner, less hard layer of the pollen grain made up of pectin
and cellulose. It plays a very important role in the maturation of pollen grain
and germination of the pollen tube.

Uses of Pollen Grains:

Pollen is rarely used as a food and as a dietary supplement. It is
contaminated with pesticides due to agricultural practices. Their main function
is to transfer male gametes to female gametes, the eggs of the embryo sac,
thereby promoting the sexual reproduction of the plant.

It also improves the sports performances of race horses as well as

atheletes.

The scientific study of living and fossilized pollen grains is known as

palynology.

Problems Caused by Pollen Grains:

Pollen allergy impacts the mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, and
other parts of the body. Stuffy nose, runny nose, watery and itchy nose and
eyes, inner ears, and the roof of the mouth are common symptoms of an
allergic reaction. The most common cause of this allergy is reactivity to pollen
in the air.

Example: Parthenium, Chenopodium

The pistil (female reproductive part) comprises three
parts – stigma, style, and ovary.
• Stigma is the topmost part of a flower.
• The style is the long tube which connects the stigma to the ovary.
• The ovary contains a lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant where the
seed formation takes place.
Structure to Ovary:
The ovary of a flower is composed of a number of structures to ensure
ovule development and the production of seed-bearing fruit. The outer layer
of the ovary is called the ovary wall which enentually develops into the
pericarp in fruits (outer, protective covering). The locule is the compartment
that houses the ovule. The ovule is connected to the placenta (part of the
ovary wall) by the funiculus.

Again, the combination of the stigma, style, and ovary is a carpal.

Flowers that contain more than one carpel may also have more than one
locule. If only once locule is present, it is unilocular; if more than one locule
is present, it is multilocular. The number of ovules present in flowers varies
considerably from one to thousands.

A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both. Based on this, a

flower can be either unisexual or bisexual. A bisexual flower is composed of
all the four parts mentioned above, e.g. Rose, China rose. Whereas, plants
like papaya and cucumber produce only unisexual flowers.

Pollination:
What is Pollination?
Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther
of a flower to the female stigma. The goal of every living organism, including
plants, is to create offspring for the next generation.

Anthecology, or pollination biology, is the study of pollination as well

as the relationships between flowers and their pollinators. Floral biology is a
bigger field that includes these studies.
Benefits of Pollination:
Pollination is not just fascinating natural history. It is an essential
ecological survival function. Without pollinators, the human race and all of
earth’s terrestrial ecosystems would not survive. Of the 1,400 crop plants
grown around the world, i.e., those that produce all of our food and plant-
based industrial products, almost 80% require pollination by animals. Visits
from bees and other pollinators also result in larger, more flavourful fruits and
higher crop yields. In the United States alone, pollination of agricultural crops
is valued at 10 billion dollars annually. Globally, pollination services are likely
worth more than 3 trillion dollars.

• More than half of the world’s diet of fats and oils come from animal-
pollinated plants (oil plam, canola, sunflowers, etc.).
• More than 150 food crops in the U.S. depend on pollinators, including
almost all fruit and grain crops.
Factors Affecting Pollination:
Pollination can be affected by various factors, including the abundance
and diversity of pollinators, the quality and quantity of pollen, and the timing
of pollination relative to flowering.

• Air pollution dramatically reduces pollination because it degrades the

scent of flowers, affecting bee’s ability to find them, a study has found.
Pollination by Wind is known as anemophily.
• Water availability can alter the efficiency and quality of the pollen grains
produced by sexually reproducing plant. Pollination by water is known
as Hydrophily.
• Almost all plants, wild or grown by humankind, need natural pollinators
in order to reproduce. These are insects like bees, butterflies, beetles
and flies, as well as some birds like hummingbirds and mammals like
bats ----which pollinate more than 500 species of tropical plants.
• The role of animals in pollination is very vital. It is said to be a
mutualism as the plant gets pollinated and the insects that are
considered to be animals gain nectar. Pollination by animals is known
as Zoophily.

Types of Animal Pollination:

• Bees
• Beetles
 • Butterflies
• Ants
• Hummingbirds
• Bats
• Rodents
• Lemurs
• Honey Possums
• Lizards
• Wasps
• Moths

Apart from these animals, humans also carry out artificial pollination
(mechanical pollination). This method is often carried out by manually
transferring pollen from the stamen of one plant to the pistil of another plant.

Major Types of Pollination:

It can be broadly classified into two

• Cross-pollination
• Self-pollination

This is achieved with the help of a veriety of vectors/agents.

Self-Pollination:

What is Self-Pollination:

The transfer of the pollen grain from the another of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower in the same plant.

Examples – Wheat, rice and tomato.

Advantages of Self-Pollination:
• Self-pollination helps to maintain parental characters or purity of the
species.
• The plant does not need to depend on the pollinating agents.
• No need of producing a large number of pollen grains.
• Flowers do not need to develop devices for attracting insect pollinators.
• It ensures seed production.
• It eliminates some bad recessive characters.

Disadvantages of Self-Pollination:

• Self-pollination does not allow new adaptions according to the change

in the environments.
• It can lead to the reduced health of the species, due to the breeding of
related specimens.
• Immunity to diseases decreases.

Inbreeding Depression:

What is Inbreeding Depression: Inbreeding depression is the loss

in productivity and fertility of an offspring as result of continuous breeding

between closely related individuals of a species of plants or animals.
Methods to Prevent Inbreeding Depression:

The higher the genetic variation within a breeding population less are
the chances of inbreeding depression. Hence, inbreeding depression can be
reversed by introducing alleles from a different population. This is done with
the help of outbreeding devices.

Outbreeding Devices

Self-pollination is common and more likely to happen in the case of

hermaphrodite flowers but a successive series of self-pollination affects
negatively and causes inbreeding depression. This also results in homozygous
genes. Thus plants are adapted to promote cross-pollination. This is known as
outbreeding. Factors which encourage cross-pollination are as follows:

• Unisexual flower: If a flower is unisexual i.e., containing only one sex

either female or male, cross-pollination is the only choice.
• Non-synchronization: Timing is important for successful self-
pollination. Pollen release and receptivity of stigma should happen for
successful self-pollination. Sometimes, pollen matures and releases
before the stigma is open which leads to loss of pollen vitality or vice-
versa. This prevents self-pollination; even though the flower is
hermaphrodite.
 • Self-incompatibility: Incompatibility within a flower (or plant) includes
self-sterility; structural barriers. Self-sterility means even though
pollination takes place it can’t proceed to fertilization due to further
pollen growth failure.

Structural barriers include height difference between gynoecium and

androecium and some structures which hinder the stigma from receiving
pollen. These are the more or less genetic mechanism.

Pollen-Pistil Interaction

All pollinations do not lead to successful fertilization because for successful

fertilization, the pistil of a flower has to recognize the pollen of the same
species. Therefore, the interaction between pollen grains and the stigma
needs to be understood properly. Once the compatible pollen is recognized
and accepted by the pistil, events for fertilization proceed. The pollen which is
incompatible is rejected by the pistil so that the process of fertilization does
not proceed.

Upon reaching the pistil, the pollen grain releases chemicals which are
recognized by the pistil. This pollen-pistil interaction results in the acceptance
of the compatible pollen.

Events of pollen-pistil interaction proceed as follows:

• The landing of true pollen on the compatible pistil.

• Germination of pollen and formation of pollen tube where pollen grains
release their contents.
• Pollen tube growth through the style of the pistil towards the ovary.
• The entry of male gametes into the ovule and then o synergid.
Cross Pollination:

The transfer of pollen grains from the another of one plant to the stigma
of another different plant is called cross-pollination.

Types of Cross Pollination:

Geitenogimy:
Geitonogamy – It is functionally cross-pollination. Pollinators are
involved but pollen grains are genetically identical, similar to autogamy. In
this type of pollination, pollination occurs within the same plant but transfer
occurs between different flowers of the same plant.

Xenogamy:

Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from the flower

of one plant to the stigma of the flower of another plant is known as
xenogamy. Squash, onions, broccoli, spinach.
Advantages of cross-pollination

• Cross-pollination is advantageous to the plant race because it introduces

new genes into the lineage as a result of fertilization between genetically
distinct gametes.
• Cross-pollination improves offspring resistance to diseases and
environmental changes.
• The seeds produced as a result of cross-pollination are vigorous and
vital.
• If there are any recessive traits in the lineage, they are eliminated
through genetic recombination.
• It is the only method by which unisexual plants can reproduce.

Disadvantages of cross-pollination

• There is a significant waste of pollen grains that must be produced for

fertilization to occur.
• Due to gene recombination, there is a high likelihood that desirable
characteristics will be lost and undesirable characteristics will be added.

Prevent Cross Pollination by Growing One Species of

Plant:

One strategy is to grow only one variety of species in your garden.

Cross-pollination is unlikely if you only have one variety of plant species in
your garden, but there is a very small chance that a stray pollinating insect
will carry pollen to your plants. If you want to grow more than one variety,
you must first determine whether the plant is self or wind and insect-
pollinated. Most flowers are pollinated by wind or insects, but some vegetables
are not.
Preventing Cross-Pollination in Wind or Insect
Pollinated Plants:

Wind or insect-pollinated plants require pollination from flowers on other

plants (of the same or different varieties) to produce healthy seeds. To avoid
cross-pollination, plant different varieties 100 yards (91 metres) or more
apart. This is not normally possible in a home garden. Instead, choose a bloom
from which you will later collect seeds from the fruit or seedpod. Swirl a small
paintbrush inside the flower of a plant of the same variety and species as the
one you’ve chosen, then swirl the paintbrush inside the flower you’ve chosen.
If the flower is large, you can close it with string or a twist tie.

Anemophily:
Anemophily is a method of pollination that uses air currents to transfer
pollen. Anemophilous pollination is also known as wind pollination. The wind
pollinating flowers carries out this form of pollination.

Characteristics of Anemophily:

• Wind pollination, or anemophily, is a type of pollination in which pollen

is delivered by the wind.
• Plants such as grasses and rushes, and all gymnosperms are
anemophilous.
 • The majority of gymnosperms and grasses, sedges, and rushes in the
order poles are anemophilous.
• It mostly happens in crops.
• Anemophilous flowers exhibit these traits –

Flowers are tiny in size.

They are not beautiful in color.
They don’t give off any scent.
Produce a large amount of pollen to make up for a considerable wastage
of pollen by wind.
Stigma is very elaborate, and it is mostly bifid and feathery.
Pollen grains are dry, light and smooth-walled.

Hydrophily:
Hydrophily is a type of pollination in which pollen is dispersed by the
flow of water, especially in rivers and streams.

It is generally seen in aquatic plants where pollens are produced in large

numbers and with specific weight which makes them float below the surface.

In Vallisneria, the male flower floats on the surface of the water till it
comes in contact with the female flowers.
Characteristics of Hydrophily:
• Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
• Perianth and other floral parts are unwettable.
• Nectar and odour are absent.
• Pollen grains are light and unwettable dut to presence of mucilage
cover.
• Stigma is long, sticky but unwettable.

Zoophily:
Entomophily:

Entomophily is a form of pollination whereby pollen or spores are

distributed by insects. Several insects are reported to be responsible for the
pollination (potential or effective) of many plant species.
Characteristics of Entomophily:
• Flowers are generally large or if small they are aggregated in dense
inflorescence.
• Flowers are brightly coloured.
• Flowers are scented and produce nectar.
• Flowers in which there is no secretion of nectar, the pollen is either
consumed as food or used in building up of its hive by the honeybees.
Pollen and nector are the floral rewards for visitors.

Artificial Hybridization:
Pollen-stigma compatibility is essential for successful pollination and
fertilization. Once compatible pollen is accepted by pistil, events of fertilization
proceed, whereas incompatible pollen will be rejected. This interaction where
a pistil is capable of recognizing its pollen is the result of long-term pollen-
pistil interaction and chemicals released by pollen.

It is very important to understand pollen-pistil interaction in

hybridization. It is one of the innovative methods of the crop production
improvement program. During artificial hybridization, only the desired pollen
grains are introduced to the stigma through pollination. This helps to avoid
unwanted pollen rejection and saves time. Also, the plants with the desired
characteristics can be grown.
Steps in Artificial Hybridization:
Hybridization proceeds in two steps:

• Emasculation
• Bagging

Emasculation
We know hybridization is the method of selective breeding. Thus,
anthers have to be removed from a bisexual flower before they release pollen
grains. This step of removal of anther using forceps is termed as emasculation.
In the case of unisexual flowers, this step is not necessary.

Bagging
Bagging is the protection of emasculated flower from contamination by
undesirable pollen grains. Here the flower is masked by a bag, still, the flower
attains receptivity. In unisexual flowers, bagging is done before the flowers
are open.

Emasculation and bagging ensure that the female flower is completely

protected from contamination.

Once the flower attains stigma receptivity, the desired pollens are
dusted on the stigma. This is resealed for further developments.

Hence, artificial hybridization ensures that the right type of pollen has
been transferred to the stigma of the flower. In addition, the chance of
fertilization is high. Through this approach, a variety of strains of crops can be
developed and it improves the quality of crop with desirable characters.
Events after Pollination:
• After the pollen grain lands on the stigma, a pollen tube develops down
through the style to the ovary.
• The pollen grain travels along the pollen tube and fertilizes the nucleus
in the ovule.
• The fertilized ovule develops into a seed.
• The plant embryo is contained in the seed, which carries genetic
material from both parents.
• The vegetative parts of the flowers like petals and sepals witheroff.
• The ovary gives rise to the fruit.

BIBILIOGRAPHY:
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