111)

SUPERCONDUCTIVIT Y:'!.: tt C t' f: L

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Superconductivity
8.3 The discovery
8.4 Zero electrical resistance
8.5 Persistent current
8.6 Effect of temperature
8.7 Effect of external magnetic field
8.8 Meissner effect
8.9 Types I and type II superconductor I soft & hard superconductor
8.10 The BCS theory
8.11 Josephson effect
8.12 Applications
 Superconductivity

Chapter 8

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

�TRODUCTION:

One of the most interesting of solids at tha! in

of the de electrical resistivity vanishes [Link] a <;er-
- - - - .
the temperature The zero resistivity
�-

or infinite conductivity) This phenomenon is not

nly of theoretical interest, but also has immense practical applications.

A superconducting material exhibit zero electrical resistivity and complete dia­

[Link]. The superconducting state is influenced by temperature, magnetic field
nd current. There exists critical value for these three parameters, above which these
alues, material passes into normal state.

The zero electrical resistivity of superconductors implies zero losses and hence
lectrical power can be transported over very large distances with undiminished strength
y superconducting cables. Complete diamagnetism of superconductor causes strong
�pulsion of magnets from the vicinity of a superconductor. This effect can be utilized
1 different areas of technology.

In recent discoveries of ceramic high temperature superconductors raised the

opes of making practical use of superconductors in a big way. Vigorous research is
eing carried out now all over the world to improve the properties of ceramic super­
onductors to make them suitable for various applications.

�ERCONDUCTIVITY:

The sudden disappearance of in below a

�mperature is known as The material that exhibit
are in state are called The
PiperatUn;�at a iscalldcritical
Tc. owiicfitiCal temperature at which it
:tsses over into
=-�==-=�=-- � = =-,. --

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Eng ,leering Physics

[F ig. 8.1 shows how the electricaLre-

sistivity in normal metal and superconduc­
decreases.
is observed in super­
cond�ctors, that the resistivity decrea�es
transition or criti-
,
-

has
critical temperature below passes
Tc Temperature (K) over mto the sta-te. The
for
Fig. 8.1
chemically pure and structurally perfect
while the transition range' is broad (of the order of one tenth of a degree or
so) in case of specimens containing impurities or specimens which are structurally
imperfect.

� HE DISCOVERY:

The Dutch physicists, Kammerlingh Onnes suc­

0.125
ceeded in his efTorts to liquefy helium. Gases helium
turned into liquity helium at 4.2 Kat atmospheric pres­
.
sure. Using liquid helium as a coolant, the variation ...
of ..
was studied by Onnes.
...
.
...
'

'

.,According to one theory the electrical resistance

...
'

of pure metals should decreas_e continuously and van-

0·025
...
iShed at absolute zero temperature. According to an-
other theory it was expected to e��_!ly
as temperature approaches 0 K. H_£\Vever,
Onnes discovered that the electrical resistance of 4.1 4.2 4.3

Temperature K

�-
4.15K. Fig. shows the result of classical experi-
8.2
ment conducted by Onnes in The sudden drop
1911.
Fig. 82

in resistivity was not in accordance with the expectations and was recognized by
Onnes to be an entirely a new phenomenon. He called this property as superconduc­
tivity. Subsequently, was also discovered in lead, tin, zinc. alum'-

168
 Superconductivity

num and other metals as well as number of alloys. Kammerlingh Onnes was hon­
ored in 1913 with the Nobel prize in Physics for his

� RO ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:

A superconductor is Qy It is not funda­

mentally possible to test experimentally whether the resistance is zero. One method
of ascertaining the sudden
drop of resistance is to eon­
v v o

very nect the into

La?e
as shown in Fig. 8.3 and
measure the potential differ­
v v ence across its ends. When
the material is in normal
AtT>T, AtT>T,
conducting state, a voltage
_y =R _y ""R
I I
drop is observed across its
(a) Fig. 8.3
ends, as shown in Fig.
8.3(a). When the material is
cooled below its critical Tc, the potential difference disappears, as shown
in Fig. 8.3(b).
T> T, T< T, H,, 0
more sensitive method
=

Hcri
was devised by Kammerhngh
Onnes. It consists of --
measur-
.
a closed
superconducting
ring is kept in a magnetic field
(Fig. 8.4) and it is cooled to
below the critical temperature
so that it becomes supercon­ (a)
Fig. 8.4 (b)
ducting. When the external
magnetic fleld is switched off, a current is induced in the ring. If the ring had a finite
resistance R, the current circulating in the ring would decrease according to the equa-
tion.

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Engineering Physics

The � � of current may be monitored by a change in the magnetic flux through

.
a test coil held close to the superconducting ring. Any change in the magnetic flux of
the superconducting ring will induce an emf in the test coil. Careful measurements
established that the resistivity of superconductors can be assumed to be zero. A super­
..

� SISTENT CURRENT:

Once a current is started in a closed loop of superconducting material, as in Fig.

8.4(b), it will continue to keep flowing, of its own accord, around the loop as long as
the loop is held below the critical temperature. Such a steady current which flows
with undiminishing strength is called a persistent current. The persistent current
does not need any external power to maintain it because there does not exist FR
losses. Calculations show that once the current flow is initiated, it persists for more
than 105 years. In one instance, a current is maintained in superconducting loop for
more than two years. Persistent current is one of the most important properties of
superconductor. Superconductor coils with persistent currents produce magnetic fields
and can therefore serve as magnets. Such a superconducting magnet does not require
a power supply to maintain its magnetic field.

� FFECT OF TEMPERATURE:

When the temperature of a superconducting material is increased, the material

transforms into a normal material above the critical temperature Tc. The transition is
reversible. When the material is cooled below Tc, it again goes into the superconduct­
ing state (Fig. 8.1 ). The transition is a thermodynamic phase transition. Just as the
order in the arrangement of atoms increases in a transition of a material from liquid to
solid state, a rearrangement of conduction electrons takes place leading to an increase
in the order in case of the transition from normal to the superconducting state.

A subsequent study of the resistivity of metals reveled that mercury was not the
only element which exhibited superconductivity. A number of elements and alloys
exhibit superconductivity. There are listed in Table 8.1.

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 Superconductivity

Table 8.1: Superconducting Transition Temperature of various elements & compounds.

Sr. No . Element I compound Tc inK

1 Cd 0.55
2 AI 1.19

3 Hg 4.15

4 Nb 9.2

5 Nb3Au 11- 11.5

6 NbN 16
7 V3Si 17.1

8 Nb3Sn 18

9 Nb3Ge 23.2
10 YBa2Cu307 90
11 Tl2Ga2Ba2Cu3010 125

As seen from the 8.1, the critical temperature of most of the metals and
alloys is quite low. In fact the maximum critical temperature recorded was for Nb3Ge
which was about 23.2 K. However, in 1987, the compound of yitrium branium copper
oxide (e.g. YBa2C u307) and somewhere in 1990 the compound ofThallium (Tl) and
Gallium (Ga) was about 125 K. This discovery has opened up a new subject matter
called the "high temperature superconductivity".

The effect of temperature on superconductors can be explained using the free

electron model of metals. According to this model the resistivity of the metal may be
written as-

m
p= --
2
ne r
where m - mass of electron

n - the number or volume of the electrons.

T- the average time of collision which electrons undergo with the lattice ions.

p decreases as temperature is lowered because as temperature decreases the

lattice vibrations begin to 'freeze' hence the of electrons diminishes.
This results in a large T and hence smaller p as indicated by the above equation. If T

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Engineering Physics

becomes infinite at sufficiently low temperature, then the resistivity vanishes entirely,
as observed in superconductivity.

Actually in superconductors, a fraction of electrons have infinite collision time.

These electrons undergo no scattering, even though the substance may contain some
impurities and defects. These electrons in the material are responsible for supercon-
ductivity property. ,.,

�E CT OF EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD:

Kammerlingh Onnes observed in 1913 that superconductivity vanishes if a suf­

ficiently strong magnetic field is applied. The minimum magnetic field which is nec­
essary to regain the normal resistivity is called the critical magnetic field H . When
c

the applied magnetic field exceeds the critical value

Not He, the superconducting state is destroyed and the
material goes into the normal state. Obviously, the
value of He varies with temperature. Fig. 8.5 shows
the dependence of He on temperature in ty pical su­
perconductors. At any temperature T < Tc, the mate­
rial remains superconducting until a corresponding
critical magnetic field is applied. When the magnetic
field exceeds the critical value, the material goes into
Temperature �
the normal state. The critical field required to de­
Fig. 8.5
stroy the superconducting state decreases progres­
sively with increasing temperature. For example, a magnetic field of0.04 Twill de­
stroy the superconductivity of mercury at T �OK, where as a field of0.02 T is suffi­
cient to destroy its superconductivity at about 3K.

The dependence of critical field on temperature is governed by the following

relation

where Hc(O) is the critical magnetic field at OK.

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 Superconductivity

� SNER EFFECT:

8.8.1 Behaviour Of A Perfect Conductor:

In view of zero resistivity of the specimen, we may initially conclude that the
state is not
a novel state only a state
where the specimen be­
haves as an ideal
Hex! Hext � 0 tor. Let us examine how
such a is right.
It an ordinary conductor, a
steady current requires an
(a) Fig. 8.6 (b) electric field to overcome
the resistance. The electric
field within a conductor carrying a given current density is directly proportional to the
resistivity.

E p J ....... Ohm's law ......... (1)

A perfect conductor is a conductor having zero resistivity (p O).

It follows from Eqn. ( 1) that E 0 for a perfect conductor. It means that the
electrical field cannot exists inside the perfect conductor. a perfect conductor
is in a magnetic field and the magnetic field is switched off, the changing
flux will not induce an emf in it. According to one of the Maxwell's equations

aB
Vx£ =-a; .. . Faraday's law
.

IfE 0, it implies that B is constant. Consequently, the magnetic through

the perfect conductor remains unchanged and we condude that the applied magnetic
field is frozen or trapped in perfect conductor. This means that when a perfect
conductor is cooled in the magnetic field until its resistance becomes zero, the mag­
netic field in the material gets frozen in and cannot change subsequently irrespective
of applied field (Fig. 8.6). Thus it does not exhibit diamagnetic behavior even slightly.

8.8.2 BEHAVIOUR OF i.e. MEISSNER EFFECT:

In 1933 Meissner and Ochsenfeld discovered that a superconductor completely

expels any magnetic field lines that were initially it in its normal state.

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Engineering Physics

! cooling
This property is indepen­
dent of the path by which
the superconducting state
is reached (Fig.8.7). Sup­
pose the magnetic field is
applied first to the sample
H"",-+0
in the normal state as in
Fig. 8.7 Let the material
be cooled belowT,
c in the
(a) (b) (c)
presence of the magnetic
Fig. 8.7 field. It is expected that
the magnetic flux through
the material would remain unchanged as in Fig.8.6 However Meissner and Ochsenfeld
found that magnetic flux was totally expelled from the sample as it become supercon­
ducting (Fig. 8.7(b)) The expulsion of magnetic flux during the transition from the
normal to the superconducting state is called the Meissner effect. The experiments of
Meissner established that as the temperature is lowered, the specimen enters super­
conducting state at T = Tc and magnetic flux is pushed out of it for all temperatures
T < Tc. The effect is reversible. When the temperature is raised from below Tc, the
flux suddenly starts penetrating the specimen at T Tc, as a result of which material
returns back to the normal state.

The magnetic induction inside the specimen is given by

B = ).10 ( H + M)

where H - external applied field

M - magnetization produced within the specimen.

At T < T,
c B = 0 and )l 0
(H + M)= 0 ... ..... . . . .....superconducting state
.

M=-H

The susceptibility of the material is

M
X = -1 . . ... ..... Perfect Diamagnetism
H
= .

Thus superconducting state is characterized by perfect diamagnetism. This con­

clusion can not be derived from the simple definition of superconductivity as a state
of zero resistivity. The superconductor is not just a perfect conductor but something

174
 Superconductivity

more. Superconductor has an additional property that a resistance less conductor would
not have. A material in the state does not permit any magnetic flux to
exist within the body of the material. Meissner effect shows that in the supercondu c -

dB
tor not only 0 , but also B 0. The superconducting state is a characteristic
dT =

thermodynamic phase of a substance in which the material cannot sustain steady elec­
tric and magnetic fields.

Meissner effect is the standard test which conclusively proves a par­

ticular material has become superconducting or not.

Because of diamagnetic nature, superconducting strong ly repel exter­

nal magnets. It leads to levitation effect in which a magnet hovers above a
ducting material and suspension effect where a chip of superconducting material hangs
beneath a magnet. Therefore, the Meissner effect is utilized in definitive test for su­
perconductivity and in magnetically levitated friction less bearing s.

8.9 TYPE I AND TYPE II I SOFT AND HARD SUPERCONDUCTORS:

On the basis of magnetic behavior, superconductors are classified into two cat­
egories, namely Type I and Type II Superconductors or soft and hard superconductors
respectively.

8.9.1 TYPE I SUPERCONDUCTORS I SOFT SUPERCONDUCTORS:

In type I superconductors, the transition from superconducting state to normal

state in the presence of mag-
Superconductor Normal
Type 1 netic field occurs sharply at
superconductor
the critical value H as illus-
f- State
� c
§ trated in Fig. 8.8(a). Ty pe I su-

J
perconductors are perfectly
diamagnetic below He and
completely expel the magnetic
H H He

External Field (H) field from the interior of the

(a) (b) superconducting phase. Upto
Fig. 8.8
the critical field strength, the
magnetization of the material grows in proportion to the external field and then abruptly
drops to zero at the transition to the normally conducting state, as shown in Fig. 8.8(b).

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Engineering Physics

The magnetic f clci .)an penetrate only the surface layer and current can only flow
this layer. Consequently Type I superconductors are poor carriers of electrical current.

Aluminium, lead and indium are examples ofType I [Link]

cal field He is relatively low for Type I superconductors. T hey would generate
2
of about 0.01 Wb/m2 (lOOG) to 0.2 Wb/m (2000G) only. As such they are not
much use for production of high magnetic fields.

8.9.2 TYPE II SUPERCONDUCTORS I HARD SUPERCONDUCTORS:

Type II superconductivity was discovered by Schubnikov in 1930s and

explained by Abrikosov in 1957. Type II superconductors are characterized by
critical fields Hc1 and Hc2 and the transition from superconducting state to
state occurs gradually as the magnetic field is increased from HCI to Hc2, as
in fig. 8.9 T he magnetization of the material grows in proportion to the external
upto the lower critical field Hc1• T he external magnetic flux is expelled from
interior of the material till then. At Hc1, the magnetic fields lines begin penetrating
material.

Type II As the magnetic

superconductor
increases, further the
p
netic flux through the
terial increases. At the
per critical field HC2,
magnetization
He, 0 He, He,
External Field (H) completely and the externa

Fig. 8.9
Comlete
Mixed State -- Normal field has completely
Diamagnestim
etrated and destroyed
superconductivity. In the region between Hc1 and HC2, the material is in a
cally mixed state but electrically it is superconductor. Hc2 can be as high as 20 to
2
Wb/m and the retention of superconductivity in such high magnetic fields
Type II materials very useful and application of creating very high magnetic
Transition metals and alloys consisting of niobium, aluminum, silicon and
exhibit Type II superconductivity.

Ceramic superconductors also belong to this category. At present material

as Nb-Ti alloys are used to produce the solenoids. They have critical field of about
2 2
Wb/m A field of 20 Wb/m can be created with Nb3Sn. Once the magnetic field i
•

176
 Superconductivity

created by superconductor solenoid, it does not require electric power to maintain it.
However, the solenoid must be held below the critical temperature Tc, which is ac­
complished by liquid helium.

A distinguishing feature ofType II superconductors is that supercurrents arising

in an external magnetic field can flow not only over the surface of a conductor bust
also in its bulk. Above the lower critical field He1, it becomes energetically more
favorable to admit a singleflux quantum rather than have the superconductor exclude
He1• The superconductor passes into mixed states where the bulk of material is super­
conducting but is threaded by very thin filaments of normal material. The thin fila­
ments of normal material serve as the paths along which the magnetic field penetrates.
In the centre of filaments there are no Cooper pairs and superconductivity is absent.
The normal regions are surrounded by vortices of super currents. A flux line together
with its current vortex is called fluxoid. At He!' fluxoids appear in the material and
increase in number as the magnetic field is increased. An increase in the magnetic
field will not cause an increase of the flux in each vortex line but will cause an in­
crease in the number offluxoids threading the superconductor. At Hc2 thefluxoids fill
the entire specimen and superconductivity disappears. Type II superconductors can
carry larger currents when the magnetic field is between Hc1 and Hc2•

8.10 THE BCS THEORY:

Basis of a quantum theory of superconductivity was laid by the classic 1957

papers ofBardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer. [[Link], L.N. Cooper and J.R. Schrietter,
Phy. Rev. 106, 162 (1957); 108, 1175 (1957)] There is BCS theory of superconduc­
tivity with very wide range of applicability, from He3 atoms in their condensed phase
and to high temperature superconductors based on plane of cuprate ions.

The fundamental idea underlying BCS theory is that electrons pair up with one
another due to a special type of attractive interaction. These pairs of electrons, called
cooper pairs, are of opposite momenta and spin. They can be scattered only if the
energy involved is sufficient to break it up into two single electrons. In general this
energy will not be available and so electron pair moves on undeviated by either impu­
rities or thermal vibrations.

Normally two electrons repel each other, however, Frohlich, realized in 1952
that electrons could attracts each other via distortion of the lattice. The idea is as
follows:

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Engineering Physics

Let us consider an electron passing close to an ion. There will be momentary

attraction between them which might slightly modify the vibrations of the ion.T his in
tum could interact with a second electron nearby which will also be attracted to the
ion. But the net effect of these two interactions is that there is an apparent attractive
force between the two electrons and this would not have arisen if the ion had not been
present.

The superconductivity was related to atomic vibrations, known due to isotope

effect. The value ofTc for samples of different isotopes of the same element are found
to be proportional toM -Y:z (whereM- atomic mass).

(Note: The vibrations of ions depends upon the mass)

The BCS theory was also able to account for the energy gap. Since an electron
pair has lower energy than the two normal electrons there is an energy gap between
the paired and the two single electrons.

As we know, the magnetic flux through a superconducting ring is quantized and

the effective unit of charge is 2e rather than e. This is because of the pairing of elec­
trons.

The BCS theory is also able to explain many other phenomenon associated with
superconductivity such as Meissner effect, flux penetration etc.

8.10.1 ENERGY GAP:

The electrons of a Cooper pair have a lower

F.
energy than two unpaired electrons. Therefore, the
energy spectrum of electrons exhibits an energy gap,
such as shown in fig.8.10 (b). The Cooper pairs oc­
cupy the lower state. The energy gap prevents the
pairs from breaking apart.

A finite energy 2� must be expanded to disso­

ciate a Cooper pair. For a superconductor at OK, the
(a) (b)
width of the gap is proportional to critical tempera­
Fig. 8.10
ture.

T hus, 2� = 3.52 KTc

The energy gap is generally of the order of 1 Q-3 eV. The existence of an energy

178
 Superconductivity

gap can be proved experimentally. One such experiment studying the ab­
sorption of microwaves by a superconductors. At temperature close to absolute zero,
a superconductor does not absorb energy until the energy quanta of incident radiation
is equal to or greater than 2L1. The absorption grows fast to a value typical for the
normal metal, because electrons can now absorb photons and go to higher energy
states that lie above the gap.

8.10.2 FLUX QUANTIZATION:

In 1957 A. Abrikosov predicted existence of magnetic flux quanta. Accord­

ingly a closed superconducting loop can enclose magnetic flux only integral mul­
tiples of fundamental quantum of flux. Thus, the magnetic enclosed by a super­
conducting ring0 is given by:

h
0= n -

2e
or 0=n00 • • • • • • • • • • • • • n=l,2,3, ......

h
where 0o= is the flux quantum and called fluxon.
2e

The quantization of flux has been confirmed experimentally in 1961

by Deaver and Fairbank. The quantization of magnetic flux is a special property of
superconductors. The magnetic flux produced in a ordinary transformer or solenoid
coil is not quantized.

Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer were awarded the Nobel prize in Physics in
1972. Bardeen received the Nobel prize for second time, the first being in 1956 along
with Shockley and Brattain for the intention of transistor.

8.11 JOSEPHSON EFFECT:

In quantum mechanics, an electron is described by a wave function and it has a

finite probability of through a barrier. Ivan Giaever, the American physicist
demonstrated in 1960s that an electron can tunnel through a thin insulator barrier. A
significant tunnel current can exist only when the de Broglie wavelength of the elec­
tron is comparable to or greater the barrier thickness. Thus, it requires very thin
barriers of the order of 50 A or less. In 1962 D. Josephson, the English physi­
cist, theoretically showed that tunneling of Cooper pairs was as likely as tunneling of
unpaired electrons.

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Engineering Physics

8.11.1 DC EFFECT:

Two superconductors separated by a thick insulating layer, say 10 nm, are es­
sentially two independent superconductors without any joint properties. When they
are separated by a thin insulating layer (1 nm thick) they become a system of coupled
conductors. The Cooper pair tunnels through the barrier (insulating layer) as a single
unit. Such an arrangement is often referred as weak link.

Superconductor
Insulating barier

Insulator
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.11

Consider a sandwich arrangement (Fig. 8.11 (a)) consisting of two supercon­

ducting metal films separated by thin oxide barrier of 10 to 20 A thick. This is known
as Josephson junction. Let an external voltage V be applied to the sandwich arrange­
ment as shown in Fig. 8.11b. The de effect may be described by saying that the
junction becomes a superconductor. If such a junction is connected to a current gen­
erator, a current flows through the junction without any voltage drop. The Cooper
pairs tunnel from one side of the junction to the other side easily. This is known as
D.C. Josephson effect. It arises from tunneling of Cooper pairs from one film of the
superconductor into the other through the narrow insulator. Josephson showed that
the de current through the junction is given by

I =Ic sine .............(1)

s

where 8 is the phase difference between the wave function describing Cooper
pairs on both sides of the barrier, and

Ic is the critical current which the junction can support. Ic is depPnt! �nt on the
thickness and width of the insulating layer. It is usm11ly very small

1 �,')
 Superconductivity

8.11.2 AC EFFECT:

If we apply a de voltage to the Josephson junction and study its current-voltage

characteristics, a strikingly new phenomenon will be observed. When the current, Is,
through the junction exceeds the critical value Ic, the insulating layer returns to the
normal state; and a potential difference V appears across the junction. In such a case,
the energies of Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier differ by 2 eV. It causes a
frequency difference

u= -
2eV
h
.................... (2)

and a phase difference between the waves

B = 2wt =2m [ .............(3)

using equation (2) in to equation (3)

I=
s
Ic sin ( 4;rev
h
t ) .................(4)

The current given by equation (4) is an alternating current. Thus when a de

voltage exists across a Josephson junction, an ac current is produced. The frequency

of the ac current is determined by equation (2). This is known as AC Josephson

effect. At V=lJ.V, ac current at 483.6 MHz is produced.

By virtue of the ac Josephson effect, the volt has replaced the ampere as the
fundamental unit of electromagnetism. One volt is now defined as the potential dif­
ference which, when impressed across a Josephson junction, will generate electro­

magnetic radiation of 483, 597.9 GHz.

Leo Esaki, Ivan Giaever and BrianD Josephon was awarded with Nobel prize
in physics 1973 for their work on electron tunneling.

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 Engineering Physics

�PPLICATIUNS:
1. Electricity is transmitted and distributed through cables. A large amount of power,
about one-fifth the quantity generated, is lost on way due to FR losses. When
superconductors will be used as cables, these losses are avoided and electrical
power transmission can be done at a lower voltage level.

2. Superconductors will radically change the IC fabrication. At present owing to

heat generated through FR losses, there is a limit to which the components can
be crowded on a chip of given size. Use of superconductors will make it pos­
sible to cram more circuits in a given area. As a result, electronic appliances and
computers will be still smaller.

3. There has been proposal for making superconducting power transmission lines.
In principle extremely large amount of de power can be transmitted over large
distances without much loss. Model superconducting cables have been built
and large current have been carried over short distances.

4. Superconducting coils in transformers and electrical machines generate much

stronger magnetic fields than magnetic circuits employing ferromagnetic mate­
rials do. Cores made of ferro or ferromagnetic materials will not be required
and eddy current losses and hysteresis losses will be eliminated. Therefore, the
size of motors and generators will be drastically reduced. They will be lighter
and much more efficient. Therefore, superconductors are likely to revolutionize
the whole range of rotating electrical machines, making them smaller, lighter
and highly efficient.

5. The most important use of superconductivity is in the production of large mag­

netic fields (> 10 Tesla or 100 K Gauss) over appreciable volume, without a
large consumption of electrical power. Superconducting magnets have proved
to be more economical than conventional electromagnets.

6. Niobium-Zirconium and Niobium-Titanium alloys, which are typell supercon­

ductors are generally used for magnets. The super conducting magnets are ef­
fectively used in laboratory.

7. The Meissner effect can be embodied in bearing that would operate without
friction losses in all kinds of rotating machines.

182
 Superconductivity

8. The most spectacular application would be maglev or magnetic levitation trains.

Maglev coaches do not slide over steel rails but on a four inch air cushion
over a strongly magnetized track. coils produce the magnetic
repulsion in order to levitate the coaches. As there does not exist mechanical
friction, speed up to 500 kmlhr. can be easily achieved.

9. The method of magnetic separation for refining ores and chemicals has been
carried out employing superconducting magnets.

10. Phase transition from the superconducting to normal state can be effected by
means of an external magnetic field. This principle can be used in
devices.

1 1. High magnetic fields are required in many areas of research and diagnostic equip­
ments in medicine. The electromagnets are cumbersome being very big in size,
demand large electrical power to maintain the magnetic field and require con­
tinuous cooling

12. Several medical diagnostic equipments are now employing SQUIDs which de­
tect very minute changes in the magnetic field of a human brain or body..

13. magnets are used for NMR imaging which has promising ap­
plications in the field of medicine in the form of NMR tomography. NMR to­
mography is of particular importance for the investigation of pathological
in the brain.

14. Superconducting magnets are extensively used in high energy physics experi­
ments. with large particle accelerators are many magnets of high
fields and high homogeneity used for bending and guiding the accelerated
particles.

15. Superconducting solenoids produce very strong magnetic fields. They are small
in size and does not need power. Thus, they are less cumbersome and less
expensive.

16. Superconductors have also found immense applications in measurements tech­

nology. The enormous temperature dependence of electrical resistance in the
transition from the normal to state allows the con­
struction of sensitive radiation meters (bolometer).

1 83
Engineering Physics

17. They are also used for measuring magnetic fields with high accuracy. The ac
Josephson effect is employed for the accurate measurement of voltages.

18. Bubble chamber magnets are another example of the applications of supercon­
ducting magnets in high energy physics.

19. Controlled nuclear fusion requires confining high temperature plasma in a closed
region and that is done by employing magnetic field. Superconducting magnets
are used for this purpose.

20. The semiconductor logic elements have a speed limit. They operate at speeds of
nanoseconds. In contrast, logic elements based on Josephson junction can oper­
ate at a few picoseconds. Josephson junction are therefore expected to increase
the speed of supercomputers.

*****

Question Bank

Objectives Type Questions Marks

1. Explain following concepts in brief: superconductivity, persistent current,

effect of temperature on resistively, effect of temperature on external
magnetic field. 4 each
2 How the superconductivity was discovered by H. K. Onnes? Explain. 4

Descriptive Type Question or Notes:

1 Explain the behavior of perfect conductor and superconductors when
kept in the magnetic field. I Meissner effect. 8
2 Write note on: type I and type II I hard and soft superconductors,
BCS theory, Josephson theory, Applications of superconductors. 8

184
 Superconductivity

APPINDEX-1
SOME PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Constant Notation Unit
Speed of light c 3.00 X 108 mls
Gravitational constant G 6.67 X I0-11 N · m2 I kg 2
Avogadro constant NA 6.02 X I 023 mol·1
Universal gas constant R J I moi·K
Mass-energy relation cz 8.99 X Jlkg.,
931.5 MeVIu
Permittivity constant €o 8.85 X 10 12 Flm
constant 1.26 X 10 6 Him
Planck constant h 6.63 x 10 34 1-s,
4.14 X 10-15 eV·s
Boltzmann constant k 1.38 x ro-2l J/K
8.62 X 1 0 s eVIk
Electron charge e 1.60 X 10-1Y c
rest mass m
e
9.11 X 1031 kg.
Proton rest mass m 1.67 X J0·27 kg
p
Bohr radius ao
5.29 X I0-11 m

Bohr magneton l B
9.27 X I0-24 J/T
5.79X

SOME CONVERSION FACTORS

g= u
1 u = 1.66 X I0-27 kg
Length 1 m= 00 em= 39.4 in. = 3 . 28 ft
1 mi = 1.61 km = 52 80 ft
1 in = 2.54 em
1 nm = I0 9 m = .10 A
Time 1 d = 86400 s
1 y = 365Y.! d = 3.16 X 107 s
Volume 1 L = 1000 cm3 = 10 3 m3 = 1.06 quart
1 gal (U.S)= 231 in.3 = 3.79 L
Angular measure 1 rad = 57.3° = 0.159 rev
5 rad=180°= Y2 rev
Speed 1 m/s=3.28 ft/s = 2.24 mi!h
1 kmlh=0.621 mi/h
Force & pressure 1 N=105 dyne=0.225 lb
1 Pa=1 N/m2=10 dyne/cm2=1.45 X 10·4 lb/in2
1 atm=1.01 X 105 Pa= 14.7 lb/in.2 =76 cm-Hg
Energy & Power 1 J=107 erg=0.239 cal= 0.738 ft · lb
1 kW · h=3.6 X 106 J
1 cal=4.19 J
1 eV=1.60 X 10"19 J
1 horsepower=746 W=550ft· lb/s
& 1 T=1 Wb/m2 = 104

185
Engineering Physics

APPINDEX - III
SI PREFIXES
Multiplication Factor Prefix symbol

1 Q18 exa E
1 Q 15 peta p
I012 tetra T
I09 giga G
I 06 mega M
I03 kilo k
2
IQ hecto h
1 01 deka da
IQ 1 deci d
2
IQ- centi c
IQ 3 milli m
I0 6 micro
9
J0 nano n
2
IQ-1 pico p
IQ 1 5
femto f
8
I o-1 atto a

APPINDEX - IV
PREFIXES IN MARATHI
O
JO �
I I
O �
2
I0 �
I0 3 �
10 4 �
5
J0 "Rat
6
1Q rmM&l
0
I 7 <itiT
8
10 �
I09 3lWf
O
IQI �
i l
IO �
2
IOI �
1
I0 3 �
4
101 �
s
I o1 �
O I6
J "qt<J
7
IOl -qutf

186
 Superconductivity

APPINDEX- V
NOBEL LAUREATES IN PHYSICS

Year Nobel Laureate Life span Recognized for

1901 Konrad 1845-1923 of X

1902
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz 1853-1928 their researches in to the influence of magnetism up
Pieter Zeeman 1865-1943 on radiation
Antoine Henri Bc cq uerel 1852-1908 his discovery of
1903
radioactivity;
Pierre Curie their joint researches on rad iation phenomenon
Marie Sklodowskan Curie 1867-193 discovered Prof. Henri

1904
John William Strutt investigations of the densities of the most important
1842-1919
(Lord and his of

1905
Eduard
his work on cathode rays
Anton von Lenard

1906
his and investigations on
John Thomson 1856-1940
of bv

1907
his optical precision and metrological
Albert Abraham Michelson 1852-1931
carried out with their aid

1908
his of reproducing colours photographi cally
Gabriel Lippama nn 1845-1921
based on of

1909
Guglielmo Marconi 1874-1937 their contribution to the development of wireless
Karl Ferdinand Braum 1850-1918

1910
Johannes Diderik
1837-1932 his work on the equation of state of gases and liquids.
van der Waals

1911
his discoveries regarding the laws governing the
Wilhelm Wi en 1864-1928
radiation of heat.
his invention of automatic regulators for use in
1912 Nils Gustaf Da len conjunction with gas accumulators for illu minating
and
his in ves tigations of the properties of matter at low
11913 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes 1853-1926 temperature which led, inter alia to the production of
helium.

1914
Theodor Felix his discovery of the diffraction of Rontgen rays by
1879-1960
von Laue

1915
William Henry Bragg 1862-1942 their services in the analysis of crystal structure by
William Lawrence I 890-197 I means of

1917
his discovery of the characteristics X-rays of the
Charles Glover Barkla 1877-1944
elements.
1918 Max Planck 1858-1947 his of

1919
his of the Doppler effect in canal rays and
Johannes Stark 1874-1957
the of lines in electric tields.
the service he has rendered to precision measurements
1920 Charles Edouard Guillaume 1861-1938 in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel
stee I alloys.

1921
his to Theoretical Physics and especially for
Albert Einstein 1879-1955
his of the laws of effect.

1922
the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the
Niels Henrik David Bohr 1885-1962
radiation from

187