• Functions of education:
• Developmental function: develop unique qualities of individuals.
• Differentiating function: differences in students abilities, interests and
purposes crystallize into different patterns as the individual matures.
• Integrating function: contribute to the cultural integration of students.
• Guidance:
• The process of helping individuals to understand themselves and their world.
• Individuals will become more:
• Effective.
• Productive.
• Happier.
• Manage their lives better.
• Purposeful.
• Aware of who they can become.
• Compassionate.
• Productive.
• Passionate.
• Self-actualizing: A. Maslow. THE FINAL GOAL.
• Fully-functioning: C. Rogers.
• Self-concept: a person’s subjective description of who they are.
• Sense of self evolves.
• Material self:
• Possession
• Home
• Body
• Social self: the part of you that interacts with others.
• Spiritual self: internal thoughts and introspection about your values and
moral standards.
• Counseling history in USA:
• 1905: first general intelligence test.
• 1908: frank parsons (father of guidance) opened Boston vocational bureau.
• 1909: parsons published “choosing a vocation” with 3 important factors:
• clear self-understanding of ones aptitudes, abilities, interests, resources and
limitations.
• Knowledge of requirements, advantages, disadvantages, and compensation
for the different types of employment.
• An understanding of the relationship between these two groups of facts.
• 1913: founding of NVGA
• 1915: first guidance journal published “the career development quarterly.”
• 1916: translated and revised test.
• 1920s: progressive duration movement by john Dewey. More guidance
activities.
• 1930s: great depression. Guidance abandoned.
• Late 1930s: trait factor theory by Williamson.
• Directive/counselor-centered approach: they were expected to give
information and gather data to influence and motivate students.
• 6 steps to assist: synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, treatment and follow up.
• 1940s: carl rogers client-centered theory, growth-oriented counseling.
Empathy, genuineness, and respect are important.
• 1946: funds to support guidance.
• 1950s: reorganization of guidance and personnel branch in USA.
• 1952: NVGA joined the APGA.
• 1957: sputnik I. criticism. Remove guidance.
• 1983: nation at risk report, blaming counselling.
• Today: more than 130 counselling theories and approaches, more than 50k
counsellors.
• In turkey:
• Some USA counselling influenced turkey.
• MOE offered scholarships for guidance.
• 1955: First guidance and research center in Ankara.
• 1965: Ankara university program in guidance.
• 1970-1: began in schools.
• 1973: basic law of national education legalized.
• 1989: psychological counseling and guidance associated founded in Ankara.
• 2000: 3000 schools provide counselling.
• Negative impact:
• Confused with psychology and social work.
• Not a separate department from MOE
• Disparity in classes offered in different universities.
• The title is confusing.
• Lack of textbooks.
• No procedures for official accreditation.
• Components of guidance programs in schools:
• Individual assessment.
• Counselling.
• Group counselling and guidance.
• Career assistance.
• Placement and follow up.
• Referral.
• Consultation- triadic and process.
• Research.
• Prevention.
• 3 conditions for effective prevention program:
• Must be group.
• Targeted to those not yet experiencing significant maladjustment.
• Intentional.
• Shaw 1986:
• Direct services: provide counsellors psychologists.
• indirect services: improved adult functioning will improve child
functioning.
• Basic principles:
• Concerned with personal development.
• Cooperation not compulsion.
• There is capacity for self-development.
• Recognizing the worth of people.
• Continuous and educational process.
• Guidance in elementary:
• Should meet the needs of students.
• Involve faculty and parents.
• Activity oriented.
• Developmental.
• Roles: counsellor, consultant, coordinator, assessment, agent for orientation,
career development, agent of prevention.
• Individual counselling.
• Group counselling.
• Parental involvement.
• Teacher involvement.
• Guidance in secondary schools:
• Roles:
• Counsellor, peer helper programs.
• Transitional services/orientation.
• Role of classroom teachers:
• Listener/advisor.
• Referral and receiving agent.
• Human potential discoverer.
• Career educator.
• Human relations facilitator.
• Counseling program supporter.
• Role of school administrators:
• Program leader and supporter.
• Program consultant and adviser.
• Resource provider.
• Other helping professions at school:
• Psychologist.
• Social worker.
• Special educator.
• Health personnel.
• Psychiatrist.
• Types of counseling:
• Focuses on a person’s growth, adjustment, problem-solving and decision-
making.
• Requires trained counselor with professional skills and certain personality.
• Goals:
• Facilitate change in behavior.
• Improve relationships.
• Increase social effectiveness.
• Learn decision-making skills.
• Enhance human potential.
• Principles:
• Clients are not mentally ill.
• Concerned with present and future.
• Goal is to change behavior.
• Psychotherapy:
• Past more than present.
• Insight more than change.
• More complex problems.
• Private practice.
• Counselling and psychotherapy:
• Utilize common knowledge and techniques.
• Therapeutic process.
• Difference between group counselling and group guidance:
• Counseling: confidential and personal.
• Guidance: instructional and informational.
• Level of sharing is more intense in counselling.
• Counselor is facilitator, guidance needs didactic approach.
• Guidance is large groups; counselling depends on the people.
• Open group: allow to enter and leave.
• closed group: continue w/ group until end.
• Advantages to group counseling:
• Safe
• Identify common issues.
• Encourages listening.
• Positivity.
• Limitations:
• High degree of leaderships skills.
• Difficulty scheduling.
• Not effective for some.
• Advantages of group guidance:
• Reaching more students
• No special training needed.
• Positive effect.
• Can be integrated with school subjects.
• Limitations:
doesn’t always lead to behavioral change.
• Less interaction.
• Doesn’t directly address individual needs.
• Theories:
• Client-centered-therapy, carl rogers:
• Developed as a reaction to basic limitations of psychoanalysis.
• Optimistic and positive view of a human.
• Focuses on client’s responsibility.
• Clients know themselves best.
• Counselor is a facilitator and reflector.
• Giving information for problem-solving is not counselors responsibility.
• Central task is to understand and empathise with unique experiential world
of the client.
• Individual psychology, Alfred Adler:
• Split with Freud in 1911.
• People are social beings.
• Ppl are motivated by social responsibility and need achievement.
• People are social beings who keep striving for successful positions in life.
• Positive optimistic view of humans.
• Innate drive to overcome perceived inferiorities and develop their potential.
• Motivation and social interaction.
• Importance of feelings of self.
• Phenomenological approach:
• Life in reality is less important than how the individual believes life to be.
• Encouragement.
• Social interest: individuals attitude toward and awareness of being a part of
the human community.
• Complexes:
• Inferiority: incompetence, impossible to achieve goals.
• Superiority: self-bragging and quick to argue, personal solutions are right
one.
• Birth order motivates later behavior.
• Organ inferiority: everyone is born with a physical weakness.
• Aggression drive: lashing out against inability to achieve.
• Perfect striving: ppl who don’t have inferiority complex try to achieve their
fictional goals.
• Masculine protest: kids work to become independent from adults and
people in power.
• Social responsibility and understanding social issues:
• occupational tasks, career, self-worth.
• societal task, creating friendships, networks.
• Love tasks, life partner.
• Positive and goal-oriented humanity:
• People striving to overcome weakness to function productively.
• Reality therapy, William Glasser:
• Focuses on the here and now of the client and how to create a better future,
instead of looking at the length of the past.
• Present behavior.
• Decisions, action, and control.
• Seek what they really want.
• Cognitive behavioral approach.
• The need for identity.
• Behavioral plans and contracts.
• Praise.
• Rational emotive therapy, albert Ellis:
• Humans have both rational and irrational tendencies.
• Irrational beliefs prevent goal attainment, leading to inner conflict with
others.
• Rational beliefs lead to goal attainment and more inner harmony. Reduce
conflicts with others.
• Rational: effective and productive.
• Irrational behavior: unhappiness and non-productivity.
• Emotional problems result from irrational patterns of thinking.
• Invitational counseling, William Purkey:
• Focus on the power of human perception and impact of self-development.
• Every student wants to be accepted.
• Every person has the power to create beneficial messages to send themselves
and others.
• 4 levels of functioning:
• Intentionally disinviting.
• Unintentionally disinviting.
• Unintentionally inviting.
• Intentionally.
• Five P’s:
• Assessment of people, places, policies, programs, and processes.
• Behavioral approach:
• Behavior can be modified by giving appropriate learning conditions and
experiences.
• Counseling process:
• Relationship establishment: respect, genuineness, empathetic
understanding.
• Problem identification: communication skills.
• Planning and problem solving: identify as many solutions as possible.
• Solution application and termination: encourage, monitor, evaluate,
examine, prepare.
• reliability: consistency or reproducibility of a measure.
• Validity: are we measuring what we intend to measure.
• Types of standardized tests:
• Intelligence tests.
• Aptitude tests
• Achievement tests.
• Interest inventories.
• Personality tests.
• Non standardized assessment:
• Observation: rating scales, checklists, anecdotal records.
• Self-reporting: autobiography, self-expression essays, self-description.
• Questionnaire.
• Group assessment techniques.
• Facilitative techniques for career planning and decision making:
• Self-awareness.
• Educational awareness.
• Career awareness.
• Career exploration.
• Placement.
• Educational placement.
• Environmental assessment.
• Follow-up.
