Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Session 8: Organizing Data and Data

Representation-Quantitative Data

Dr. Priyambada
Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis
———
School of Computational and Data Sciences
———
Vidyashilp University

August 26, 2024

1 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Summary

1 Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping

Cut Point Grouping

2 Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Histogram
Dotplot
Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

2 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Cut Point Grouping

Cut Point Grouping

Cut Point Grouping

A third way to group quantitative data is to use class cutpoints. As with limit
grouping,each class consists of a range of values. The smallest value that could
go in a class is called the lower cutpoint of the class, and the smallest value
that could go in the next higher class is called the upper cutpoint of the class.
Note that the lower cutpoint of a class is the same as its lower limit and that
the upper cutpoint of a class is the same as the lower limit of the next higher
class.
The method of grouping quantitative data by using cutpoints is called cutpoint
grouping.
This method is particularly useful when the data are continuous and are
expressed with decimals.

3 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Cut Point Grouping

Cut Point Grouping

Example
The U.S. National Center for Health Statistics publishes data on weights and
heights by age and sex in the document Vital and Health Statistics. The
weights shown in the table 1 below, given to the nearest tenth of a pound, were
obtained from a sample of 18- to 24-year-old males. Use cutpoint grouping to
organize these data into frequency and relative-frequency distributions. Use a
class width of 20 and a first cutpoint of 120.

Solution
As we are to use a first cutpoint of 120 and a class width of 20, our first class
is 120–under 140, as shown in the first column of Table 2. This class is for
weights of 120 lb up to, but not including, weights of 140 lb. The largest
weight in Table 1 is 278.8 lb, so the last class in Table 2 is 260–under 280.
Tallying the data in Table 1 gives us the frequencies in the second column of
Table 2. Dividing each such frequency by the total number of observations, 37,
we get the relative frequencies (rounded to three decimal places) in the third
column of the table 2.
4 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Cut Point Grouping

Cut Point Grouping

Figure 1: Table-1
5 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Cut Point Grouping

Cut Point Grouping

Figure 2: Table-2

6 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Cut Point Grouping

Terms Used in Cutpoint Grouping

◀ Lower class cutpoint: The smallest value that could go in a class.

◀ Upper class cutpoint: The smallest value that could go in the
next-higher class (equivalent to the lower cutpoint of the next-higher
class).
◀ Class width: The difference between the cutpoints of a class.
◀ Class midpoint: The average of the two cutpoints of a class.

For instance, consider the class 160–under 180 in the above example The lower
cutpoint is 160, the upper cutpoint is 180, the width is 180 − 160 = 20, and
the midpoint is (160 + 180)/2 = 170.

7 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Cut Point Grouping

Choosing the Grouping Method

Figure 3: Table-3

8 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Histogram

Histogram
Three common methods for graphically displaying quantitative data are his-
tograms, dotplots, and stem-and-leaf diagrams.

Histogram
A histogram displays the classes of the quantitative data on a horizontal axis
and the frequencies (relative frequencies, percents) of those classes on a
vertical axis. The frequency (relative frequency, percent) of each class is
represented by a vertical bar whose height is equal to the frequency (relative
frequency, percent) of that class. The bars should be positioned so that they
touch each other.
◀ For single-value grouping, we use the distinct values of the observations
to label the bars, with each such value centered under its bar.
◀ For limit grouping or cutpoint grouping, we use the lower class limits
(or, equivalently, lower class cutpoints) to label the bars.
◀ A histogram provides a graph of the values of the observations and how
often they occur.

9 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Histogram

Histogram
Note:
◀ A histogram that uses frequencies on the vertical axis is called a
frequency histogram.
◀ A histogram that uses relative frequencies or percents on the vertical axis
is called a relative-frequency histogram or percent
histogram,respectively.
Before drawing any such graph, we much create frequency table or frequency
distribution table.
Construction of Frequency Table
To form a frequency table, we proceed as follows:
◀ Locate the minimum and maximum values among the data.
◀ Break this range of values into a small number of groups — called “class
intervals” or “bins”.
◀ Find the frequency in each bin i.e., how many data points fall into each
of these class intervals.
10 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Histogram

Histogram

We can now construct what is known as a histogram from such a frequency

table. As we have seen that a histogram is a just a bar chart with classes (bins)
on the x-axis, with the corresponding frequencies represented on the y-axis. Note
that by looking at a histogram, one can judge where the center is and how much
spread there is around that center. Also one can observe the “shape” of the
histogram i.e., whether it is symmetric or asymmetric.
◀ If it is asymmetric and the longer tail is on the right hand side, the
distribution is called “positively skewed” or “right skewed”.
◀ If the longer tail is on the left hand side, it is called “negatively skewed”
or “left skewed”.
,

11 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Histogram

Histogram

Example
Consider the following data on the number of “hits” per day for the website of
a statistics course, over a 50 day period is: 20, 14, 21, 29, 43, 17, 15, 26, 8,
14, 39, 23, 16, 46, 28, 11, 26, 35, 26, 28, 22, 30, 17, 23, 9, 27, 18, 22, 19, 25,
31, 55, 63, 52, 16, 13, 23, 33, 43, 49, 25, 32, 26, 51, 39, 42, 55, 41, 36, 32.
Construct a frequency table and draw a histogram.

Solution
By selecting class-intervals of width 10 units each, we get the following
frequency table. The last column in the table represents “relative frequencies”
i.e., frequencies in each class-interval divided by the total frequency which is 50
in this case.

12 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Histogram

Histogram

Figure 4: Table-4
13 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Histogram

Histogram

Figure 5: Histogram

TASK Practice example 2.15 from Book No.1. (Weiss) and exercise problem
from 2.81 to 2.91, page no. 90-93.
14 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Dotplot

Dotplot

Dotplot
A dotplot is a graph in which each observation is plotted as a dot at an
appropriate place above a horizontal axis. Observations having equal values are
stacked vertically. Dotplots are particularly useful for showing the relative
positions of the data in a data set or for comparing two or more data sets.

Construction of Dotplot
1 Draw a horizontal axis that displays the possible values of the
quantitative data.
2 Record each observation by placing a dot over the appropriate value on
the horizontal axis.
3 Label the horizontal axis with the name of the variable.

15 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Dotplot

Dotplot
Example
One of Professor Weiss’s sons wanted to add a new DVD player to his home
theater system. He used the Internet to shop and went to [Link].
There he found 16 quotes on different brands and styles of DVD players. Table
5 lists the prices, in dollars. Construct a dotplot for these data.

Figure 6: Table-5

16 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Dotplot

Dotplot of table-5
The first price is 210, which calls for a dot over the “210” on the horizontal
axis in the fig. 7. The variable here is “Price,” with which we label the
horizontal axis in Fig.7.

Figure 7: Dotplot of table-5

17 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Dotplot

Contd.

◀ Dotplots are similar to histograms.

◀ In fact, when data are grouped using single value grouping, a dotplot and
a frequency histogram are essentially identical.
◀ However, for single-value grouped data that involve decimals, dotplots are
generally preferable to histograms because they are easier to construct
and use

18 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram
In a stem-and-leaf diagram (or stemplot), each observation is separated into
two parts, namely, a stem—consisting of all but the rightmost digit—and a
leaf, the rightmost digit

Construction Of Stem-Leaf Diagram

1 Think of each observation as a stem—consisting of all but the rightmost
digit—and a leaf, the rightmost digit.
2 Write the stems from smallest to largest in a vertical column to the left of
a vertical rule.
3 Write each leaf to the right of the vertical rule in the row that contains
the appropriate stem.
4 Arrange the leaves in each row in ascending order.

19 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

Stem-Leaf Diagram

Example
The midterm scores in a statistics class of 25 students are: 92, 88, 74, 83, 86,
64, 82, 85, 80, 66, 83, 98, 77, 69, 61, 57, 78, 86, 90, 81, 87, 79, 62, 89, 72. A
stem-and-leaf plot of this data is given by the figure.8.

Figure 8: Stem-and-leaf plot

20 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

CONTD.
For example, the observation 74 is represented here as 7 | 4 . The number of
stems corresponds to choosing the number of classes in a frequency table. If
there are too many leaves on a single stem, one can use a split stem-and-leaf
diagram, splitting the same stem into two, once with the low leaves (the lower
half) and once with the high leaves (the upper half). For above Example, this
gives

21 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

More Example
Example
According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, published
by the Centers for Disease Control, the average cholesterol level for children
between 4 and 19 years of age is 165 mg/dL. A pediatrician tested the
cholesterol levels of several young patients and was alarmed to find that many
had levels higher than 200 mg/dL. Table-6 below presents the readings of 20
patients with high levels.

Figure 10: Table-6 22 / 25

Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

More Example
Construct a stem-and-leaf diagram for these data by using table-6. a. one line
per stem. b. two lines per stem.

Figure 11: [Link] line per stem. and b. two lines per stem(split
stem-and-leaf plot)

23 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

Task

◀ Compare all graphical representations of quantitative data and make your

observations regarding something more useful, more explicit, easier, or
something significant you observe.
◀ Do exercises 2.93 to 2.101 from book (Weiss).

24 / 25
Organizing Quantitative Data: Grouping Graphical Summaries: Quantitative Data

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

References

1) Authentic websites from internet for the fact sheet about various cases.
2) Weiss, NA (2015) Introductory statistics. London: Pearson education, 9th
Edition.
3) Levin R I, Rubin D S, Siddiqui M H and Rastogi S (2017). Statistics For
Management. Pearson Education India. 8th Edition.
4) Jammalamadaka, Sreenivasa Rao, Essential Statistics with Python and R,2019.

25 / 25