Lesson 9.

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES AND NATURAL HAZARDS:

MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

Intended Learning Outcomes

9.1 Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
9.2 Identify human activities that speed up or trigger landslides.
9.3 Give practical ways of coping with geological processes caused by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
9.4 Suggests ways on how to utilize and conserve mineral resources.

Topic Outline

 Hazards due to Earthquakes

 Hazards due to Landslides
 Hazards due to Volcanic Eruptions

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Engage
Guide Questions:
1. Did you experience the series of earthquakes in Mindanao last October to
November 2019? If yes, how was it?
2. Do you think your house is safe during earthquake?

Overview
Earth is a living and a dynamic planet. Its surface is constantly modified by
geological processes such as earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions.
These geological processes greatly affect the whole planet particularly the
terrestrial ecosystem and man. They are highly destructive because they cause
deaths and destroy properties. On the other hand, they create mazing geological
wonders.

Geologic Processes and Hazards Due to Earthquakes

The magnitude of the earthquake describes the extent and severity of the damage
it may cause. In describing an earthquake, it is important to differentiate magnitude
from intensity as these terms are totally different from one another. They describe
different characteristics of an earthquake. Magnitude measures the energy
released at the source of the earthquake while intensity measures the strength of
shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is determined
from the effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment.

Earthquake can cause ground shaking, surface fault rupture, and ground failure
such as landslides and liquefaction, and in some coastal areas tsunamis. The type
of hazard depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with such factors as
local topographic and built features, subsurface geology and groundwater. A large
earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of aftershocks.

Ground Shaking is simply a vibration of the land surface. It occurs if an earthquake

generates enough shaking intensity causing man-made structures like buildings,
bridges and dams to severely damage. It causes cliffs and sloping ground to be
destabilized resulting in landslides and other mass movement. The severity and
damaged caused by ground shaking are determined by factors such as
topography, bedrock type, and the location and orientation of the fault rupture. The
two most important geologic characteristics that affect levels of ground shaking
during an earthquake are: the softness of the ground at a site, and the total
thickness of sediments above hard bedrock. The softer and thicker the soil, the
greater the shaking or amplification of waves produced by an earthquake.

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 Surface Faulting, also known as surface
rupture is the offset or tearing of the ground
surface by differential movement along a fault
during an earthquake. This effect is generally
associated with magnitudes of 5.5 or greater
and is restricted to earthquake-prone areas.
It is associated with shallow earthquakes;
that is, the epicenter is less than 20
kilometers. Displacements range from a few
millimeters to several meters, and the
damage usually increases with increasing
displacement. Significant damage is usually
restricted to a narrow zone ranging up to 300
meters wide along the fault. It may occur 3 to
4 km from the main fault. The Length of the
surface ruptures can range up to several
hundred kilometers.

a.) Surface faulting in Loboc, Bohol to 7.2 M earthquake

in 2013
b.) A three-meter wall is formed due to reverse faulting
once gently- sloping hill in Bohol after the 7.2 M
earthquake

Earthquake-Induced Landslides occur

under a wide range of conditions: in
steeply sloping to nearly flat land; in
bedrock, loose sediments, fill, and
mine dumps; under dry and very wet
conditions. Moisture content can also
be considered a criterion for
classification: some earthquake-
induced landslides can occur only
under wet conditions.

Rock Avalanches or Rock Slides originate on over-steepened slopes in weak

rocks. It is a stream of very rapidly moving debris derived from the disintegration
of a fallen rock mass of very large size; the speed of a rock avalanche often
exceeds 100 km/h, and its volume is commonly greater than 1 x 106 m3. Rock
Avalanches are among the most hazardous landslides phenomena due to the
speed, size, and run-out distance.

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Rock Falls is a
sudden, steep drop of
rock fragments or
debris. Rock fall
commonly occurs on
steep cliffs and may
involve a single rock or
a mass of rocks. As
rock falls, it may
plummet freely
through the air or may
strike and loosen other
rocks in the cliff face. At the base of the cliff, the rock fragments accumulate in a
sloping pile known as a talus. Rock falls are the result of cliff and hillside erosion.
The Geological Factors that directly influence a rock fall hazard are the
characteristics of the rock, physical and chemical changes in rocks, and the rock
strength.

Mudflows are rapidly moving wet earth flows that can be initiated by earthquake
shaking or a heavy rainstorm. Mudflow triggered by an earthquake occurs when
the soil is saturated with water or the water content of soil is high. It becomes more
destructive if the soil is drenched by rainwater. Mudflows causes siltation of rivers
and lakes affecting water and food supply of the community. Mudflows associated
with volcanoes are called lahars.

Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a soil are

reduced by earthquake shaking. Many historical structures and landmarks around
the world have been destroyed by liquefaction. When Liquefaction occurs,
strength of the soil decreases and the ability of soil deposit to support foundations
for buildings and bridges is reduced. Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils; that is,
soils where the space between individual particle is filled with water.

Explore

“Is our House Earthquake Safe”

Write the number of your answer then add. See scoring after the table.

1. Who built or designed my house? Point

(Who supervised the building of the house)
1.1 Built or designed by a licensed civil engineer/architect 1
1.2 Not built by a licensed civil engineer/architect. 0
1.3 It is not clear or unknown. 0
2. How old is my house?
2.1 Built in or after 1992? 1
2.2 Built before 1992? 0
2.3 It is not clear or unknown. 0

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3. Has my house been damaged by past earthquakes or
other disasters?
3.1 No or Yes but repaired. 1
3.2 yes but not yet repaired. 0
3.3 It is not clear or unknown. 0
4. What is the shape of my house?
4.1 Regular (symmetrical, rectangular, box-type, simple) 1
4.2 Irregular/complicated design 0
4.3 It is not clear or unknown 0
5. Has my house been extended or expanded?
5.1 No or yes but supervised by a civil engineer/architect 1
5.2 Yes, but not supervised by a civil engineer/architect 0
5.3 It is not clear or unknown 0
6. Are the external walls of my house 6-inch (150mm)
thick Concrete Hollow Block?
6.1 Yes, it is 6 inches 1
6.2 No, it is thinner than 6 inches 0
6.3 It is not clear or unknown 0
7. Are steel bars of standard size and spacing used in
walls?
7.1 Yes (10mm diameter, tied and spaced correctly) 1
7.2 No, fewer and smaller than 10mm. 0
7.3 None or unknown. 0
8. Are there unsupported walls more than 3m wide?
8.1 None, all unsupported walls are less than 3m wide. 1
8.2 Yes, at least one unsupported wall is more than 3m wide. 0
8.3 It is not clear or unknown. 0
9. What is the gable wall of my house made of?
9.1 Light materials, properly anchored CHBs, no gable wall. 1
9.2 Not properly anchored CHBs, bricks, stone. 0
9.3 It is not clear or unknown. 0
10. What is the foundation of my house?
10.1 Reinforced concrete 1
10.2 Stones or unreinforced concrete 0
10.3 It is not clear or unknown 0
11. What is the soil condition under my house?
11.1 Hard (rock or stiff soil) 1
11.2 Soft (muddy or reclaimed) 0
11.3 It is not clear or unknown 0
12. What is the overall condition of my house?
12.1 Good condition. 1
12.2 Poor condition 0
12.3 It is not clear or unknown 0

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 Scoring:

11-12 Safe, consult experts for confirmation

8-10 Slightly Safe, requires strengthening, consult experts
0-7 Unsafe, Disturbing. Please consult experts soon.

Explain
1. Is your house earthquake safe based on your score?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. If it is not, what are the steps your family should do to strengthen your house
and make more resilient to strong earthquake?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3. Why is it important that your house was checked by civil engineer or

somebody who has licensed?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Elaborate

Hazards Due to Landslides

Landslides commonly occur in a mountainous and coastal areas of the world.

Landslide is a general term used to describe the downslope movement of soil,
rock, and organic materials under the effects of gravity and the landform that
results from such movement. A landslide can bury an entire community. It is
classified into different types based on the movement and the type of material
involved. The material is either rock or soil, or both. The type of movement
describes the actual internal mechanics of how the landslide mass is displaced:
fall, topple, slide, spread, or flow.

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 Anatomy of a Landslide

Types of Landslides

1. Rotational Slide - the surface of rupture

is curved concavely upward, and the slide
movement is roughly rotational about an
axis that is parallel to the ground surface
and transverse across the slide.

2. Translational Slide - the landslide

mass moves along a roughly planar
surface with little rotation or backward
tilting.

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 3. Block Slide – is a translational slide in
which the moving mass consists of single unit
or a few closely related units that move
downslope as a relatively coherent mass.

4. Fall – abrupt movement of masses of

geologic materials such as rocks and
boulders, which become detached
from steep slopes or cliffs. Separation
occurs along discontinuities such as
fractures, joints, and bedding planes,
and movement occurs by free-fall,
bouncing, and rolling. Falls are strongly
influenced by gravity, mechanical
weathering and the presence of
interstitial water.

5. Topple – distinguished by the forward

rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal
point, below or low in the unit, under the
actions of gravity and forces exerted by
adjacent units or by fluids in cracks.

6. Debris Avalanche – variety of very

rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.

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 7. Debris Flow – a form a rapid mass
movement in which a combination
of loose soil, rock, organic matter,
air, and water mobilize as slurry that
flows downslope. It is commonly
caused by intense surface- water
flow, due to heavy precipitation or
rapid snow melt that erodes and
mobilizes loose soil or rock on steep
slopes.

8. Earthflow – have a
characteristic “hourglass”
shape. The slope material
liquefies and runs out, forming
a bowl or depression at the
head. The flow itself is
elongated and usually occurs
in fine-grained materials or
clay- bearing rocks on
moderate slopes and under
saturated conditions.
However, dry flows of granular
material are also possible. Mudflow- an earthflow consisting of material that
is wet enough to flow rapidly and that contains at least 50 percent sand-,
silt, and clay- sized particles. In some instances, mudflows and debris flows
are commonly referred to as “mudslides”.

9. Creep – the imperceptibly

slow, steady, downward
movement of slope-forming soil or
rock. Movement is caused by
shear stress sufficient to produce
permanent deformation, but too
small to produce shear failure.
There are three types of creep: (1)
seasonal, where movement is
within the depth of soil affected by
the seasonal changes in soil
moisture and soil temperature; (2)
continuous, where shear stress
continuously exceeds the strength of the material; and (3) progressive,
where slopes are reaching the point of failure as other types of mass
movements.

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 10. Lateral Spreads – are
distinctive because they
usually occur on very gentle
slopes or flat terrain. The
dominant mode of movement
is lateral extension
accompanied by shear or
tensile fractures. Lateral
spreading in fine– grained
materials on shallow slopes
is usually progressive.

Landslide, regardless what type it is, is both destructive and damaging to lives and
properties. It displaces people from their settlements and destroys agricultural
land areas affecting food supply and livelihood of the people. Although natural
occurrences, landslides are exacerbated by human activities like illegal logging,
slash and burn farming, and mining.

Infrastructure projects such as railroad, railways and dam construction contribute

to the problem. As world population continues to increase at a faster rate, pressure
for food supply and demand for space for human settlement also grow.
Construction of networks of access roads or roadcuts going up the highlands or
mountainous areas further contributes to the problem.

Human settlements must be designed to minimize the effects of landslides by

stabilizing the slopes, diverting flow of water or runoffs, and planting trees along
the slope to hold the soil are some of the possible solutions that are less
expensive.

Hazards Due to Volcano Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are related to tectonic plate motion. Volcanoes bring about
diversity of hazards to humans, including clouds of hot gasses carrying rock and
sand, blast effects, ash falls, and mud flows. On the positive side, it can be said
that, unlike earthquakes, volcanoes generally give plenty of warning, although the
actual moment of eruption may come as an unpleasant surprise. Whenever a
volcano erupts, it creates hazards. It places a man in great danger and alter the
landscape. It destroys the vegetation and kills both plants and animals.

Hazards associated with volcanic eruptions are:

Lava Flows occurs when a molten rock flows out of a volcano or volcanic vent.
Depending on its composition and temperature, lava can be very fluid or very
sticky (viscous). Fluid flows are hotter and move the fastest; they can form streams
or rivers, or spread out across the landscape in lobes. Viscous flows are cooler
and travel shorter distances, and can sometimes build up into lava domes or plugs;

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collapses of flow fronts or domes can form pyroclastic density currents. Most lava
flows can be easily avoided since they don’t move much faster than walking
speed, but a lava flow usually cannot be stopped or diverted.

Pyroclastic Density Current (Pyroclastic Flow) is an explosive eruptive

phenomenon. It is a mixture of pulverized rock, ash, and hot gasses, and can
move at speeds of hundreds of miles per hour. This current can be dilute, as in
pyroclastic surge, or concentrated, as in pyroclastic flow. It is gravity- driven,
which, means that they flow down slopes. Anything caught in pyroclastic density
current would be severely burned and crushed by debris (including remnants of
whatever the flow travelled over).

Pyroclastic Falls, also known as volcanic fallout, occur when tephra is ejected from
a volcanic vent during an eruption and falls to the ground some distance away
from the vent. Tephra falls are usually not directly dangerous unless a person is
close enough to an eruption to be struck by larger fragments. Some pyroclastic
falls contain toxic chemicals that can be absorbed into plants and local water
supplies, which can be dangerous for both people and livestock. Pyroclastic
material injected into the atmosphere may have global as well as local
consequences.

Lahars, specific kind of mudflow made up of volcanic debris. They can form in
many situations: (1) when small slope collapses, it gathers water on its way down
a volcano; (2) through rapid melting of snow and ice during an eruption, from
heavy rainfall on loose volcanic debris; and (3) when a volcano erupts through a
crater lake, or when a crater drains because of overflow or wall collapse. Lahars
flow like liquids and usually have a consistency like wet concrete. They flow
downhill and will follow depressions and valleys, but can spread out if they reach
a flat area. Because lahars are highly mobile, the extent of damage due to lahar
flow is extensive.

Volcanic landslides are rapid downhill movement of rocky material, snow, and ice.
Volcano landslides range in size from small movements of loose debris on the
surface of a volcano to massive collapse of the entire summit or sides of a volcano.
Landslides on volcano slopes are triggered when eruptions, heavy rainfall, or large
earthquakes cause these materials to break free and move downhill.

Volcanic gases are one of hazards posed by volcanic eruption. These are
dissolved in magma. During volcanic eruption, the magma rises towards the
surface and as the pressure decreases these gases are released from the liquid
portion of the of the magma and eventually released into the atmosphere. The
most abundant volcanic gas is water vapor, which is harmless. Magma also
releases volcanic gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide
and hydrogen halides.

Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes in every year was between about 180 and
440 million tons. When this colorless, odorless gas is emitted from volcanoes, it
typically becomes diluted to low concentration very quickly and is not life
threatening. However, because cold carbon dioxide gas is heavier than air it can

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flow into low lying areas where it can reach much higher concentrations in certain,
very stable atmospheric conditions. This can pose serious risk to people and
animals. High concentrations of CO2 gas in soil can also damage or destroy
vegetation.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) is a colorless gas with a pungent odor that irritates skin and
the tissues and mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and throat. SO2 emissions
can cause acid rain and air pollution downwind of a volcano. They also have a role
in ozone depletion, as many of the reactions that destroy ozone occur on the
surface of such aerosols.

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is a colorless, flammable gas with a strong, offensive odor.
It is sometimes referred to as sewer gas. Unfortunately, however, our sense of
smell is not a reliable alarm. At mixing ratios above about 0.01%, H2S becomes
odorless and very toxic, causing irritation of the upper respiratory tract and, during
long exposure, pulmonary edema.

Hydrogen Halides (HF, HCl, HBr) are strong, toxic acids. When magma ascends
close to the surface, volcanoes can emit the halogens fluorine, chlorine, and
bromine in the form of hydrogen halides. These species are all strong acids and
have high solubility; therefore, they rapidly dissolve in water droplets within
volcanic plumes or the atmosphere where they can potentially cause acid rain.
Once deposited, coated ash particles can poison drinking water supplies,
agricultural crops, and grazing land.

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