MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF FOUNDATIONS AND CURRICULUM STUDIES
B.A/[Link]. EDUCATION 2019/2020
YEAR I SEMESTER II
COURSE TITLE: CURRICULUM DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION.
COURSE CODE: CUS 1201

Course Leaders: Mr. Kalule. J. Collins and Mr. Kyasanku Charles.

COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course aims to introduce teacher trainees to the underlying principles and practices of curriculum design,
development and implementation as a conceptual framework to shape their practices as teachers.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

Upon successful completion of the course, teacher trainees should be able to:
1. Examine the various patterns of curriculum design and their appropriateness in diverse education
contexts.
2. Critically analyze the various models of curriculum design and application in the curriculum
development process
3. Design a model curriculum to demonstrate their understanding of the stages entailed in the
curriculum development process.
4. Appreciate the role of teachers in curriculum design, development and implementation.

CONTENT OUTLINE

Patterns of curriculum design/ organisation 8 Hrs

 Subject-centred design
 Child/ activity/ experience centered curriculum approach
 The Core curriculum
 Broad fields curriculum
o Description
o Justification
o Criticism.
Models of curriculum: 10 Hrs

 Tyler’s model of curriculum planning (objectives/ linear model)

 Wheeler’s cyclic model of curriculum planning
 Spiral Model
 Lawton’s Model
 Kerry’s Model
 Obanya’s lino-cyclical model of curriculum planning
o Description
o Merits and demerits of the model
o Similarities and differences
 The Situational Analysis model by Prof. Skilbeck

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The Curriculum development process 12 Hrs

 Description
 Stages of curriculum development
 The process of curriculum development in action and the role of different curriculum development
bodies/institutions e.g. NCDC
Developing a curriculum for a persistent life situation (The Saber tooth curriculum as a case study)
8 Hrs
 Implications of the saber tooth curriculum to a curriculum designer/ teacher.
 Roadblocks or challenges to curriculum change.
Curriculum implementation: 7 Hrs

 Factors for implementation, human resource, physical and financial.

 Role of the teacher and other stakeholders (e.g. technical supportive staff, voluntary agencies, parents,
and local communities in curriculum implementation).
 Limitations to implementation
Method of teaching/delivery:

Interactive lectures, Individual and Group Work, Assigned Readings, and Class presentations.

Mode of Assessment

The course will be assessed through course work and a final written exam, each contributing the

following percentage to the final mark:

Course Work 30%, Examination 70% Total 100%. The pass mark is 50%.

Suggested Reading List (References)

Bishop, G. (1994). Curriculum Development: A textbook for students, London: Macmillan Press Ltd.

Farrant, J. S. (1997). Principles and Practice of Education, Singapore: Longman Group

Flinders D.J & Thornton S.J (2004): The Curriculum Studies Reader. Routledge Falmer London and New York.

Celina, B. (2005). Defining, developing, and implementing a new design for the technology component of a
human resource development undergraduate program. Journal European Industrial Training, 29(3).

Cheung, D., & Wong, H.-W. (2002). Measuring teacher beliefs about alternative curriculum designs. The
Curriculum Journal, 13(2), 225-248.

Chueng, D., & Wong, H. W. (2000). Measuring teacher beliefs about alternative curriculum designs. The
Curriculum Journal, 13(2), 225-249.

Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change (Third ed.). New York Teachers College Press

Galton, M. (1998). Making a curriculum: some principles of curriculum building. In J. Moyles & L. Hargreav es
(Eds.), The primary curriculum: learning from international perspectives (pp. 73-80). London and New
York: Routledge.

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Kelly, A. V. (2009). The curriculum theory and practice (6th ed.). London: Sage Publications.

Kliebard, H. M. (1999). Constructing the concept of curriculum on the Wisconsin Frontier: how school
restructuring sustained a pedagogical revolution. In B. Moon & P. Murphy (Eds.), Curriculum in context
(pp. 9-25). London: The Open University.

Marsh, C. J. (2009). Key concepts for understanding curriculum (4th ed.). New York: Routledge.

McKernan, J. (2008). Curriculum and imagination process theory, pedagogy and action research. New York:
Routledge.

Kelly A.V (1989): The Curriculum Theory and Practice. London, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.

Kelly A.V (1999): The Curriculum Theory and Practice. London, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd

Kerr J.F (1968): Changing the Curriculum. London University of London Press.

Pinar, W. et al. (1995). Understanding Curriculum, New York: Peter Lang Publishing.

Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic Principle of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: University of Chicago

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

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For most people without a background in education, a curriculum often means a sequence of lectures,
teaching timetables, examination sessions and grading. Occasionally, a curriculum can also turn into a territory
battle with different departments vying for increased teaching hours for their particular discipline.

Fundamental Concepts in this Course Unit

Curriculum Design: It is the deliberate organization of curriculum within a course or classroom. It involves all
the preliminary work that is carried out to ensure that the curriculum is relevant, appropriate and workable.
When instructors design their curriculums, they identity what will be done, who will do it and when, as well as
what the objective of each course is. Remember that the curriculum contains the knowledge and skills that a
student needs to master in order to move to the next level. By thinking about how their curriculum is designed,
teachers ensure they have covered all the necessary requirements. From there, they can start exploring
various approaches and teaching methods that can help them achieve their goals.

Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and systematic process to create
positive improvements in the educational system. It involves planning, construction and the logical step-by-step
procedures used to produce written documents, as wel as print and non-print resource materials.

Curriculum development can as well be defined as the step-by-step process used to create positive
improvements in the courses offered by a school, college or university. The world changes every day and new
discoveries have to be roped into the education curricula. Innovative teaching techniques and strategies (such
as active learning or blended learning) are constantly being devised in order to improve the student learning
experience. As a result, an institution has to have a plan in place for acknowledging these shifts and then be
able to implement them in the school curriculum.

Curriculum implementation: this is a stage in which all stakeholders become part of the process by making
their contribution to operationalise the curriculum that is designed and developed. It entails putting into
practice the officially prescribed courses of. study, syllabuses and subjects. The process involves helping the
learner acquire [Link] term refers to the act of working out the plans and suggestions that have been
made by curriculum specialists and subject experts in a classroom or school setting. Teachers are the main
curriculum implementers, while at the same time students, parents, school administrators can be directly or
indirectly involved in the implementation process.

But a curriculum is more than just sequences of lectures and timetables. According to Kern, et al. (1998), a
curriculum is “a planned educational experience”. Hence, the main intention of curriculum design at any level is
to foster the academic and holistic development of students. Once a specific group of students is identified for
whom the curriculum is to be designed, the purpose for the curriculum design can then be made clear from the
outset. To carry out curriculum design and implementation successfully and to prevent conflicts of interests, it
is also vital that coordination is in place and full institutional support be made available. If a curriculum is to be
“a planned educational experience”, then curriculum design and implementation should follow a sequence of
steps and models that operates like an upward and downward spiral with a robust feedback system for the
adjustment of each step.

Curriculum planning can be divided into six steps:

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1. Identification of the mission and the needs of its stakeholders

This is the crucial first step as it is important to understand the mission for which the curriculum is designed.
For example, if the mission is to train teachers to deliver teaching services to society. Consequently, curriculum
developers must know and understand the needs of curriculum stakeholders (i.e. students, society members,
university administrators, professional bodies, government, etc.) that will determine the type of graduate profile
the Faculty wants: that is to say the one who;

1. possesses a sound scientific basis to practice teaching;

2. possesses high teaching competence;

3. possesses critical analytical skills;

4. is capable of self-directed & life-long learning;

5. possesses good communication skills;

6. Is compassionate and ethical.

2. Needs assessment of the learners

This step is often neglected. Once the potential students are identified, their needs must be assessed, because
curriculum developers must be aware of the learners’ strength and weaknesses. Therefore data on student
characteristics are needed (e.g. entry level of competence, ability to meet the prerequisites of the program,
individual goals and priorities, personal background and reasons for enrolling, attitudes about discipline and
assumptions about the program).

3. Establishment of the curriculum’s goals and objectives

This is an important step as goals and objectives determine the instructional philosophy and thus guide the
selection of the most effective learning methods. Moreover, the learning objectives will also determine the
design and selection of assessment instruments and procedures. As clear and well-written objectives are
absolutely necessary to define the focus of the curriculum, members in charge of curriculum design must be
formally trained in writing instructional objectives.

4. Selection of educational strategies

The selection of educational strategies must be based on three main principles. First, the educational methods
must be fitting with the learning objectives. Second, the use of multiple educational methods is preferable to a
singular method, as the curriculum should respond to the challenges of the large amount of students’ learning

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styles and varied educational objectives. Finally, the curriculum designer and implementer must verify the
curriculum’s practicability in terms of material and human resources.

5. Implementation of the new curriculum

Designing the curriculum is the most exciting and creative part of curriculum development. However, the
ultimate goal is not to design the best and ideal curriculum, but to put it into practice successfully. The many
conditions and requirements for successful execution include the promotion of faculty members’ ownership of
the process of curriculum implementation and the allocation of adequate resources. Unambiguous support
from the highest academic authority must be secured before starting to put a new curriculum into operation.
Following the first phase of implementation of the new program, a formal assessment must be carried out in
order to adjust the process and to establish a link between institutional goals, courses and curriculum.

5. Evaluation and feedback to improve the curriculum

Although evaluation of the curriculum is the last step in a practical approach, it is not necessarily the final
action. The evaluation data collected must serve as criteria for adjusting the curriculum to the goals of the
program or the mission. The most important message here is that a curriculum must be evaluated, corrected
and go through repeated levels of innovation because it is not a static system. Feedback from teachers, tutors
and students must continuously be taken into serious consideration so as to enhance the learning outcomes
for the students.

In conclusion, a curriculum is an academic plan. It is a total blueprint for actions where:

 the objectives, aims and outcome of the curriculum are clarified;

 the processes to achieve these are identified;

 the ways to measure whether success has been achieved; and

 Systematic review and adjustment are also part of the plan.

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Levels and curriculum products

A first, extremely useful, distinction appears to be a specification of the level of curriculum and curriculum
development. Although many further refinements are possible, the following division into five segments has
proved to be very useful to understand the different levels to which curriculum products may apply (van den
Akker, 2003, 2006).

Level Description Example

Supra International  Framework of References- UN

Macro System, national  Core objectives, attainment levels

 Examination programme
Meso School/institute  School program
 Educational program
Micro Classroom, teacher  Lesson plan, instructional materials
 Module, course
 Textbooks
Nano Pupil, individual  Personal plan for learning
 Individual course of learning

The ‘higher’ curriculum levels will affect the ‘lower’ ones, especially if they have a mandatory status that limits
the room to man-oeuvre for large target groups. A clear example is the influence of examination programs and
core objectives on textbooks. Authors take these macro frameworks carefully into account. Teachers, in turn,
place such great confidence in this that they will hardly consult the original policy documents. The relationships
from macro via meso to micro are looser. In circumstances with freedom in educational organization, the
government tends to exercise restraint in stipulating content, and allows schools, teachers and pupils a
relatively large amount of curricular freedom.

It is also helpful to realize that curriculum products, including those at micro level, may vary strongly in their
scope and scale, ranging from generic, e.g. publishers’ methods, to very site-specific, such as a teaching plan
designed by a teacher for use in his/her own practice. In case of large-scale curriculum innovations with
generic intentions, many distribution and implementation problems often occur. The challenge for professional
curriculum developers who operate on different levels is to anticipate these, not only concerning the product
characteristics, but also, in collaboration with the many parties involved, regarding the change strategy.

Curriculum representations
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A second, clarifying distinction concerns the different forms in which curricula can be represented. Although
further refinement is possible, the following three levels, split up into six forms, will normally suffice for clear
communication.

INTENDED Ideal Vision (rationale or basic philosophy underlying a

curriculum)

Formal/Written Intentions as specified in curriculum documents

and/or materials

IMPLEMENTED Perceived Curriculum as interpreted by its users (especially

teachers)

Operational Actual process of teaching and learning (also:

curriculum-in-action)

ATTAINED Experiential Learning experiences as perceived by learners

Learned Resulting learning outcomes of learners

The division into six representations, built on the work by John Goodlad (1979; see also vanden Akker, 2003),
is especially useful in the analysis of the processes and the outcomes of curriculum innovations. The more
global three-way division is often used in international comparative studies that frequently focus on large-scale
assessment of attainment levels within the curriculum, and sometimes on the endeavors to relate the effects to
the original intentions and – regrettably rarely as yet – to the implementation process.

In any case, this distinction of forms emphasizes the different layers of the curriculum concept and
demonstrates the often substantial discrepancies between the various forms. Although this may not
necessarily be a problem, an often-voiced desire is to reduce the gap between dreams, actions and results.
The bottom layers often provide more possibilities for observation and assessment. Especially implicit
assumptions and views are not easily defined in a clear-cut and unambiguous manner, while they do affect the
educational practice; that is why these are sometimes referred to as the ‘hidden’ curriculum.

Some components of a comprehensive curriculum unit includes: content, assessment, introduction or closure,
teaching strategies, learning activities, grouping and pacing, products, resources, extension activities and
differentiation. The characteristics of an exemplary curriculum include:

 Powerful knowledge goals, representative or generative topics and big ideas

 Advance organizers that clarify prior knowledge future activities and expectations
 Motivating introductory experiences
 Challenging and active learning activities
 Authentic resources and products
 Aligned assessment strategies and growth criteria, feedback, debriefing, transfer and extension
opportunities, interaction and support
 Interest-based applications and extensions
 Modifications that attend to powerful student differences.

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PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM ORGANISATION/ DESIGNS
Curriculum design is the organizational basis or structural framework of a curriculum (i.e. organization of all
curriculum components and elements). There are varied types of curriculum designs or organizational patterns
for a curriculum. A curriculum may be organized around the structure of disciplines/subjects (subject-centered
curriculum). It may also be structured according to children’s interests and needs (child-centered curriculum).
The particular pattern that a curriculum adopts is determined by questions such as: what should be taught?
Why, to whom, in what manner and where? The following constitute some of the common curriculum
patterns/designs: subject centred curriculum, child-centred curriculum, core curriculum and the broad-fields
curriculum.
NB: Whatever curriculum design a country may adopt depends on many factors such as: the country’s
philosophy of education, economic resources, available manpower and socio-political aspirations.
SUBJECT CENTRED CURRICULUM
The subject–centred curriculum is organized into various subjects, each representing a specialized and
homogeneous body of knowledge. It is the most common form of curriculum design with formal education
institutions especially at secondary school level. The different disciplines or subjects represent the scope of
knowledge to be covered in the curriculum. In other words, the content of the curriculum is divided into distinct
areas called subjects with each subject having its own logical order. This type of design is premised on the
assumption that knowledge has intrinsic value and should be dispensed to all. Further, it is based on the
assumption that it is the most efficient means to transmit the cultural and moral values of society, i.e. the
cumulative knowledge of the past.
Justification for a subject centered curriculum
a) Under this design, each subject provides a specialized body of knowledge, covering important areas of
our social heritage. The mastery of these subjects takes care of the full scope of education. New
educational tasks are addressed by adding new subjects to the curriculum. For example, computer
studies, peace education and entrepreneurship are relatively new subjects providing for emerging
needs in education within Ugandan schools.
b) Subject organization follows the logic and the pattern of particular disciplines i.e. the content and
learning experiences are organized according to the logic followed in particular subject areas.
c) There is a hierarchy or priority among the subjects according to their potential value or worth in
particular societies. Note that not all subjects are of the same quality and worth in an educational
enterprise even although they may be of the same value to individuals.
d) Subjects constitute a logical and efficient method of organizing knowledge and learning it. Students
learn them, store the knowledge and use it in future whenever necessary thus you provide education.
Particular subjects provide disciplined knowledge and training in specialized systems of thought
leading to development of intellectual powers.
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 e) A curriculum organized and designed based on subjects is backed by a long tradition and many
academic administrative features such as accounting of programs and patterns of promotion from one
academic level to another college or university entry etc.
f) Teachers are trained in subject curriculum and hence understand it better. Therefore, this organization
is more easily planned and taught. Additionally, the techniques of evaluation and achievement are
based on subject areas.
g) There is uniformity in the curriculum offered in all schools, making it possible to determine what every
learner is offered in various subjects and classes.
h) Text books and other curriculum packages on the education market tend to be organized to fit the
established subject categories. They are generally organized according to subjects. E.g. Longman,
Wava Books, and MK Publishers etc.
i) Curriculum planning, implementation and evaluation is easier and simpler in the subject centered
curriculum design.
j) It is possible and desirable to determine in advance what all children will learn in the various subjects
and grades (classes). For instance, syllabuses for all schools in Uganda are prepared and approved
by NCDC, Ministry of Education and Sports plus Uganda National Examinations Council.
k) Tradition seems to give this design support. People have become familiar and more comfortable with
this design and seem to view it as part of the system of the school and education as a whole.
l) Through such a curriculum organization, broad national educational goals can be attained.
Criticisms of Subject-centred Curriculum
a) A subject centered curriculum places more emphasis on subject matter/ content rather than on the
learner. The learner is robbed of individual development, independent thinking, creativity, freedom and
active learning. Learners are taught ‘what’ to think rather than ‘how’ to think. Learners can’t formulate
their own ideas i.e. they don’t think for themselves. There is a tendency of teaching the learner what to
think other than how to think. Nevertheless if a teacher is well trained, they can use subject
organization to effectively teach. He can employ both subject centered and teacher-centered methods
of teaching.
b) The extremely atomized subject pattern limits the development of broad ideas and their application in
real life situations yet life problems do not respect subject boundaries. Consequently, the criteria of
learning are primarily based on how much information has been absorbed and assimilated. Too much
specialization in particular subjects promotes learners who are very knowledgeable in one or two
subjects at the expense of others. For example a very specialized scientist such as a microbiologist/
scientist with very limited knowledge of political education.

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 c) Atomization of knowledge leads to learning of unrelated information too much of which is eventually
forgotten i.e. rote learning with lack of application to everyday life problems. This type of knowledge is
not readily applicable beyond the classroom, rendering education irrelevant to social realities.
d) The approach has a limited scope of objectives and promotes passive learning. The approach lays
emphasis on learning details rather than active thought processes.
e) The separate subjects independently don’t provide an adequate basis for developing a scope of well-
rounded education. This is because subject organization discourages the pursuit of multiple objectives.
f) Subject centered curriculum organization prevents the pursuit of integrated learning, promoting
atomization of knowledge and its learning. In other words, it tends to bring about a high degree of
fragmentation, and with the current increase in knowledge, more subjects are created and added to the
school curriculum as new areas of study.
g) The subject centered curriculum leans heavily on verbal activities and is too much oriented towards
examinations which test memorization rather than understanding.
CHILD CENTERED/ ACTIVITY/ EXPERIENCE/ LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN
1. The child-centred curriculum design is an attempt to counter the criticisms of the subject centered
curriculum, in particular that relating to sterility of learning. This design gained popularity in American
schools during the progressivism movement (1920’s to 1930’s). The proponents of the child-centred
curriculum, such as John Dewey, argue that schools should provide an environment in which the child’s
felt needs and activities are considered as positive energies for effective learning. The child-centred
design aims to minimize the isolation of curriculum from the needs and interests of the child. It is
premised on the argument that learning is an active process, therefore children need to actively
participate in learning activities that are not only meaningful to them but also interesting. Dewey once
recalled that Plato defined a ‘slave’ as one who had none of his own ideas but was always expressing
those of someone else.
Advocates of the child centered curriculum argue that the curriculum should fit the child instead of the child
fitting the curriculum. They suggest that a subject will have meaning to the child only if it is translated into the
child’s own experiences as well as meeting their growing needs. Consequently, it is only learning which is
related to active purposes and rooted in children’s experiences that are translated into behavioral change.
Children learn best those things that are attached to solving actual problems that help them in meeting real
needs or connect them to some actual thinking.
It should be noted that, this type of curriculum design has not been popular in developing parts of the world.
Only in well-developed nations has been practiced to some extent because they have enough manpower and
resources.
Characteristics of a child-centred curriculum
2. This design is activity based; with the activities arising out of the learners’ interests.
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 3. The teacher’s role is that of a ‘guide’ or ‘facilitator’ of learning. This implies that the teacher has to
identify the individual interests of the learners. Further, the teacher should know the children well and
also possess background knowledge on child growth and development.
4. Individual learner attention is crucial in this design. All learning is directed towards pursuit of learners’
activities, making the curriculum a series of guided experiences.
5. Learners are central in this curriculum design; their needs rather than subject content forms the focus of
the curriculum. This suggests that the curriculum is very flexible so as to provide learners with several
options of activities to engage in.
6. A problem–solving approach to learning is adopted. While pursuing their interests, learners encounter
specific problems they have to solve and in the course of solving these problems they realize important
learning ends.
Advantages of child-centred curriculum
1. This design emphasizes the problem–solving approach and discovery methods of learning. The teacher
merely provides the right environment for learners’ activities. Children are encouraged to use problem
solving method and set their own tasks. As a result skills and knowledge are acquired as they are
needed.
2. This design adopts an integrated approach of learning. Subject matter from different fields is used
according to the requirements of the tasks set.
3. Emphasis is on experiencing things and relationships, problem solving and discovery approach. Thus it
caters for the children’s needs and creates the interest to investigate, experiment, explore and work
independently.
4. Children are active learners rather than being passive recipients of information. Consequently children
learn to think for themselves, thereby becoming creative and taking responsibility for their own learning.
5. This design provides for individual differences among learners, given that each learner’s needs and
interests are provided for. Because learners’ activities are based on their interests and needs, learners
are intrinsically motivated to learn.
6. Psychologically, it is based on behaviorism (focuses on the objectively observable aspects of learning),
associationism or connectionism (how ideas combine in the mind- developed by David Hartley and
advanced by James mill) and it is gestaltistic (which proposes that the operational principle of the brain
is holistic i.e. think of the problem as a whole).
Disadvantages of child centred curriculum
1. Because learners’ needs and interests determine the structure of the curriculum, the child-centred
curriculum poses a number of challenges for curriculum design and development:
 The curriculum cannot be planned in advance.

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  It is difficult to build continuity from children’s centres of interest given that these are
spontaneous, short-lived and so they cannot be used as organizing centres for developing units
of study.
2. The child-centred curriculum requires a lot of resources; therefore it is an expensive approach to
education. For example, it requires considerable space, time, materials and many teachers to attend to
children individually given that the needs of children differ.
a. The child-centred design is likely to neglect some important social goals of education which all students
are required to acquire whether they are interested or not. Note that education is also concerned with
learning about cultural norms and about rules of its various aspects; It could also lead to conflict
between parents and teachers or the school and the community.
3. Temporary interests and needs of children can also be criticized on the grounds that education can
degenerate into shallow ideas. It is argued that critical analysis and in-depth coverage of subject matter
is restricted.
4. A curriculum based solely on the children’s’ needs and interests is a ‘blue print for utter chaos’. For
example important skills like writing, word recognition and numeracy can only be mastered by
systematic and continuous practice which may not be possible under this design.
5. It may lead to loss of classroom control as students engage in different things. This is because open
classroom may destroy class discipline and make it impossible for the teacher to assess their work or
ensure that some students are not wasting time. Thus it puts the teacher in a difficult position as a
guide.
6. It poses a challenge to a teacher’s personality, initiative and intellect to be able to select the most
significant activities for study.

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CORE CURRICULUM DESIGN
The core curriculum was developed as a reaction against the fragmentation and piecemeal learning
accumulated from separate subjects. This design integrates essential knowledge from different disciplines so
as to relate learning to everyday life. It is also referred to as “Common learning”, “General education” or “Basic
studies”.
The core emphasizes a core of social values or needs to take care of whatever need or problem it is planned
to take care of. Core curriculum is held to be a legitimate part of the government policy. It refers to a group of
subjects which every student must take in addition to their specialties at a given age throughout the school
system. The core therefore constitutes the segment of the curriculum that teaches common concepts, skills
and attitudes needed by all students in order to function effectively within the society. (It is a universally-
required component of the curriculum, which is intended to provide all students with common learning or
general education.
Core curriculum is based on the assumption that knowledge and understanding of various modes of
experience are central to education and human development. Therefore all children must reach some basic
competence in each of these significantly different and important kinds of modes of knowledge and
understanding. No one therefore may opt out of a discipline or subject merely through lack of interest and no
choice is permitted within the separate disciplines until a basic minimum of understanding is reached in all of
them.
Organization of a core curriculum
Portions of curriculum required from all subjects are got from those, which are specialized, or from those,
which are electives, i.e. you select content to make sure that every area of study is included to give a unified
scope. The enrichment is achieved by bringing the content of two or more courses together and reorganizing
them. As a result, coherent whole where new relationships among the subject matter are developed even
though the different subjects are taught independently.
Core curricula are designed for specific functions. For example, there are social centred cores planned to solve
social problems while needs oriented cores are for fulfillment of specific needs.

Types of core-curriculum:
 Separate subjects’ core
This type of core curriculum consists of a series of individually required compulsory subjects. The subjects are
taught separately without any effort to relate them. Core in this case refers to a uniformly required set of
subjects. In Uganda, lower secondary school students are required to take certain subjects as part of the core
curriculum. English language and mathematics are part of the subjects in this core curriculum.

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  Correlated Core

This design correlates two or more subjects according to similar broad problems. The correlation is based on
certain unifying themes, basic content or similarity in fields of knowledge. For example, a particular topic such
as “growth of towns” can be handled from different perspectives in the different subjects in which it is taught. In
a history lesson, the focus could be on the historical background of the town whereas the Geography lesson
may focus on the location and natural resources of the town. The same topic may also be handled in
Economics lesson where emphasis would be placed on the economic activities and potential within and around
town.

 Fused Core

This type of core curriculum refers to a total integration or fusion of two or more subjects into one area of study.
This aims to minimize departmentalization of knowledge. For example, the subjects of Music, Arts and Craft,
Religious Education and Physical Education may be fused in cultural studies.

Advantages of core curriculum

 Knowledge is seen as a whole, all skills are used to bring about functional literacy.
 Because the core curriculum emphasizes a core social values, it is socially rather than cognitively
oriented. It relates subject matter with the realities and challenges of living.
 Teacher attempts to relate life problems and student interests as it focuses on problems which are real,
and having meaning for them.
 Core program is accompanied with an effort to use the problem solving technique.
 Activities are planned by the teacher and pupils, the teacher acting as a group leader and bearer of
expert knowledge.
 The structure of the core curriculum is fixed by broad social problems and by the interest and needs of
the learner.
Disadvantages of a core curriculum design
 Students are compelled to take on compulsory core subjects regardless of their needs, interests and
abilities. It’s dictatorial by nature.
 Teachers may not be competent enough to handle the broad knowledge base required for the core
curriculum given their specialized subject training.
 This curriculum design fails to offer significant and systematic knowledge because of its deviation from
the subjects approach. It doesn’t treat the disciplines constituting the core very well.
 The system of organizing all the learning experiences around a new centre is a potentially difficult task.
In a context of a long tradition of subject centered curriculum, development of learning materials to
provide adequate scope and disciplined understanding to the core curriculum is lacking.
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  The core approach requires a far great investment in instructional materials than does the subject
curriculum.
BROAD-FIELD TYPE OF CURRICULUM (INTEGRATED CURRICULUM)
The broad-field curriculum design was developed in response to the shortcomings of the subject-centred
design, in particular relating to the over-fragmentation of knowledge. This design attempts to integrate subject
matter of closely related disciplines by breaking down barriers between individual subjects to form broad fields
such as social studies, physical science and natural science. In some cases, it can involve synthesizing two or
more branches of knowledge into a new field such as Ecology which may synthesize knowledge from Biology,
Physics, Social Science and Agriculture. Integration across the individual subjects is realized by using themes
or concepts as a unifying thread. In this way, the sharp distinction between the individual subjects is
eliminated.
Advantages of a broad-field / integrated curriculum design
 There is greater integration of subject matter and therefore it facilitates a more functional
organization and application of knowledge that promotes transfer of learning across contexts
 It permits a broader coverage and allows elimination of excessive factual details, characteristic of
subject-centered approach.
 There is greater flexibility in selection of content and method of organization.
 There is an effort to develop a measure of coherence in the curriculum plan for general education.
 It saves time and other human resources by reducing the scope of the subjects in a curriculum.

Disadvantages of a broad-fields/ integrated curriculum design

 This design potentially provides shallow knowledge of the individual subject areas, thereby
constraining specialization in particular subjects.
 There is also the danger of losing the inherent logic of the individual subjects. The particular
interest or meaning of the subject matter may be lost when grouped with others.
 Teachers may lack the broad competence necessary for handling the broadfields curriculum
given their training as specialist teachers of subjects.
 Teachers derive their professional identity from their subjects of specialization. Because
teachers perceive themselves as historians, biologists, mathematicians, the broadfields
curriculum design may deny them this professional identity.
CURRICULAR ISSUES THAT COME UP AS A RESULT OF CRITICISMS AGAINST SUBJECT CENTRED
CURRICULUM.
(Florence B Stratemeyer (1957): Developing a curriculum for modern living. New York, Teachers
College Press)

16
1. As other curriculum designs evolved from subject centered, the following questions were put up: -
 Should emphasis be put more on subjects or upon the learners?
 Should emphasis be placed more upon teaching subject matter or upon promoting the all-round
growth of learners.
 Should curriculum be controlled by the teacher or by the co-operative participation of all the learners
and the society? Should subject matter be selected and organized before or during the learning
situation?
 Shall the emphasis be placed upon teaching isolated facts or upon acquisition of functional
meaning?
 Should emphasis be upon teaching habits and skills on isolated learning or as integrated facts of
larger learning experiences?
 Shall emphasis be put upon teaching methods relating to subject matter or upon improving the
process of learning?
 Shall emphasis be upon uniformity of learning for every one or upon variable achievements?
 Should emphasis be upon conformity of the patterns of a fixed curriculum or towards building in
each learner a creative individuality?
 Shall education be considered as schooling or as a continuous process of growth?
Early curriculum developers who were experience centered tended to over emphasize their position and
gave the impression that subjects were not important. It is the experience of the learners, which is
important. Thus during the first half of the 20 th Century, the mode of thought prevailing among curriculum
developers was experience centered curriculum.
According to Strate Meyer (1957), a curriculum is for modern living i.e. the aim is to develop a curriculum
for the people to live in an industrialized society. When dealing with people, who are subject centered the
focus too much on subject other than on experience. As a result schools had little influence on the lives of
the youths and educational activities begun in schools were usually developed when students left the
schools thus it is better to develop a curriculum such that people will face the problems of every day [Link]
people who will lead a persistent life situation.
Life is of a persistent nature i.e. most factors in life are persistent e.g. solving one problem eventually lead
to creation of another. In other words a curriculum should be developed such that school learning should
be carried over into life out of school. This can be done only if the problems studied in school are similar to
those faced out of school. Thus although the aim of curriculum is to meet the needs of children and youths
through their lives, need also determine the choices of problems to be based on the children’s immediate
concerns rather than on adult claims of children needs.
In 1957, the Russians landed a spacecraft for the first time. This shattered the pride of American educators.
Consequently it arose the subject-centered people claiming that experience-centered curriculum was not
17
good. As a result, the reaction against experience-centered curriculum was reflected in emergence of
subject association with scholarship of foundation bodies. E.g. Donors gave money to so many countries
especially in 1960 to re-organize and promote subject-centered curriculum.

18
 According to Alice Miel, experience-centered and subject-centred is not an either or problem i.e. it is not a
simple question but a more complicated problem. She put forward a theory of a swing of a pendulum.

Movement of educational thought is like a swing of a pendulum back and forth in

the same groove. Thus the view that we move from one emphasis to another with no return or a second look
does not seem to describe events with any accuracy. But we should note that the pendulum swing may be too
crude an analogy to describe actual pattern of events in that suppose one event completely outweighs the
other?
Burner and Dewey put forward the theory of a spiral curriculum. With a spiral curriculum, it implies people
will always react against A then B will gain ground. Someone is not true or false, each enrich the other thus
subjects and learners are both important New ideas / events are built up from the previous ones and
educational thoughts keep on moving in sort of a pattern reflecting a spiral.

A curriculum is developed by revising the basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until a student has
grasped the full apparatus that goes with them. Unless the subject matter is so fashioned, it is cluttering the
curriculum. What matters most is to make sure that what is introduced to the learner in terms of ideas and
styles, should make him/her in future as educated men.

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MODELS OF CURRICULUM:
A Model means something considered as a standard of excellence to be imitated, it can be a plan or a guide to
be strictly followed. Models are designs and organizational methods or tools by which curriculum planners
might achieve an appropriate harmony between aims and objectives.

A curriculum model is a systematic approach which is followed during the planning stage of a curriculum. The
planning of all the curricula must follow some kind of a model which is influenced by the developer’s view on
the purpose of education and the role of the subject content.

It is important to note that with more understanding about the nature of learning and the learner, especially
within the context of the scientific movement in education, educators begun to perceive curriculum in a broader
perspective and began to develop relatively more comprehensive designs for curriculum planning. Curriculum
developers have developed models that can be used to analyze and understand better the nature and process of
curriculum.

The framework underlying the curriculum models can be illustrated like this

In question form the components appears as in the table

Component Core question

Rationale Why are they learning?

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 Aim and objective (Intro) Towards which goals are they learning?

Content What are they learning

Learning activities How are they learning

Teacher role How is the teacher facilitating their learning?

Materials and resources With what are they learning?

Grouping With whom are they learning?

Location Where are they learning?

Time When are they learning

Assessment How is their learning assessed?

The following are some of the major types of curriculum models:

 Tylerian- Linear Model

 Wheeler’s Cyclical model
 Obanya’s Lino Cyclic Model
 Lawton’s Model
 Kerry’s Model
 Skilbecks’ Situational Analysis Model.

NB: A model is a larger structure compared to a design. A curriculum design is developed from a model. E.g.
the subject centred subject design may use the objectives/ Tyler’s model to plan such a curriculum. Child
centered curriculum may decide to use Wheeler’s model etc.

TYLERIAN- LINEAR MODEL

This is a traditional curriculum model. It is basically known as ‘Basic principle of curriculum and instruction’ or
Tyler Model. It was developed by Ralph Tyler for and education course at the University of Chicago. This
model attempts to explain the rationale for viewing, analyzing and interpreting the curriculum and instructional
program for an educational institution.

Tyler starts by raising four (4) fundamental questions which have to be answered if the process of curriculum
planning is to proceed. These basic questions are:

a) What educational purpose should the school seek to attain? (i.e goals which must be clear). The
goals are what we hope the curriculum to achieve. If such goals are to be clearly formulated, vaguely
stated aims are not sufficient. Statement of goals need to indicate both the kind of behavior that is to be
developed in the learners and the area of content in which the behavior is to be applied. Such closely

21
 formulated statements of intent are termed as objectives. It is very important to note that such objectives
are to be specified before the remaining components of the design model are considered.

b) What learning experiences can be provided that are likely to attain this purpose? This therefore provides
the second stage in the model.

c) How can the educational experiences be effectively organized to reinforce one another and to produce a
cumulative effect?

d) How can we determine these purposes are being attained? This is a stage of evaluation, which examines
the extent to which the objectives are realized in practice, thereby indicating in what respect the
curriculum is effective, and in what respect it requires modification.
By answering these questions a model of four stages, which is linear, was developed. This model is often
termed as the rational planning model on the ground that it is rational to specify the ends of an activity before
engaging in it. An alternative term sometimes used is ‘means-ends’ planning.
Tyler put a lot more emphasis on objectives. For he thought this was very crucial since others proceed from it
and are regulated by it. Tyler (1949) observes that if we are to study an educational program systematically and
intelligently, we must first be sure of the educational objectives. Because of the emphasis on objectives, this
model is sometimes referred to as objectives model and is a prototype of all the other subsequent models that
stress the objectives, as well as those which do not emphasize objectives.
What is however, common and important about both the Tyler model and the later models is that they have
moved away from the very rudimental and narrow concept of the school curriculum based purely on the
content. They look at the curriculum more broadly in considering subject matter, the learning process and
learning conditions.
The Tyler Model for Curriculum Planning
Objectives: Sources are:
STEP 1
1. The learner
2. Contemporary life
3. Subject specialists
4. Philosophical and psychological screen

STEP 2 Selection of learning experiences (Content)

Organization of learning experiences (Materials and methods)
STEP 4
Evaluation

Tyler elaborated the3 objectives by explaining that they originate from the five sources.
STEP

1. The study of the learners. He observes that the study of the learners themselves would seek to identify
need as in the behavior pattern of the pupil, which the school should seek to produce.
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  The behavioral objectives should be specified in observable behaviors what pupils should be
able to do, think or feel as a result of course of instruction. The objectives should be specific,
measurable and clear. As a result of the need to specify the educational objectives, three
domains were developed: Cognitive (concerned with intellectual abilities and operations).
 Affective (concerned with attitudes, values and appreciation)
 Psychomotor (which covers the area of motor skills).
2. Study of contemporary life in society: As a social institution, the school is supposed to prepare the
youths for life in the society therefore the school curriculum should closely reflect what goes on in the
society outside the school.
3. Suggestions from subject specialists. This is the source commonly used in typical schools and colleges
especially where subjects still form the main basis of the curriculum. Since we still depend very much
on the subject matter to design the school curriculum, the expertise of the subject specialists becomes
vital.
4. Philosophy i.e. our sets of values etc.
5. Psychology i.e. the way children learn, develop and grow.
Once the crucial step of stating the objectives is accomplished the model proceeds through the steps of selection
and organization of content and learning experiences respectively as a means of achieving the already stated
objectives and finally evaluating whether or not the objectives have been achieved.
Tyler defines and outlines the types of learning experiences and also proposes the general principles or criteria
for selecting such experiences.
Tyler views evaluation as a process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually being
realized by the program of curriculum and instruction.
He further looks at evaluation as a process by which one matches initial expectations, in the form of behavior of
objectives, with the outcomes. Tyler’s celebrated model has become a useful prototype for later models.

Criticism of Tyler’s Model:

1. Tyler’s analysis gives a simplistic linear model which requires us to specify objectives and to plan content
and methods which will lead us to towards the objectives and finally to endeavor to measure the extent of
success in achieving these objectives. The major criticism of this model is that it is too simple and does not
make sufficient allowance for the interrelatedness of the separate elements.
2. Bruner argued that “leaving evaluation till the last stage of the process was like doing military intelligence
after the war is over.” He argued rightly, that evaluation should take place at every stage.
23
3. Professor Kerry argued that the whole curriculum process should not be static but dynamic and a
continuously evolving system.
4. Dewey points out that there must be a continuum of ends (objectives) and means because as we proceed
factors arise which re-shape our ends-in-view (objectives); so we must not think of ends in view as fixed
targets but as suggestion or sign posts (guides).
5. Dewey argues for flexibility, a freedom to change ends in view as they interact with the means.
Because the model does not offer clear-cut definitions of curriculum planning but rather opens up a number of
conflicting possibilities, it has thus given rise to the appearance of several alternative models. To address the
above criticisms wheeler suggested a cyclical model instead of a linear model.
WHEELER’S MODEL FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.

Wheeler (1967) seems to react to the simplicity of the Tyler model and especially to its linear nature. He
converts Tyler’s original ideas into a cyclic form and offers a five-stage model of the curriculum process. This
is cyclical rather than a linear model and links up evaluation with the formulation of objectives to create a
continuous cycle.
The first step of Wheelers model is the statement of Aims, goals and objectives. He gives a detailed account of
this part of the curriculum process; what is involved in this procedure of breaking down aims and goals into
behavioral objectives. The general aims of the school are analyzed and written as types of behavior, which
illustrate the general aims and pin-point the product of schooling. These are further broken down into goals
which are applicable at different stages of learning and further into goals achievable in shorter period of time
and lastly into specific instructional goals.

24
Wheeler uses the four terms- ultimate, mediate, proximate and specific classroom objectives to describe the
goals in the process. Wheeler requires that while planning the curriculum, we work through a system of
different levels of aims from general to specific.
Like Tyler, Wheeler then moves into the selection of learning experiences, but he differentiates between
learning and evaluation. The next two stages in this process are the organization and integration of learning
experience and evaluation. The model describes a process, which is continuous, and does not end at the
“evaluation” stage.
NB: Except for the cyclic nature of the curriculum process, there is no significant conceptual difference between
this model and Tyler model.
Criticisms of Wheeler’s Model:
1. Wheeler does not bring out the dynamic interrelatedness.
2. It is also said that the model fails to be sensitive both to the different kinds of subject matter which
have been planned in curricula and to the necessity for allowing flexible actions on the part of
autonomous teachers as unforeseen circumstances inevitably arise.
3. The way Wheeler treats the objectives is also criticized in a way that he fails to give adequate
account of the source and origin of curriculum objectives in the beliefs, value and conceptions of
those engaged in planning and of those influencing the planners.
4. It is further criticized that the idea of translating general aims into specific objectives run into other
philosophical difficulties, where this involves specifying subsets of skills or items of knowledge.
This is far from simple and arises epistemological problems.
OBANYA’S LINO-CYCLICAL MODEL

Obanya’s model combines ideas from Tyler’s linear model and Wheeler’s cyclic model to form the Lino-
Cyclical model of curriculum development. Drawing from his personal experience in curriculum development
work, Obanya suggests that the stages of the curriculum development process proceed in a straight line and then
move into a whirl pool before forming another straight line as illustrated below:

Obanya’s Lino cyclical Model of Curriculum Development

Needs assessment

Objectives

25
 Content

Materials

Try out

Revision

Implementation

The straight arrows flowing from the top to the bottom in the diagram show the general direction of activity
from one phase of the process to another, representing the linear aspect of the model.

The circular arrows represent the chain of activities within each of the phases of the curriculum development
process. The cyclic nature suggests that each of the phases or activities involves considerable deal of moving
around within the phase. For example, development of materials takes some time and involves moving back
and forth within the phase.

The backward looking arrows suggest that each phase has lessons to offer to the one preceding it. For example
from the try out stage, one can begin to determine the appropriateness of the objectives, materials and content
selected.

The multiple arrows beginning at the bottom of the cycle moving upwards suggest that the implementation
phase isn’t the final phase of the curriculum process.

SPIRAL MODEL

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The spiral model was advocated by Brunner. His model involves continuous re-introduction or repetition of
more in-depth ideas and principles. It is scope and sequence organization of content and learning experience
designed to prevent duplication. It is not done by simply adding new ideas but qualitatively selecting the same
fundamental idea. Efforts are made to relate learning experience and content to maturity of children at various
development levels to capitalize on conditions and resources of the community and to promote the development
of democratic behavior.
Brunner starts from the learner that is relating the activities to child’s previous experience. An example where
spiral curriculum has been used is in social studies. All the items in the subject are defined in terms of activities
of man the assumption is made that man is faced with similar problems at each period of time and each place
and culture. Such issues are covered at different times in social studies; governance, religion, education,
communication, tool development etc. Social Studies Curriculum is organized around the upward spiral of these
continuing activities of man, with the scope being adjusted to match the increasing maturity of learners.
Brunner is so much concerned with the capacity of the child’s mind as with unlocking that capacity by the use
of appropriate materials and techniques.
Brunner starts from the child (i.e. relating things to the child’s previous experience) rather from the subjects’.
But in order to unlock that child’s capabilities, Intellectual techniques must be mastered.
Brunner argued that any theory of instruction must be concerned with;
1. The nature of knowledge to be learned
2. The nature of the learning process
3. The individual
For Brunner the theory of instruction has four major features.
1. Predisposition of learning (arousing curiosity)
2. The structure and form of knowledge
3. Sequence
4. Re-enforcement of feed back
Thus Brunner resolved the dichotomy of nature of subject matter versus nature of learners’ by his notion of
translation – the task of instruction is to translate the subject matter’s basic ideas i.e. into language appropriate
to the learner.
LAWTONS’ MODEL OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Professor Lawton provided us with a five-stage flow chart on curriculum planning. He uses the following
sources from which to build up a curriculum:

27
 1. Philosophical: aims, worthwhileness, the structure of the knowledge etc
2. Sociological: social, technological and ideological changes, needs of the individual in society. From the
interaction between these two sources one makes:
3. A selection from the culture
4. Psychological: theories of development, learning, teaching, motivation etc.
The first stage in Lawton’s model deals with the need to achieve clarity about the aims of education, and
the questions about knowledge and values, which should be the concern of education irrespective of society.
In this process, the aims of education would be defined in the process of education and espoused by the
society.
Philosophical ideas do not operate in the vacuum; and this leads to the second stage; that of improving
society. According to Lawton, the sociological questions about the curriculum are two-fold. I.e. The extent
to which the content is lagging behind the individuals living in a society undergoing the rapid change and
the extent to which the distribution of knowledge is incompatible with the kind of society we now have or
would wish to have.
These questions can be answered in terms appropriate knowledge and skills lacking or being under emphasized.
In his view education is used to level up society.

Stage 1 Stage 2

Philosophy e.g. aims of From this Sociology e.g. the kind of

education, worthwhile society we want
knowledge interaction

Stage 3 Stage 4
A selection from the Must also consider
culture psychology of learning,
instruction
development etc
Stage 5

A curriculum organized for teaching in terms of

stages sequence, etc bearing in mind practical
realities e.g. staff limitations, availability of
After stage two andequipment
when theetcquestions are answered, in stage
and timetable. three, a society identifies elements in its own
culture and includes these for further study at different levels of the education system; Arts, crafts, skills,
literature knowledge, beliefs etc. As far as foreign culture is concerned, one may have to appreciate what is
universal, in it and see its relevance to the society and sometimes those worth borrowing.

28
In stage four, Lawton deals with the question of psychology. This concerns the effectiveness of the
organization of learning and teaching methods i.e. how many in a group are ideal for teaching and learning, how
long should a lesson be Child development effect of extended family etc. All the theories of child development,
should be put under consideration while planning a curriculum.
Finally in stage five, Lawton examines how the curriculum is organized in stages and in sequences. What do
you introduce to the learners first and how much should it be? In summary, Lawton’s model of curriculum
planning is grounded in rapidly growing literature on specific connections between curriculum form and content
and the larger society.

KERRY’S MODEL OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Kerry’s model illustrates how objectives are linked and interrelated to knowledge, (school learning experiences
and evaluation. Kerry’s model goes on to show how having decided on our objectives we then reach, by
deliberate selection and organization of concepts and principles from the various disciplines, our knowledge
objectives. In the same manner, our objectives will determine the learning experiences that will take place.
Evaluation of knowledge will take place. Evaluation of knowledge and school learning experiences will
determine to what extent the original objectives have been achieved. The double-headed arrow linking
evaluation with objectives illustrate that our original objectives may be modified in the light of what the
evaluation has shown. It will be noted that double headed arrows link all the four elements of the curriculum
process, indicating their interrelationship and dependence on each other. He therefore asserts that everything
influences everything else and that it is possible to start on analysis at any point.
SOURCES

Pupils Society Disciplines 3

1 OBJECTIVES EVALUATION
Tests, assessments,
Organization and selection of interviews etc
concepts and principles from 4
the disciplines
SCHOOL LEARNING EXPERIENCES
KNOWLEDGE
2 Integration sequence School opportunities, teacher pupil
reiteration relationship, teaching methods, lesson
content readiness

29
SKILBECK’S SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS MODEL
Skilbeck’s approach is also based on target-based theory, differs from wheelers slightly. Skilbeck’s framework
consists of five steps as follows
1. Situational analysis: involving finding out the context in which curriculum development process is to
take place and about the feasibility of it being successful. Basic information about the educational
system, the learner and the teacher are collected.
2. Goal formulation: the statement of the goal embraces teacher and pupil actions and the kinds of
learning outcomes anticipated. These goals will derive from the situational analysis above. The goals
will imply preferences, values, judgments, priorities and emphasis.
3. Program building
 Design of teaching and learning activities content structure and method, scope and sequence
 Means, materials e.g. resource units, text materials etc
 Design of appropriate instructional settings e.g. laboratories field work, workshops etc
 Personnel deployment and role definition e.g. curriculum change as social change
 Timetable and provisioning
4. Interpretation and implementation: In an ongoing instructional setting introduction of curriculum
change can meet resistance and cause confusion
5. Monitoring, feedback, assessment, reconstruction
 Design of monitoring and communication systems
 Preparation of assessment schedules
 Problems of continuous assessment
 Reconstruction ensuring continuity of the process
Skilbeck’s framework differs from wheelers in the following ways
 It identifies the learning situation at the present level or at the point of intervention, not material
production and change strategies as the major problem area of curriculum development.
 It encourages curriculum developers to intervene at any stage of the framework in its simplest form,
situational analysis of an educational system is the stock taking of education system at its present
state in order to know the present state of an educational system.
For a long time Tyler’s curriculum framework dominated the scene of curriculum planning and design probably
because it was able to offer a practical step-by-step and unambiguous approach to planning a curriculum.

30
Skilbeck’s model, which begins from situational analysis, is more recent arrival at the scene and is seen as an
approach, which complements the present set up.
Skilbeck lists the many factors one needs to consider in order to obtain a true picture of education system as it
exists in any country now. These factors are broadly grouped into external and internal factors as follows:
External factors
 Changes in trends in society, which indicate tasks for schools e.g., industrial and economic development,
political and ideological changes, social and cultural movements.
 Expectations and requirements of parents, employees and society
 Community assumptions and values including patterns of adult child relationships
 Education system requirements and challenges e.g. policy directives, local authority pressures education
research etc.
 The changing nature of subject matter to be taught.
 Potential contribution of teacher support systems.
 Actual and potential flow of resources into schools.
Internal factors
 The pupils, their aptitudes, abilities, attitudes values and defined education needs
 Teachers, their values, attitudes, skills, knowledge, experiences, special strengths and weaknesses
 School ethos and structures Expectations, traditions, authority relationships
 Material resources Fixed assets such as buildings equipment , learning resources, variable assets such as
all consumables
 Perceived problems and shortcomings in the existing curriculum.

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THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development is a long process which involves several activities such as identifying the needs of a
particular group of learners for whom the curriculum is intended, determining the goals, aims and objectives of
the curriculum, designing the programs of study and curricular materials and piloting them, deploying human
resources, monitoring and evaluation. The main stages of the curriculum development process are shown below:
 Situational Analysis/ needs assessment/ Information gathering
 Formulation of goals
 Program building
 Interpretation and implementation
 Monitoring and evaluation
Needs Assessment/ Situational Analysis.
The curriculum development process begins with appraisal and analysis of the situation as it exists. A
situational analysis provides information about the situation as it exists in the education system and broader
contextual issues in society, such as economic and social factors that influence education. This stage is the
information gathering stage that identifies and analyses the need for curriculum change. The information
gathered during the needs assessment indicates whether there is need for improvement in the existing
curriculum and what exactly needs to be changed or introduced within the curriculum. Information gathering
also assists the curriculum workers to determine whether the necessary resources for the proposed curriculum
exist. For example, during a situational analysis curriculum workers may find out if there are enough teachers,
classrooms and other necessary facilities for the proposed curriculum.
Skilbeck suggests some of the diverse factors one needs to examine in order to obtain a true picture of education
system as it exists. These factors are broadly grouped into external and internal factors as follows.
External factors:
 Changes in trends in society which indicate tasks for schools e.g industrial and economic development,
political and ideological changes, social and cultural movements.
 Expectations and requirements of parents, employers and society.
 Community assumptions and values including patterns adult-child relationships
 Education system requirements and challenges e.g policy directives, local authority pressures,
educational research etc.
 The changing nature of subject matter taught.
 Potential contribution of teacher support systems
 Actual and potential flow of resources into schools
32
Internal factors:
 The pupils: their abilities, attitudes, values and defined education needs.(Student interests, how much
they value the curriculum, what they can do, the needs of the students after school)
 Teachers: their values, attitudes, qualifications, skills, knowledge, experiences, special strength and
weaknesses.
 School ethos and structures, expectations, traditions, authority relationships ( religion, culture).
 Material resources: fixed assets such as buildings, equipment, learning resources, variable assets such as
all consumables
 Perceived problems and shortcomings in the existing curriculum.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
The definition of curriculum development range from any form of educational change to a systematic approach
to developing curriculum materials. Owen defines curriculum as any form of organization and instruction such
as microteaching, team teaching, non-streaming and vertical grouping. While Johnson define curriculum
development as a process whereby sets of learning outcomes are derived at an educational institution.
Curriculum development is considered as comprising of those deliberately planned activities through which
courses of study / patterns of educational activity are designed and presented as proposals for those in
educational institutions. This implies that it is deliberately planned enterprise which involves syllabus
construction and other curriculum material construction for teaching purpose.
The purpose of curriculum development is to improve knowledge, skills and attitudes of students, enhance
students’ ability to find meaning in life and consequently contribute to national development. This is done
through the improvement of schools/educational program such that there is better teaching and learning.

SUMMARY OF HOW CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IS DONE IN UGANDA

National curriculum development center was established in 1973 and it takes on the planning, drafting and
carrying out the curriculum process. First the draft material is worked out and written in details by study groups.
The study group is predominantly of teacher writers selected various schools, subject inspectors from the
educational standards agency, subject specialists from NCDC and other writers.
The completed work in draft form is then submitted to the National Subject panel e.g. Chemistry panel, history
panel etc whose members are chosen from universities, Teachers colleges, educationists, senior specialists and
field teachers from different regions.

33
The NCDC always works in close cooperation with the inspectorate of the ministry of education and sports. The
chairperson of the subject panel is an inspector from the ministry and the secretary is a subject specialist from
NCDC. When the national subject panel gives approval the curriculum material is sent to different ministries
and to carefully selected experienced teachers for comments.
After studying the comments received from them, the material is rewritten by the writing group while taking
care of those comments and then passed to the academic steering board of NCDC for consideration, which can
be either approval or rejection. After revision and printing, the curriculum is implemented.
LEVELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN UGANDA
It occurs at different levels with varying intentions:
1. National based curriculum development
It occurs in a centrally controlled education system whereby the ministry is in charge of education/national
curriculum development center develops a curriculum and disseminates it throughout the country. The NCDC is
responsible for developing the curriculum in the various subjects for dissemination throughout the primary and
secondary education. The advantage of this curriculum is having a common curriculum that can control
the maintenance of standards and quality of education throughout the country. It has various subject
specialists in charge of every subject.
2. School based curriculum development
This occurs through the initiation of the teacher, headmaster or in some cases the nation. A school decides to
develop a curriculum in any subject area. It occurs for the improvement of the curriculum or for research
purpose. In Uganda and most African countries this type of curriculum development is not common
because teachers are not independent to take curricular decisions.
The above two types of curriculum development could be called wholesale or piecemeal project. A wholesale
curriculum development is whereby the national government decides to change all the curricula in the schools
in order to achieve a new policy of education. It is centrally controlled and it affects all subjects and schools. I
may result into curriculum innovation whereby radically new proposals are put forward with far reaching
implications and consequences for education in general.
On the other hand, piecemeal curriculum development involves modification and reshaping of current courses
of study/syllabus in a few subjects. It must have clear explanation of various elements comprising of course e.g.
curriculum design in particular subjects like integrated English, fieldwork etc.
In both cases, there is a need for systematic thinking and planning during which decisions about content,
teaching and learning are taken not in isolation but in relation to the overall design or framework. Curriculum

34
development should first start with the study of the society, the children and an examination of philosophical
and psychological foundations that can be used as a basis for the course.
The different approaches to curriculum development have been discussed. We have seen that the approaches
vary according to the level at which curriculum development takes place. In this section, we describe the
process of curriculum development at three levels within the educational system: national level (macro), school
level (meso) and classroom level (micro). We discuss the strategies, core questions and challenges that play a
role in these three contexts.
Curriculum development at macro level

The claims are a multitude: Curriculum development at macro level focuses on the development of generic
curricular frameworks. It is also based on a multitude of claims. These frameworks, such as core objectives and
examination programs, provide guidelines for educational objectives and content at national level. An important
challenge in the development of these frameworks is to meet with the great diversity of societal demands on
education. Many stakeholders and ´claimants´ have their own demands and expectations concerning education.
These curricular requirements are coloured by the interests they have or represent, such as the interests of
parents and parents´ associations, religious groups, trade & industry, lobby groups, or social organizations. Each
group has its own vision on education, subject content, moral issues, and desirable social competences. Many of
the claims from society are reflected by the aims of education, i.e. the assignments or objectives to be realized
or aimed for. As a result of the growing diversity and dynamics in society, the social expectations of education
are greatly inflated, increasing the pressure on schools and teachers.

The government is responsible for the quality of education. A major challenge is to deal with the different
expectations in society, elaborate these in well-balanced curricular frameworks, and to monitor and stimulate
the quality of educational output based on these frameworks. To monitor the quality of education, the
government draws up laws and regulations by defining, on macro level, examination requirements, core
objectives, attainment targets, qualification frameworks, periodic assessments, and frameworks for supervision
and enforcement.

A core question for the government is which common objectives to pursue in education. In almost all European
and other western-oriented countries, there is a broad debate on what should be at the core of education. The
central question in this debate is how to shape education in such a way that it passes on relevant cultural
heritage, prepares students for their participation in society, and allows them to develop their talents to the full.

How education can contribute to the knowledge society and strengthen the economic competitiveness of a
country is another popular subject for discussion, as is the contribution of education to a variety of social needs.
Such debates are usually not limited to the educational sector, but often spread out to claimants and opinion
leaders in various sectors and layers of society.

Curriculum policy by governments: - Within this dynamic context, governments have to make substantive
choices to guarantee the sustainable quality and social relevance of education. This decision making process is
also influenced by international developments and frameworks, such as agreements between countries or the
Bachelor-Master structure in higher education. When weighing and defining the core of the curriculum,
35
different strategies are used to legitimize and validate the choices to be made. Experts and stakeholders of many
kinds may play a part in this. When justifying the curricular choices, the first arguments put forward are those
concerning the relevance and desirability of the objectives and content components. Obviously, all interested
societal parties want to join in this debate. However, where practicality of the wishes is concerned, schools and
teachers must lead the discussion. Important questions include:

 Competences of the pupils: can they fulfil their new expected roles?
 competences of the teachers: having necessary expertise to implement the innovation
 Social support for innovations: are schools and teachers positive towards the intended change?
 Learning time: can the innovation be carried out within the available time frame?
 Educational arrangements: are relevant teaching approaches and learning resources available?
The organization of curriculum policy making also involves certain choices:

 Should emphasis be put on a communal and uniform educational programme or should there be room for
flexibility, diversity, and choices for schools and learners?
 Is there central steering or decentralized autonomy and responsibility?
 Is supervision based on a firm control system and on centrally defined results, or on a decentralized
accountability system and confidence in the competences of schools and teachers?
There are different ways in which governments control curriculum decision making. Many countries have a
highly centralized education system. At government level a curriculum is defined with detailed regulations for
objectives and content, school time, selection of educational materials, teaching standards, and tests. There is
little room for curricular input by schools and teachers. In some countries, this central steering is less prominent.
There, objectives and content are laid down in a general plan and further details are left to the schools. In some
African countries, the schools’ autonomy concerning content is also considerable.

In almost all countries, periodic shifts and movements in curriculum policy towards amore or less central or
decentralized control are visible (Kuiper, van den Akker, Letschert&Hooghoff, 2009). Both forms of curriculum
policy have their strengths as well as weaknesses (Fullan, 2008; Hargreaves & Shirley, 2009). A detailed,
prescriptive curriculum presents a clear view of the desired results and offers much to hold to in practice. In the
short term, such a curricular model often leads to more improved learning results than a more decentralized
model. However, it turns out to be a very complex matter to sustainably anchor these effects. The advantage of
a more flexible curriculum, whereby schools can fill in their own details, is the direct involvement and co-
ownership of schoolsand teachers. This is highly motivating and will stimulate professional development; as a
result, it will lead to a more sustainable form of educational improvement. However, the risk involves the lack
of a clear, communal focus on objectives and content, making it more difficult for schools and teachers to work
systematically towards large-scale educational improvement.

National curricular frameworks: In some countries, educational objectives and content are specified in core
objectives, attainment targets, and examination programs. In primary education and lower secondary education,
desired objectives and content are reflected in core objectives. Core objectives describe what learners should
learn in school in order to perform well in society or to proceed to the next level of education. They present a
frame of reference for public accountability by the government and by schools concerning the choices made, the
education offered, and the learning results realized. Core objectives are periodically reviewed (Letschert, 1998).

36
In primary education, the third generation of core objectives is on many occasions in use. Broader and more
global descriptions are used, without specifications of teaching and learning activities. Thus, schools are given
more freedom to fill in their own details in the curriculum. A similar development takes place in secondary
education, where core objectives of the lower secondary education are reduced to lower numbers.

Core objectives are concretized in educational methods, materials and learning paths. For the different subject
areas in primary education, Scandinavian countries for example develop intermediate objectives and learning
paths on the basis of core objectives. For the core objectives in lower secondary education, they develop
examples of detailed programs, in which the objectives and content are distributed across the different school
years.

The objectives and content for upper secondary education (A’ Level) are specified in examination program that
are developed by committees per subject or subject area. Although the composition of these committees may
vary per subject, they usually comprise subject matter experts, representatives from subsequent levels of
education, teachers, as well as the Uganda National Examinations Board. The National Curriculum
Development Centre (NCDC) often has a coordinating and supporting role.

There is no set time period for the revision of examination programs. Revision usually occurs upon request, for
example by higher educational institutions that notice a lack of knowledge and skills in enrolling students. In
preparation of the revision process, NCDC develops subject dossiers. A subject dossier describes the state of the
art in the subject domain, bottlenecks in current educational practice, and important points for revision of the
subject. The dossier is drawn up on the basis of a broad consultation of stakeholders, including teachers, pupils,
subject matter experts, and trade & industry, and in close collaboration with subject associations.

The NCDC syllabus contains a description of the attainment targets that are to be tested in the central
examination and the school examinations. Further details are contained in an UNEB syllabus. Recently frames
of reference have been drawn up to more precisely define the desired learning results in literacy and numeracy
at different levels within the educational system.

From policy to curriculum development: The recent development of reference levels for literacy and numeracy
in many countries clearly illustrates the process of curriculum development at macro level. These reference
levels have been developed as a result of a general concern about the quality of the learners’ mastery of basic
skills in language and arithmetic. In part, this concern seems to be supported by empirical evidence. Different
reasons are given for the loss of the basic skills in literacy and numeracy, including inadequate pedagogical
approaches and learning resources, lack of school time, lack of maintenance during the learning career,
teachers’ lack of knowledge and skills, and insufficient alignment among school types.

Curriculum development at meso level

The school’s curricular task in most countries, current educational policy offers schools ample opportunities to
develop their own curricular profile. Within the national curricula frameworks, school scan emphasize specific
aims and add relevant content in line with the school’s needs. In doing so, schools are faced with the complex
challenge to develop a relevant and cohesive curriculum. In this respect various questions and dilemmas arise,
such as:

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  Which curricular choices will we make?
Questions schools may ask themselves, include: What is our vision on learning? What ambitions do we pursue,
together with our pupils? What are the features and criteria for a cohesive curriculum? To what extent should
the school concept be completed before teams can start adding details? What does a continuous curricular strand
for a subject or a domain look like?

 How will we achieve cohesion between the choices made?

Relevant questions for schools in this respect: How do we develop a continuing learning path in the curriculum?
How do we achieve alignment between subjects; is it relevant to integrate subjects? How to develop relevant
teaching materials: are we going to develop or arrange for these ourselves or should we select existing
materials? How to enhance the development capacity of our team?

 Who is involved in curriculum decision making?

Related questions are: Who are we going to involve in curriculum decisions, both within and outside the
school? Which colleagues will contribute to the school curriculum? How do we get all parties involved to go
along in the innovation? What are the competencies these developers should have? What is the part played by
the teams and the school management? What conditions should be met to ensure success of curriculum
innovation?

In this process of curriculum decision making, schools often come across questions and dilemmas that have
little to do with curriculum development, but which do affect this process. For example, a team working on an
ambitious curriculum innovation, may only be prepared to make small changes as a result of the limited size of
the team. Or there might be limited mutual trust between the management and teachers, preventing an
innovation from getting off the ground. And frustrating innovation attempts in the past may also hamper new
adventures. In short, curriculum development within a school is never an item in itself, but is always a part of
school development as a whole.

Various studies have shown that sustainable curriculum innovation in schools builds on synergy between
curriculum development, teacher development, and school organization development. The types of development
include teacher development and school organization development.
WHAT DETERMINES THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
The curriculum does not function in a vacuum but rather in social medium of which outcomes; unexpected
results that follow a decision must be clearly understood. Therefore as a curriculum designer you must clearly
know societal values, traditions, beliefs etc. All these must be reflected in the curriculum. You need to consider
socio-political needs of the society.
There are also political ideologies because they play a big role in decision making in the society. A clearly
defined political strategy helps in the design of the curriculum. Thus before designing the curriculum, the issue
is what products we need, then you design a curriculum to produce such a product, i.e. societal approach to
curriculum design/ societal based curriculum. In this case you consider policies and strategies for national
38
development. Political ideology of society will determine the aims and goals’ eventually determining what
wasn’t included in the curriculum.
There is also an issue of language policy. That is language, which will be used as a medium of instruction in
schools. Language is like a conveyor belt used to deliver information from teachers to students.
The kinds of instructional/ teaching materials to be used should be considered. Other factors to be considered
include psychological foundations of the curriculum including such issues as human growth and development,
theories of learning and motivation, individual differences etc.
MACDOLD’S VIEWS ON EDUCATION
1. Education is viewed as a psychological enterprise. Therefore as a curriculum designer you focus on an
individual, his personality and how he/she perceives and learns. Thus terms such as motivation, readiness,
individual differences etc are put into account if a curriculum is to be effective, acceptable by the society
and successfully implemented by the teachers.
2. Education should also be looked at as a sociological phenomenon. Thus terms such as status, roles,
integration and functioning of a system are put into account when designing any curriculum
3. He also views education as a political endeavor. Key words such as sharing of power, struggle for power in
a system, who uses it/ who has access to it are used. Thus as a curriculum designer, view education from the
nature of power structure and how it affects a person.
4. Culturally, education deals with what should be known i.e. value systems of society passed on to the young
generation by the education system. You deal with what is important to know and to leave out, what
methods to use etc.
5. Technically, education refers to educational efficiency in which we get our instructional job well done i.e.
how effectively and efficiently we can achieve the stated goals and how goal achievement can be increased.
Such curriculum determinants lead to further conceptualization i.e. raising significant curriculum issues such as:
i. Why teach (aims and objectives)
ii. What should be taught (content)
iii. Knowledge to whom( learner)
iv. In what manner (methodology)
v. What outcomes (Expected results)
vi. By whom (Teacher) i.e. actual classroom environment
All these are looked at as what is the rational for an educational program
As a result, the following questions are put forward:

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 a. How should the desirability of specific objectives be determined?
b. How should the feasibility of attaining objectives be determined?
c. What is the usefulness of the statement of educational objectives in making other curricula essential?
d. What components must be considered in organizing a curriculum for effective learning?
e. What elements are considered if any are common to all major curriculum questions and thus provide
theoretical links throughout the entire conceptual system?
f. How much thesis of these components can be effected for the teacher before s/he stats teaching?
g. At what point in the system should consideration of methodology and content of organized knowledge
be predominant?
h. What methods of the entire apartment to each major decision posed by the system be?

THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN ACTION

It involves devising curricula materials and trying them out, deploying manpower, resources and time.
Curriculum development is a dynamic rather than a static process. A curriculum developer doesn’t begin from
scratch but with something i.e. from an existing curriculum, which may not be necessarily known to her or her.
An acceptable and effective curriculum should always be left open ended because life is evolving and as a
result, what is good today may not be necessarily good tomorrow. Once a curriculum is left open ended, it
implies it is ready to retain good ideas, modify the existing ones / accommodate the new ones depending on
what the situation demands. In practice, the following are the component processes that must go into any
curriculum development project.
1. Information gathering

It is the information that reveals the need for curriculum change/development. This information will indicate
whether there is need for improvement in the existing curriculum. Information gathering also assists the workers
to know whether the necessary resources and conditions exist. E.g. are there enough teachers, are people really
fed up with the existing curriculum.

2. Mobilization for curriculum change

If there is need for curriculum change, you have first to mobilize the people (masses). Mobilization involves
sensitizing the masses why you should change the existing curriculum so that a better on is put in place. Don’t
over assume that people will like the new information even if in reality a change is a good one. It also involves

40
getting some ideas from the very people themselves (society) for which the curriculum is intended. In addition,
it involves selecting people who are acceptable by the society and professionally trained to do the job.

3. A study of the characteristics and needs of the children is made

This is done due to the fact that education is not only subject centred (adult/teacher) but also child centred. It
has been found that children have needs, which may not necessarily be known, by the adult world. It’s these
children who are important for the needs of tomorrow. Thus they ought to be introduced and take part in the
decision making process. This is done so that they are successful and effective leaders/professionals of
tomorrow.

4. Formulate educational objectives/aims/goals of the curriculum

Any project done must have aims/objectives, which are clearly spelt out. Otherwise it will back fire. To do this,
the aims/objectives should be clearly spelt out and explained to the masses/society without any hidden
agenda/motive.

5. Select learning experiences from the objectives set

This is done so that the teachers and the learners don’t get problems during the process of implementation.

6. Select and develop learning materials and equipment

During this process, the following questions are considered:

 What existing materials and equipment would be appropriate for the new curriculum?
 What new materials and equipment would be used?
 Who should prepare them and how much do they cost?
The selected materials should be appropriate to factors such as their durability, appropriateness to the learners
needs, weather conditions etc.

7. Organize pilot study projects/units

This is done because as a curriculum developer, you want to change the original curriculum such that better
results are achieved. You begin with few secondary schools among the many so that you check whether the new
materials are all right with the learners, the learning experiences are okay etc.

8. You get a feedback by evaluating the pilot units and re-organize them until they work and
remedies/weaknesses are corrected during this process.
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 9. The revised curriculum is launched in schools and provide for continuous revision as time goes on. This
is because; no curriculum is good enough at any given time. Leave it open-ended for any addition / leave
it always to welcome criticism.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Curriculum implementation is an interwoven network of varying activities, which involves translating

curriculum designs into classroom activities and changing peoples’ attitudes to accept and participate in the
activities. It a stage in which all stakeholders become part of the process by making their contribution to operationalise
the curriculum that is designed and developed. It entails putting into practice the officially prescribed courses of study,
syllabi and subjects.

Curriculum implementation involves two main processes namely:

a) First, it involves changing the attitudes of policy makers, administrators, supervisors, teachers, parents,
and ultimately the sole goal of the process – the learner.
b) Secondly, it involves providing the materials and administrative means to make curriculum
implementation possible. In other words, all the activities are backed by material and administrative
facilitation.
The implementation phase of curriculum developed is clearly defined by knowing what teachers must do to
carry out that particular program and how effectively they can use the available materials. Furthermore, it is
important for the teachers to be prepared for the task and should know what to do exactly on the ground.

Successful implementation of the curriculum should address what supportive personnel are needed to do and
what kinds of instructional materials and facilities are most helpful. The form of schools and classroom
organization required for the exercise is another factor to be addressed and the community should be sensitized
enough of the intended change of the curriculum.

Various institutions have to play a decisive role in the implementation of curriculum. Some are directly
involved while others give side support that makes it possible for total implementation of curriculum.

ROLE A TEACHER’S ADVISORY CENTRE

A teacher’s advisory centre is an institution, which provides teacher with technical guidance to enhance
learning.

42
  It provides in-service programs through the country in a way giving new skills to teachers. It updates
teachers in the use of teaching materials.

 Furthermore, it gives new teaching strategies and other changes introduced in the curriculum.

 It gives new teachers skills on how to handle lessons, affords untrained “licensed” teachers a chance of
being equipped with technical skills and even old teachers update themselves on new strategies.

 This institution helps in fostering smooth implementation of the curriculum, as teachers will be equipped
with strategic approaches.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTORS

The supportive personnel, voluntary agencies, teachers, parent and local communities all play an important role
in curriculum implementation.

ROLE OF TECHNICAL SUPPORTIVE STAFF

There is need for supportive personnel and services in the curriculum implementation. Inspectors of the schools
and field supervisors greatly facilitate in the implementation exercise. They help in demonstration of a
particular approach to the classroom teachers through the supervision exercise. In their work, they identify
problem areas, suggest the necessary modifications such as methodology, and their feedback of the running and
quality of the project will assist in the review of teaching materials. They give advice and encouragement on the
program of work to be done and how to visit teachers’ centers regularly for guidance and help with regard to
source and quality of information.

Educational planners and policy makers serve as professional staff of the inspectorate division. They control the
budget of the Ministry of Education and Sports for example, funds to purchase curriculum materials, their
distribution, payment of teachers and other personnel, funds for new infrastructures such as new classrooms and
how to maintain the already existing ones. Education administrators through training, posting and payment
directly control teachers who are direct implementers of all instructional programs.

When education administrators and planners are accepted in schools as collaborators, program implementation
is enhanced. Without the education administrator’s cooperation, curriculum reforms should be doomed to
failure as funding would be impossible. The contribution of the education planners and administrators cannot be
underestimated in the curriculum implementation.

ROLE OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES

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There are voluntary agencies that greatly participate in curriculum implementation. These agencies are The
Church Women Organizations, Boy Scouts, Girl-Guides, Young Men’s Christian Associations, UNICEF etc.
These agencies have legitimate role to play in implementing some aspects of the curriculum, especially in the
affective domain.

The church for example, has built schools and has continued to give direction in form of guidance and moral
rehabilitation. The church participates in writing books, which children use in class particularly in religious
education. A lot of funding still comes from some of these voluntary agencies and to a great extent: they have
funded the education system. UNICEF for example, has participated in printing children’s reading materials
especially in the science subjects. It is a very big donor to our education system.

ROLE OF PARENTS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES

Parents are yet another group of curriculum implementers. As a curriculum and immediate “reference group”
for their children, parent’s influence in children’s cultural values is unchanged.

All parents whether schooled or not have a big role to play in curriculum implementation in a continuing
process of value orientation and attitude formation. The home teaches social and cultural values such as
personal relationships, hospitality, compassion, personal hygiene, etiquette, love and enforcing language, which
is the basis of learning.

In homes where parents are schooled, they physically participate in guiding their children through their
homework exercises. Even the unschooled participate by encouraging their children to do the work, thus the
reason why their contribution is highly respected.

The local community plays an active role in the implementation of the curriculum. Thus, they should be
sensitized about their participation. As stakeholders, the community wants to know whether the education of
their children in schools in their locality will bring about development, which forms the reason why they are
ever assessing it.

The community will provide land, on which schools will be constructed, provide funds and labor to foster
development of schools. Not only that, but also provide supportive personnel to assist teachers when they are
made to understand the rationale behind such a change and the educational problems and procedures involved.

They are people who should be consulted in curriculum design because they will have interest when it is being
implemented. The community must not be under-rated in curriculum implementation for it has a variety of

44
technical personnel most of whom must form part of the curriculum process. Some of the cultural activities
initiated by the school are refined from the community around the school.

ROLE OF THE SCHOOL STAFF

At the school level, laboratory technicians and assistants provide expertise and knowledge that boosts the
science subjects such as biology, physics, and chemistry. They set up scientific experiments and demonstrate
them to students. Furthermore, they collect specimens of animals, insects, plants etc. their work greatly boosts
the implementation of the curriculum since their technical know-how is paramount.

Teachers are the most important and influential persons in the implementation of the curriculum for they
represent the ideas and aspirations of the designers. The success of the implementation depends on how
efficient, dedicated, and imaginative the teachers are.

Teachers are also the source of feedback to the school authorities and the Ministry of Education and Sports. If
during implementation, certain practices or elements of the syllabus are not satisfactory, the teacher should try
to see to it that they are changed or eradicated. Education administrators need to have this information for
further changes or adjustment.

At instructional level, it is the teacher who handles the curriculum by translating it into meaningful messages to
the students. The teacher must therefore use methods and techniques that make it easy for pupils/students to
understand. The teacher also, needs to have adequate training and knowledge to cope with that demanding and
challenging task of curriculum implementation.

Considering that curriculum implementation is not a single activity but rather an interwoven network of varying
activities, many institutions and groups of people must come in and participate actively and lack of one or some
of them, will render the exercise futile and handicapped.

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STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING A CURRICULUM

Curriculum implementation is an interwoven network of varying activities, which involves translating

curriculum designs into classroom activities and changing people’s attitudes to accept and participate in
the activities. All the activities are backed by material and administrative facilitation.

The implementation phase of curriculum development is clearly defined by knowing what teachers must
do to carry out that particular program and how effectively they can use the available materials.
Furthermore, it is important for the teachers to be prepared for the task and should know what to do exactly on
the ground.

Successful implementation of the curriculum should address what supportive personnel are needed and what
kinds of instructional materials and facilities are most helpful. The form of schools and classroom organization
required for the exercise is another factor to be addressed and the community should be sensitized enough of the
intended change to the curriculum.

Various institutions have to play a decisive role in the implementation of curriculum. Some are directly
involved while others give side support that makes it possible for total implementation of curriculum.

A teacher’s advisory centre is an institution, which provides teachers with technical guidance to enhance
learning. It provides in-service programs throughout the country in a way of giving new skills to teachers. It
updates teachers in the use of teaching materials, furthermore, it gives new teaching strategies and to the
changes introduced in the curriculum. It gives new teachers skills on how to handle lessons, affords untrained
‘Licensed’ teachers a chance of being equipped with technical skills and even old teachers update themselves on
new strategies. This institution helps in fostering smooth implementation of the curriculum, as teachers will be
equipped with strategic approaches.

THE SABER-TOOTH CURRICULUM: A REFLECTION OF A PERSISTENT LIFE SITUATION

AND CHALLENGES INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM CHANGE (INNOVATION)

Story of Saber-tooth curriculum is sort of a parable i.e. statement with a hidden meaning told by Dr. Peddiwell
in one of his lectures.

There was a stone-age community living on a landscape called Care Realm Valley. The land had blue clear
waters with a lot of fish, woolly horse which were small and timid and saber tooth tigers. One of the inhabitants
of the community was a man called New-Fist. He was a practical man and a thinker. He got concerned with the
46
ways his tribe was living and decided to design a curriculum such that life would be better for his family, and
tribe (educational goal).
Having set up an educational goal, he observed what his people were doing – contemporary activities i.e.:
people were grabbing fish for food from clear water. They were clubbing woolly horses for meat and skins and
they were also carrying fire torches so as to scare away saber- tooth tigers.
He designed a curriculum containing 3 subjects/activities namely;
a) Fish-grabbing with bare hands.
b) Clubbing woolly horses for meat (food) and skins (clothes)
c) Sabor-tooth-tiger scaring with fire torches.

The systematic education was first introduced to his children and eventually all the tribe began to acquire this
good education. Some conservative members of the tribe resisted this new education on religious ground (they
reasoned that if man was God’s creation, then he should be born perfect as the creator himself. The creator
would have taught them these activities himself by implanting in their natures instincts for fish- grabbing, horse
clubbing and tiger scaring i.e. New Fist interfered with human nature by doing what the creator had never done.
New Fist responded to these challenges by asserting that its God’s power that new innovations are being done.
Children couldn’t learn by themselves except by Divine Aid). Eventually they also accepted the new education
(Curriculum). New-Fist died and the tribe continued with this good education.
After some time, the conditions of the community/landscape underwent a radical change, namely;
 A lot of dirt was brought by glacier from the mountains and the water became very dirty (muddy) such
that the fish could no longer be seen, and also now hide in the dirty water.
 The woolly timid horses run away because the land was now soggy. They migrated to a dry land. Instead
they were replaced by small antelopes, which had a very keen scent to danger and were very swift such
that even the best trained horse clubbers could not get them.
 As a result of the dampness of the area, the saber-tooth tigers got pneumonia and all of them died. Thus
there was no tiger to scare. Their place was taken over by glacial bears, which could not be driven away
by the tiger-scaring courses offered by the school. As a result, tiger scaring techniques become only
academic exercises but not necessarily for tribal security.

Despite the radical changes, the community continued with their highly respected education. But in the long run
there was no fish and meat for food, no hides for clothing and no security from the glacial bears- people faced
starvation.

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Having been faced with these challenges, men of the New-Fist type came up with new ideas so as to survive.
They rejected all that they had learnt at school. One of them made a net from twigs and used it to catch fish
from the muddy water. Another one-made snares to catch the swift antelope and a third member dug deep pits,
covered them with grasses/branches of trees, as the beers would fall into them. People would come and kill the
bears when they are in the pits.

The knowledge of the three new inventions spread to all the members of the tribe. Some radical members of the
community started criticizing the school and wanted the subjects now to be fishnet making and using antelope-
snare construction and operation and bear trapping and killing. The old people could not allow because the
curriculum was already overcrowded with the cultural subjects.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE SABOR TOOTH CURRICULUM TO CURRICULUM

DESIGNERS/TEACHERS:
 It is a problem to accept old order to change to a new one.
 There is no curriculum, however perfect it may be, good enough for all people in all places at all time or
even for all people in the same place at all times.
 Curriculum to be good enough must undergo constant change or renewal to fit the changing desire of the
people. Therefore it is important to ensure that a curriculum we have at school is up-to-date and it should
be open ended as much as possible so that you can add on more if need arises.
 Never complete a curriculum or never tell people that it is too good to add more because good can be an
enemy of something excellent. Always assume you have left something excellent. Always assume you
have left something not filled in.
 With changing environment, we need a change in curriculum e.g. the curriculum in Uganda train people
to be job seekers other than job makers.
 In order to effect a change you must be a radical and you must be ready to pay for the price.
 By changing a curriculum we don’t mean that you leave the old one completely because not everything
is bad in the old one.
 Change of a curriculum must come but it is not an easy task to change, there must be a fundamental
change i.e. must show practically that there is a change.
 Basic problems and situations, which are central in the life of the learner, should be central in education.
 The content and organization of learning experiences are determined by the experiences of the learners
as they deal with their everyday concerns and the changes in the environment.

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  Curriculum planning has become a continuous process, with a more intimate relationship between what
is learned in schools and what occurs in life and out of the classroom.

ROADBLOCKS / CHALLENGES/ BARRIERS TO CHANGE

1. Professional and personal vested interests e.g. professors committed to their work don’t want to lose
their fame and status. So they safe guard their interests and don’t want to be easily replaced by others.
People of professional interests are book publishers and they fear that change will interfere with their
professional income.
2. The problem of “inertia” i.e. a tendency to maintain status quo i.e. to remain where you are. This
problem is basic in that we can’t accept change.
3. There is a problem of bureaucracy. This is on the erroneous (assumption) that the boss knows all the
answers. “The elder is always right” i.e. you surround yourself with a ring of nearby voices who would
always tell you what you already think is right or what you are already going to do. In modern
democratic communities, communication isn’t only from top to bottom but also from down to top.
Bureaucracy must be modified to allow horizontal communication.
4. There is always a time lag between theory and practice. Some people say time lag is about 50 years.
Conceptually (in your mind), you can’t accept change but don’t think you have really accepted change
i.e. usually change is theoretical. In education, it takes a long time to transfer research results done into
practice.

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