9-1 INTRODUCTION
and applications presented so far illustrate a fair
The amplifier, filter, oscillator
used in many other
sampling of typical op-amp uses. However, op-amps are
circuits, where they are employed
under specific names. Such functions include
interface devices, that is.
comparators, detectors, limiters, and digital
limiters, detectors, and con
verters. In this chapter we discuss comparators,
op-amp. To obtain far better performance,
we
verters using a general-purpose
circuits designed specifically as comparators and
shall also look at integrated
converters.
a signal voltage on one inputof
A comparator, as its name implies, compares
the reference voltage on theinput.
other
an op-amp with a known voltage called
more than an open-loop op-amp, with two
analog
In itssimplest form, it is nothing voltage,
output may be (+) or (-) saturation
inputs and a digital output; the
the larger. Comparators are used in circuits such as
depending on which input is
detectors, and
digital interfacing, Schmitt triggers, discriminators,-voltage-level
oscillators.
9-2 BASIC COMPARATOR
shows an op-amp used as a comparator. A fixed
reference voltage
Figure 9-1(a)
signal voltage v.n
Vrer of I V is applied to the (-)input, and the other time-varyingcircuit is called the
is applied to the (+) input.
Because of this arrangement, the
343
Sec. 9-2 Basic Comparator
Protectlve
diodes
741
D,
R
w 10 kS2
-VeE
Vin
1 V
(a)
Vin
Vin
V,
+V1V 0V
0V
-V,=-1
V
Vin >Vef
+V.
sat
-
Vin Vret
(b)
(c)
Figure 9-1 (a) Noninverting comparator and its input and out
put waveforms. (b) If Vrer is positive. (c) If Vref iS negative.
noninverting comparator. When vi, is less than Vref, the output voltage v, 1S at
-Vsat (= -VEE) because the voltage at the (-) input is higher than that at the (+)
[Link] the other hand, when uj, is greater thanVref, the (+) input becomes
positive with respect to the (-) input, and v, goes to + Vsat(+Vcc). Thus Vo
changes from one saturation level to another whenever vin Vref, as shown in
Figure 9-1(b). In short, the comparator is a type of analog-to-digital converter. Ai
344
Comparators and Converters Chap. 9
or less than Vef. The
any given time the v, waveform shows whether Vin iS greater
voltage-level detector because, for a de
comparator is sometimes also called a
of the input Uin can be detected.
sired value of Vref the voltage level
from damage due
In Figure 9-1(a) the diodes DI and D2 protect the op-amp
of these diodes, the difference input volt
to excessive input voltage vin: Because
are
0.7 V or -0.7 V; hence the diodes
age va of the op-amp is clamnped to either
called clamp diodes. There are
some op-amps with built-in input protection; in
and D2are unnecessary. The resistance R in
such op-amps the input diodes DI
current through Dl and D2. To reduce
offset
series with vin is used to limit the
R is connected between (-) input and Vref. [See
problems, a resistance RoM
Figure 9-1I(a).]
to ground, with sinusoi
Ifthe reference voltage Vrer is negative with respect
dal signal applied tothe (+)input,
the output waveform will be as shown in Figure
at Vsat on the other hand, when Un < Vref, U,
is at
9-1(c). When U,n > Vref, Ug is
+ i
be large enough to pass through Vref if
-Vsat Obviously, the amplitude of vin must
the switching action is to take place.
in which the reference voltage
Figure 9-2(a) shows an inverting comparator
In this circuit,
Vref iS applied to the (+)
input and in is applied to the (-) input.
divider with
Vref is obtained by using a 10-kN
potentiometer that forms a voltage
the dc supply voltages +
Vcc and -
VEE and the wiper connected to the (+)input.
As the wiper is moved toward -VEE, Vrer becomes more negative, while if it is
Vref Of a desired ampli
moved toward Vcc, Vrer becomes more [Link] a
+
adjusting the 10-k2 potentiometer.
tude and polarity can be obtained by simply
v, has the waveform shown in
With the sinusoidal input waveform, the output
Vref iS positive or negative, respec
Figure 9-2(b)or (c), depending on whether
tively.
9-3 ZERO-CROSSINGDETECTOR
detector or sine
An immediate application of the comparator is the zero-crossing
Figure
The basic comparator of Figure 9-1(a) or
wave-to-square wave converter. is set to zero
9-2(a) can be used as the
zero-crossing detector provided that Vref
as a zero-crossing
(Vref =0 V). Figure 9-3(a) shows the inverting comparator used
in Figure 9-3(b) shows when and in
detector. The output voltage v, waveform
volts. That is, the output v,
is
what direction an input signal in crosses zero in the
the input signal vin passes through zero
driven into negative saturationwhen
Uin passes through zero
in the negative di
positive direction. Conversely, when
and saturates positively.
rection, the output v, switches
be a slowly changing waveform, that
In some applications,the input Vin may
signal. Therefore, it will take
Uin more time to cross 0 V;
is, a low-frequency
one saturationvoltage to the other, On
therefore,U, may not switch quickly from
the output v,
the other hand, because of the noise at theop-amp's input terminals,
may fluctuate between +
two saturation voltages Vsat and -Vsat y detecting zero
of these problems can
reference crossings for noise voltages as well as Vin. Both
be cured with the use of regenerative or positive feedback that causes the output
345
Sec. 9-3 Zero-Crossing Detector
+Vcc
Protective
diodes
R, V
D, AD, 741
10k2
R
10k
-VEE
(a)
re
-V
0V
t
in ,> -V
(b) (c)
output
Figure 9-2 (a) Inverting comparator with input and
waveforms. (b) If Vrer is positive. (c) If Vrt is negative.
9
Chap.
346
Comparators and Converters
+Vcc
Clamp
R diodes
D, 0, 741/351
Vin RL
R -VEE
(a)
Vin
0V
-V
Vo
(b)
Figure 9-3 (a) Zero-crossing detector. (b) Its typical input and
output waveforms.
output due to noise signals
v, to change faster and eliminate any false transitions
at the input.
94 SCHMITT TRIGGER
Figure 9.4(a) shows an inverting comparator with positivefeedback. This circuit
converts an irregular-shaped waveform to a square wave or pulse. The circuit is
known as the Schmitt trigger or squaring circuit. The input voltage vim triggers
Sec. 9-4 Schmitt Trigger 347
+15V
Ro RR,)
W
741/351
-15 V
10 kS2
-VeE
R,
R,
(a)
Vin
V0.5 V
Vu 25 mV
0V
V-25 mVt
-V,-0.5 V +V.
Vut
Hysteresis
voltage
+V+14 (V,-V)
V.
-V-14V
(c)
(b)
Figure 9-4 (a) Inverting comparator as Schmitt (b) Input and
trigger.
output waveforms of Schmitt trigger. (c) v, versus vi, plot of the hysteri
sis voltage.
348
Comparators and Converters Chap.9
every time it exceeds certain voltage
levels
(changes the state of) the output v,
voltage V, and lower threshold voltage
as shown In V,
called the upper threshold
Figure 9-4(6).
are obtained by using the voltage
In Figure 9-4(a), these threshold voltages
divider R,-R2, where the voltage across
R, is fed back to the (+) input. The
threshold voltage that depends on
voltage across R, is a variable reference
the value and polarity of the output voltage v,. When
v, +Vsat the voltage =
V The input voltage Uin must be
across R, iscalled the upper threshold voltage,
from
slightly more than V,in order to cause the output v, to switch
positive
+Vsat to -Vsal As long as Uin < Vut, U, is at +Vsat Using the voltage-divider
rule.
Vu = R,R+ R2 (+Vsat) (9-1a)
On the other hand, when v, = -Vsat, the voltage across R, is referred to as
lower threshold voltage, V. Uin must be slightly more negative than V in order to
cause v, to switch from -Vsat to +Vsat In other words, for Uin values greater than
Vit, U,is at -Vat . V is given by the following equation
Vi = R R+ R
(-Vsa) (9-1b)
Thus, if the threshold voltages Vt and than the input noise
V are made larger
voltages,the positive feedback will eliminate the false output transitions. Also,
the positive feedback, because of its regenerative action, will make v, switch
fasterbetween Vsat and -Vsat. In Figure 9-4(a), resistanceRoy
+ is used RR,
to minimize the offset problems.
Figure 9-4(b) shows that the output of the Schmitt triggei is a square wave
when the input is a sine wave. Recall that a slightly different version of the
Schmitt trigger is used in the triangular wave and sawtooth wave generators of
Figures 8-23 and 8-24, [Link] these generators a noninverting compara
toris used as a Schmitt trigger. When the input is a triangular wave, the output of
the Schmitttrigger is a square wave, whereas if the input is a sawtooth wave, the
output is a pulse waveform.
dead
The comparator with positive feedback is said to exhibit hysteresis, a
band condition. That is, when the input ofthe comparator exceeds Vu, its output
switches from +Vsatto -Vsat and reverts back to its original state, Vsat When the +
input goes below Vi (see Figure 9-4(c)]. The hysteresis voltage is, of course,
equal to the difference between V and Vi. Therefore,
Vhy = Vu - V
R,
-(-Va)]
R + R
[+Vsa (9-2)
Sec. 9-4 Schmitt Trigger 349
EXAMPLE 9-1
In the circuit
of IFigure R, = 100
9.4(a),
R, = 56 2, = k2, Uin =1 Vpp sine wave,
+1S V. Determine the
and the op-amp is type 741 with supply voltages
V.. and V, and draw the output waveform.
hreshold voltages
SOLOTION For 741 the mavimum outnut voltage swing is t14 V,that is, + Vsat = 14
V and -Vsa = -14 V. From Equations (9-la) ana (9-1b),
Vut
100
56,100
(14) =25 mV
V
100
56.100
(-14) = -25 m V
9-4(b). From Equation (9-2), the
Ine output v, waveform is shown in Figure
hysteresis voltage Vhy = 50 mV.
