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Leadership
 The ability of influencing a group towards
achieving a goal
 Leadership has been defined in terms of
 traits, behavior, influence, interaction patterns, role
relationships, and occupation of an administrative position.
 A function of 3 variables –
 the individual - the leader himself
 the conditions / situation
 the group of followers
Leadership vs. Management

 Source: A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management by J.P. Kotter, 1990

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Trait Theories of Leadership

 Leadership Traits
 High energy level
Theories that consider  Desire to lead and take
personality, social, physical, or responsibilities
intellectual traits to  Honesty and integrity
differentiate leaders from non-  Self-confidence
leaders.
 Intelligence
 Role specific knowledge
 Determination
 Sociability
Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics
Stodgill Mann Stodgill Lord, DeVader, & Kirkpatrick and
Alliger Locke

(1948) (1959) (1974) (1986) (1991)

Intelligence Intelligence Achievement Intelligence Drive

Alertness Masculinity Persistence Masculinity Motivation
Insight Adjustment Insight Dominance Integrity
Responsibility Dominance Initiative Confidence
Initiative Extroversion Self-confidence Cognitive ability
Persistence Conservatism Responsibility Task knowledge
Self- Cooperativeness
confidence Tolerance
Sociability Influence
Sociability
Trait Theories of Leadership…
 Not very useful until matched with the Big Five
Personality Framework
 Essential Leadership Traits
 Extroversion
 Conscientiousness
 Openness
 Emotional Intelligence

 Traits can predict leadership, but they are better at

predicting leader emergence than effectiveness.

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What CEOs Identify as Key Leadership Traits

Quality CEOs Rating It Most Important (%)

Communication skills 52

Ability to motivate people 47

Honesty 34

Ability to listen 25

Team-building expertise 24

Analytical skills 19

Aggressiveness in business 10

Source: Survey conducted by American Express for the National Quality Institute. Reported in R. Nutt, “Survey Finds Leadership Key,” Vancouver Sun, June 1, 2000, p. D6.
 Styles Approach/Behavioral Theories
 University of Iowa
 Authoritarian or Autocratic
 Participative or Democratic
Theories proposing  Democratic-consultative
 Democratic-participative
that specific behaviors
 Delegative or Free Reign / Laissez-Faire
differentiate leaders
from non-leaders.
 University of Michigan
Leadership Model
 Job Centered and Employee Centered

 Ohio State Leadership Model

 Initiating Structure and Consideration
University of Michigan vs. Ohio State
Leadership Model
Michigan Leadership Model Ohio State Leadership Model

 Job - Centered  Initiating Structure

 Emphasizes technical or task aspects of  The extent to which a leader is likely to
the job define and structure his or her role and
 Leader takes charge to get the job done those of sub-ordinates in the search for
 Closely directs the subordinates with goal attainment
clear roles and goals
 Employee - Centered  Consideration
 Emphasizes on interpersonal relations  The extent to which a leader is likely to
 Takes a personal interest in the needs of have job relationships characterized by
employees and their welfare mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s
 Sensitive to subordinates and ideas, and regard for their feelings.
communicates to develop trust, support
and respect Independent Dimensions. One can
Opposite ends of a single dimension. show both the behaviors.
Styles Approach/Behavioral Theories
Managerial Grid -- Blake and Mouton

A two-
dimensional
view of
leadership
style that is
based on
concern for
people versus
concern for
production

Case Discussion: Leadership at Arkay

Research Findings

 When subordinates experience a lot of pressure because of deadlines

or unclear tasks, leaders who are people oriented will increase
employee satisfaction and performance.

 When the task is interesting or satisfying, there is less need for leaders
to be people oriented.

 When it’s clear how to perform the task and what the goals are,
leaders who are people oriented will increase employee satisfaction,
while those who are task oriented will increase dissatisfaction.

 When people don’t know what to do, or individuals don’t have the
knowledge or skills to do the job, it’s more important for leaders to
be production oriented than people oriented.
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Leadership That Gets Results

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Contingency Theories
 While trait and behavior theories do help us understand
leadership, an important component is missing: the
environment in which the leader exists

 Contingency theory adds this additional aspect to our

understanding leadership effectiveness studies

 Three key contingency models for leadership:

 Fiedler’s Model
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
 Path-Goal Theory

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Fiedler Model
 Effective group performance depends on the proper match between
leadership style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader
control.
 Assumes that leadership style (based on orientation revealed in LPC
questionnaire) is fixed
 think of all the co-workers you have ever had and describe one
person you least enjoyed working with
 Low LPC (<57): Task Oriented
 High LPC (>64):Relationship Oriented

 Considers Three Situational Factors:

 Leader-member relations: degree of confidence and trust in the leader
 Task structure: degree of structure in the jobs
 Position power: leader’s ability to hire, fire, and reward
 For effective leadership: must change to a leader who fits the situation or
change the situational variables to fit the current leader
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Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Used to determine if one’s style is task or relationship oriented (using LPC)
and if the situation matches the leader’s style to maximize performance.

Favorable Situation: Task Moderate Situation: Unfavorable

Oriented Leadership Relationship Oriented Situation: Task
Leadership Oriented Leadership
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Assessment of Fiedler’s Model
 Positives:
 Considerable evidence supports the model, especially if the
original eight situations are grouped into three

 Problems:
– The logic behind the LPC
scale is not well understood
– LPC scores are not stable
– Contingency variables are
complex and hard to
determine

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Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership Theory
A leader must adapt to the
situation e.g. development
level of subordinates
Leaders can be flexible in
their styles

Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership

Studies. Situational Leadership® is a registered trademark of the Center
for Leadership® Studies, Escondido, California. All rights reserved.

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Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership Model

Follower Unwilling Willing

Readiness

Participating/
Able Supporting
Delegating

Leadership
Styles

Unable Telling/Directi Selling/Coaching

ng

Focuses on followers’ readiness or maturity level. SLT shows how a leader should
adjust leadership style to reflect what followers want.
 Situational Leadership Theory

Ability to follow Willingness to Follow Leadership Behavior

Unable Unwilling Give clear and specific directions

Unable Willing Display high task orientation

Able Unwilling Use a supportive and participatory style

Able Willing Doesn’t need to do much

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 Path Goal Theory -- Robert House
 How leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals.
 Key inputs from Expectancy Theory of motivation
 Leader
 Defines goals
 Clarifies path
 Removes obstacles
 Provides support

 Emphasizes on the relationship between the leader’s style, the

characteristics of the subordinates and the work setting.
 In contrast to Fiedler’s, House considers Leader’s style to be
flexible and can be changed to adapt to the situation at hand.
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 Path Goal Leadership Behaviors
 Directive - letting subordinates know
what is expected of them, giving
guidance and direction, scheduling /
structuring work.
 Supportive - being friendly and
approachable, showing concern for
subordinate welfare, and treating
members as equals.
 Participative - consulting
subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and
allowing participation in decision
making.
 Achievement-oriented - setting
challenging goals, expecting
The same leader can display any subordinates to perform at high levels,
or all leadership styles. encouraging them and showing
21 confidence their abilities.
Path-Goal Theory: How it Works?

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory
It describes leadership and prescribes leadership.
Leaders treat followers in a collective way. They create in-groups and out-
groups, and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance
ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.

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Contemporary Leadership Theories

 Transactional Leadership (Burns, 1978)

 Leaders who guide or motivate their followers
in the direction of established goals by clarifying
role and task requirements

 Transformational Leadership (Burns,

1978)
 Leaders who inspire followers to go beyond
their own self-interests for the good of the
organization
 Leaders who have a profound and extraordinary
effect on their followers (Charisma)
Transformational Leaders
 Inspire followers to transcend their self-interests for
the good of the organization

• Contingent Reward
Transactional • Management by Exception (active)
• Management by Exception (passive)

• Idealized Influence
Transformational • Inspirational Motivation
• Intellectual Stimulation
• Individualized Consideration
Transformational Leadership Factors The 4
“I”s

 Idealized Influence
- Acting as strong role models
- High standards of moral and ethical conduct
- Making others want to follow the leader’s vision
 Inspirational Motivation
- Communicating high expectations
- Inspiring followers to commitment and engagement in
shared vision
- Using symbols & emotional appeals to focus group
members to achieve more than self-interest
Transformational Leadership Factors The 4
“I”s
 Intellectual Stimulation
- Stimulating followers to be creative and innovative
- Challenging their own beliefs and valuing those of leader and
organization
- Supporting followers to try new approaches and develop
innovative ways of dealing with organization issues

 Individualized Consideration
- Listening carefully to the needs of followers
- Acting as coaches to assist followers in becoming fully
actualized
- Helping followers grow through personal challenges
 Transformational Leadership &
Charisma

 Charisma - A special personality characteristic that gives

a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is
reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the
person being treated as a leader (Weber, 1947)

 Charismatic Leadership Theory (House, 1976)

 Charismatic leaders act in unique ways that have specific
charismatic effects on their followers

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Contemporary Leadership Theories…
Level 5 Leadership – James C. Collins
Authentic Leadership
 Authentic leaders know
who they are, know what
they believe in and value,
and act on those values
and beliefs openly and
candidly.
Dispersed Leadership
Mentoring
 A mentor is often a senior
employee who sponsors and
supports a less-experienced
employee (a protégé).

Team Leadership
Self leadership
Contemporary Leadership Styles
 Strategic Leadership
 Spiritual Leadership
 Servant Leadership

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Global Implications
 Primarily studied in English-speaking countries
 GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior
Effectiveness) research provides country-specific insights
 Indian employees want action-oriented and charismatic leaders.
 Brazilian teams prefer leaders who are high in consideration,
participative, and have high LPC scores
 French workers want a leader who is high on initiating structure
and task-oriented
 Egyptian employees value team-oriented, participative leadership,
while keeping a high-power distance
 Chinese workers may favor a moderately participative style.
 Leaders should take culture into account
Gender in Leadership
Where Female Managers Do Better: A Scorecard

None of the five studies set out to find gender differences. They stumbled on them while
compiling and analyzing performance evaluations.

Skill (Each check mark denotes which group MEN WOMEN

scored higher on the respective studies)
Motivating Others
Fostering Communication *
Producing High-Quality Work
Strategic Planning *
Listening to Others
Analyzing Issues *

* In one study, women’s and men’s scores in these categories were statistically even.

Data: Hagberg Consulting Group, Management Research Group, Lawrence A. Pfaff, Personnel
Decisions International Inc., Advanced Teamware Inc.

Source: R. Sharpe, “As Leaders, Women Rule,” BusinessWeek, November 20, 2000, p. 75 [Link]
Followership
 Ineffective followers may be
more of a handicap to an
organization than ineffective
leaders.
 What qualities do effective
followers have?
 They manage themselves well.
 They are committed to a purpose
outside themselves.
 They build their competence and focus
their efforts for maximum impact.
 They are courageous, honest, and
credible.
Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership
Characteristics of Individual Effect on Leadership
Experience/training Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Professionalism Substitutes for relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership

Indifference to rewards Neutralizes relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership

Characteristics of Job
Highly structured task Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Provides its own feedback Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Intrinsically satisfying Substitutes for relationship-oriented leadership

Characteristics of organization
Explicit formalized goals Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Rigid rules and procedures Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Cohesive work groups Substitutes for relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership

Source: Based on S. Kerr and J. M. Jermier, “Substitutes for Leadership: Their Meaning and Measurement,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, December 1978, p. 378.

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 Global Implications
 These leadership theories are primarily studied in English-
speaking countries
 GLOBE does have some country-specific insights
 Indian employees want action-oriented and charismatic leaders.
 Brazilian teams prefer leaders who are high in consideration,
participative, and have high LPC scores
 French workers want a leader who is high on initiating structure
and task-oriented
 Egyptian employees value team-oriented, participative leadership,
while keeping a high-power distance
 Chinese workers may favor a moderately participative style.
 Leaders should take culture into account
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Summary and Managerial Implications
• Leadership is central to understanding group behavior as the leader provides the
direction.

• Extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness all show consistent relationships to

leadership.

• Behavioral approaches have narrowed leadership down into two usable dimensions.

• Need to take into account the situational variables, especially the impact of followers.

• Research on charismatic and transformational leadership has made major

contributions to our understanding of leadership.

• Leaders must be seen as authentic and trustworthy.

• Investment must be made in the future through mentoring and training leaders.

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Optional
Some of the movies
depicting Leadership you
would like to watch
 Everest General Sam Manekshaw on
 Lion King Leadership
 Lawrence of Arabia
[Link]
 Hoosiers =eSvLFPFXjc8
 12 O’Clock High
 9 to 5 Note leadership dimensions,
elements, or behaviors as you
 The Memphis Belle
watch the movies.
 Saving Private Ryan
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