Ecology

Ecology (Ökologie in German) was coined in 1866 by German scientist Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919)
from two Greek words; 'oikos' meaning home or dwelling place and 'logos' meaning study.
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment.
Environment: all the factors affecting an organism. Biotic and abiotic factors.

Branches of ecology
1. Plant ecology: study of the distribution and abundance of plants and the effect of
environmental factors of both the abundance of plants and interactions among plants and
between plants and other organisms.
2. Animal ecology: scientific study of animals and how they are related to and interact with
each other as well as their environment determining the distribution and abundance of
organisms.
Plant ecology and animal ecology form natural ecology.
3. Human ecology: interdisciplinary and trans-disciplinary study of the relationship between
humans and their natural, social and technological environment involving a variety of
disciplines: geography, sociology, psychology, anthropology, public health, home economics,
natural ecology and others.
Ecology is considered environmental biology because it involves measuring factors affecting the
environment, studying the distribution of living organisms and finding how living organisms
depend on one another and their non-living environment for survival.

Levels of ecology study

1. Organismal ecology: study of the adaptations that allow organisms to live in a habitat and
organism relationship to one another. It studies morphological, physiological and behavioural
adaptation that gives organisms chances for survival in their habitats.
2. Population ecology: study of organisms of the same species which can interbreed and are
occupied in the same geographical area. It studies number of organisms of the same species in
an area and how their population sizes change over time.
Population is identified by area of inhabitation which have natural and artificial boundaries.
Natural boundaries include rivers, mountains, deserts. Artificial boundaries include mowed
grass, roads and other man-made structures.
3. Community ecology: study of populations of different species living together in their habitat.
In a fresh water pond habitat, communities present include populations of microbes (bacteria
and protists), animals (copepods, annelids, insects, pond snails, fishes, tadpoles and frogs),
plants (algae, reed-like plants which occur along the pond margin, rooted plants which can be
floating or submerged in the pond).
Community on a rotten log of wood: population of decomposers (bacteria, fungi), insects
(termites, ants), lizards, small birds.
Community ecology involves the study of interactions between these organisms and their
consequences. This can be competition among organisms of the same species (homospecific
or intraspecific) or among organisms of different species (heterospecific or interspecific).
Interspecific species can be parasitism, predation, herbivory, pollination.
All these interactions help to check population sizes and can also impact ecological and
evolutionary processes affecting plant and animal diversities.
4. Ecosystem ecology: composed of biotic and abiotic components interacting together in their
habitat. Main abiotic components include air, water and soil. Ecosystem ecology deals with
nutrient cycling and energy flow.

Terms in Ecology
Ecological habitats: habitat is a place where the shelter and nutrient needs of an organism is met.
It can be microhabitat (very small habitat e.g bucket of water on a rock surface) or macrohabitat
(zebra living in a savanna).
Type and kind of habitats found in an area include average yearly rainfall, average amount of
sunlight each day and annual temperature range.

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sunlight each day and annual temperature range.
Temperature, amount of rainfall, soil type and other abiotic components determine the type of
plant that will grow in a habitat. The type of plant in that habitat and other factors determines the
type of animals that will be found in the habitat.
Based on amount of fluid medium present in habitats, they are grouped into:
a. Aquatic habitat: freshwater habitat, marine habitat and brackish or estuarine habitat.
b. Terrestrial habitat: bush, farmland, rainforest, savanna, deserts.
c. Arboreal habitat: tree trunks and tree tops.

*Ecological niche: biological status or role or functional position of an organism in its habitat or
ecosystem. e.g Caterpillar and aphid on a plant; caterpillar lives on the leaves and feed on them,
aphid lives in the young shoot and sucks its sap for feeding. Ecological niche determines the
functions of an organism in its habitat including its mode of feeding, manner in which it utilizes the
environment resources of energy and nutrients, reproduction mode and the place it lives in the
habitat.
Every ecosystem has limited amount of resources and it is assumed there are rules about how the
resources can be used.
One rule that guides how new species are added to the community is that the niches of the new
species should be different from the niches of already existing species. The type of species added
depend on the type which are already present and the rule followed.

Biosphere: portion of the earth that contains living species which include atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Lithosphere: solid surface layer part of the earth.
Atmosphere: layer of air that stretches above the lithosphere.
Hydrosphere: the portion of the earth occupied by water bodies such as oceans, seas and other
water bodies of the coastal water and inland water bodies (rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and
springs).
Air is the gaseous envelope that overlaps all the three spheres. The principal component of gases
which are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon(iv) oxide. Other components include peculiar gases called
inert gases (argon, krypton, xenon, neon and helium).

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a self-supporting unit that is made up of a living part (biotic: plants and animals)
and non-living part (abiotic factors: water, soil, air etc). Various ecosystems form the biosphere.
Abiotic components: are the non-living chemicals and physical factors in the environment that
affect ecosystems. Abiotic factors play crucial role in making the organisms stay alive. They include
source of energy and inorganic nutrients like CO2, water, nitrogen.
They are grouped into climatic, edaphic, chemical and atmospheric gases.
• Climatic factors (light, temperature, wind/air, humidity)
• Topographic factors (slope, altitude), physiographic factors (land, water, soil and rock
material that forms the land surface; surface features of the earth)
• Edaphic factors (soil components, structure, pH)
• Chemical factors (pH)

Temperature
Temperature varies greatly across different parts of the earth and throughout the air. Temperature
affects the rate of evaporation and transpiration and causes seasonal changes in weather. Seasonal
variation in vegetation occur because seeds need warm temperatures to germinate. Plants and
animals have special adaptation that makes them suited to the temperature of their specific
environment. Temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis, cellular respiration and
decomposition. The rate of reaction increases with increasing temperature and decreases at lower
temperature.
Endothermic animals: homeothermic; Ectothermic animals: poikilothermic.
Endothermic animals regulate their body temperature so they are not affected by extreme
temperatures and are able to live in habitats over a wide range of temperature, ectothermic animals

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temperatures and are able to live in habitats over a wide range of temperature, ectothermic animals
cannot (change in environmental temperature will affect their distribution and activities).
In cold regions, animals have insulating fat layer or hibernate during colder months. In very hot
regions, animals have adapted by becoming Nocturnals in their habitats.

Rainfall/water
Main source of water is precipitation. Rainfall occur due to interchange of water between the earth
surface and the atmosphere (hydrologic cycle).
Two important things in hydrologic cycle are precipitation and evapotranspiration.
Annual rainfall determines the type of vegetation in any region.
Evergreen forest: found in tropical regions with heavy rainfall throughout the year.
Grasslands: regions of heavy during summer and low rainfall during winter.
Water is one of the most important factor in the ecosystem.
Water is the main component of living cell and is essential for all living organisms.
• Human body: 80% water
• Plant body: 90% water
Water is unevenly distributed (abundant in aquatic ecosystem and less abundant in desert).
Different plants are adapted to different availability of water.
- Xerophytes: can live in dry habitats in regions with low rainfall. They are resistant to drought
and have to cope with shortage of water, high temperature, light intensity and dry warm
winds.
- Mesophytes: they need average regular water supply to survive.
- Hydrophytes: can survive while been partially or wholly submerged in water or very wet soil.
They have to cope with surplus supply of water.

Wind/Air
Wind is air in motion and it is a vital environmental factor. It affects plant and other organisms, it
modifies the water and light condition of a particular region. Wind brings about anatomical,
physiological and morphological changes in plants e.g breakage and uprooting of plants,
deformation, erosion and deposition, salt spray.
Wind accelerates transpiration, removes soil moisture at high velocities, causes soil erosion
(removal of rich soil surface including organic matter and fine material particles).
Excessive transpiration leads to desiccation and death of apical meristem in plants leading to dwarf,
profusely branched and small leaved plants.
Sand particles blow with wind and deposit on leaf surfaces, reducing photosynthesis, increasing
temperature and leading to rapid desiccation.
Atmospheric air: 78% N, 21% O, 4% CO2 and water vapour.
• Oxygen is used in cellular respiration and combustion which is returned to the atmosphere by
photosynthesis.
• CO2 is a product of cellular respiration and decayed organic matter. It is removed from the
atmosphere by plants during the process of photosynthesis.
• Nitrogen is needed by all living organisms for the synthesis of proteins.
Amount of water vapour in air causes weather changes. Clouds in the sky are made up of water
vapour and the condensation of these vapour into droplets create rain and snow.

Humidity
Humidity is atmospheric moisture in vapour form. Humidity is influenced by intensity of solar
radiation, temperature, altitude, wind, water status of soil etc. Low temperature caused high
relative humidity by decreasing the capacity of air for moisture. Processes such as transpiration,
absorption of water etc are influenced by atmospheric humidity. Humidity plays important roles in
life of plants and animals.

Topographic (physiographic) factors: concerned with physical geography of the earth. They
influence vegetation which causes variation in climate of a geographic region ultimately giving rise
to characteristic microclimate.
Physiographic factors: slope and altitude

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Physiographic factors: slope and altitude
a. Slope: slope is the gradient or steepness of a particular surface of the earth. Slope affects the
rate of water runoff.
Steep slope α run off which causes soil erosion. The soil tends to be shallow and infertile with
reduced and stunted plant growth and few animals are present.
Gentle slope favours slower flow of surface water, reduces erosion and increases availability
of water to plants. Direction and steepness of slope also influences the surface temperature of
the soil.
b. Altitude: height of the land above the sea level. At high altitudes, temperature is lower, wind
speed is greater and rainfall is lower. Environment at higher altitudes are more likely to
experience snow conditions. Altitude plays a role in vegetation zones of any area. Less plants
and animals are found at high altitudes.
Plants are more abundant at sea level than mid-altitude levels where plants experience
stunted growth.

Edaphic factors
Factors related to soil including drainage, soil texture, chemical properties e.g pH.
Edaphic factors affect the distribution of organisms; decomposers, plants and animals that define
certain types of ecosystem. There are plants and animals restricted to a particular soil type.
Components of soil: mineral matter, soil organic matter/humus, soil water/ soil solution, soil air or
atmosphere.
Decomposed organic matter (humus) gives top soil it's dark colour. Humus supplies nutrients and
maintains soil water retainability. Soil rich in humus is fertile.
Soil type is determined by size of soil particles.
• Soil size particles: sandy > loam > clay
Loam is a mixture of soil particle types.
• Soil texture (feels in the hand): sandy soil feels gritty, clay soil feels sticky, loam soil feel
stompy.
• Water retention capacity: clay > loam > sand
pH
It is referred to as hydrogen ion potential. The pH scale ranges from 0-14. Litmus paper or universal
indicator can be used to determine acidity or alkalinity of soil.

Measurement of abiotic factors

Abiotic data can be collected using instruments that avoid issue of objectivity as they directly
measure quantitative data.
Aquatic
1. Salinity: electrical conductivity with a data logger or by the density of water (highly saline
water is denser than low salt water).
2. pH: pH meter, data logging pH probe, indicator solutions.
3. Wave action: dynomometer measures force in waves
4. Turbidity: secchi disc, nephtometer, turbidmeter
5. Flow velocity: flow meter (timing how long it takes a floating object to travel certain
distance).
6. Temperature: thermometer (electric thermometer preferably coz ordinary thermometers are
too delicate for field work).
7. Dissolved oxygen: meter with oxygen sensitive electrodes
8. Water depth: graduated meter rule
9. Water flow/speed: water speed meter
Terrestrial
10. Light intensity: light meter
11. Wind speed: digital anemometer (Beufort's scale is used)
12. Particle sizes: series of sieves
13. Slope: clinometer and compass
14. Soil moisture: weighing the sample and heating to know the water content present.
15. Mineral content: loss on ignition test

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 15. Mineral content: loss on ignition test

Biotic components
Biotic components of the ecosystem are living things that shape the ecosystem, each biotic factor
needs energy to do work and for proper growth. Biotic components include the producer,
consumer, decomposer.
• Producers: land and aquatic plants such as algae, microscopic phytoplanktons in water
bodies. Plants use sugar from photosynthesis and nutrients such as N, P, to produce variety of
organic materials such as starches, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
• Consumers: herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, scavengers (feed on dead animals e g vulture,
ant, flies), detritivores (detritus feeders e.g earthworm, termite, crab. They feed on organic
wastes and fragments of dead organisms).
• Decomposers: bacteria and fungi. They play major role in nutrient cycling.
Producers - consumers (10: herbivores (rats), 20: carnivores (hawks, killer whales, lions), 3°:
omnivores (crocodiles, rats, humans)/ carnivores).

Associations
Five relationships within or between overlapping niches: competition, predation, commensalism,
mutualism, parasitism.
Symbiosis: any close long term relationship between two different biological organisms which can
be mutualistic, commensalistic, parasitic. Symbionts may be the same or different species.
Symbiosis can be obligatory or facultative.
• Obligatory: entire dependence on one by the other.
• Facultative (optional): survival on independence is guaranteed i.e symbionts can survive
independently
Mutualism (++ relationship)
Types of mutualism based on survival mode (forms of mutualism)
i. Obligate mutualism: organisms are completely dependent on the other organism and cannot
survive independently e.g lichen
ii. Facultative mutualism: organisms can survive without the other organism.
iii. Diffuse mutualism: one organism can live with multiple partners.
Types of mutualism based on roles and purpose
i. Trophic mutualism: example in lichen (algae or cyanobacteria and fungus). Fungus provide
nutrients from digesting rock, algae provide sugar from photosynthesis.
ii. Defensive mutualism: one offers protection, the other provides food or shelter e.g ants and
aphids.
iii. Dispersive mutualism: one gets food and it helps to disperse the pollen of the other organism
e.g bees and flowers.
Clown fish and sea anemone: mutualism.
Commensalism: + 0 relationship e.g barnacles that grow on whales and other marine animals for
mobility, evading predators and feeding opportunities.
There are four types of commensalism:
i. Chemical commensalism: one bacterium producing chemicals to sustain the other species.
Chemical commensalism is a commensal relationship that forms usually between two
different species, in which one specie benefits from the relationship by feeding on the
chemical byproducts that are not used by, or produced as waste products of another species.
The latter specie are neither harmed nor benefit from the interaction. E.g dung beetles and
the organisms around them that produce feces.
ii. Inquilinism: one species using the body or body cavity of another species as a surface to live
on or when one organism lives in the nest burrow or breeding space of another organism e.g a
bird (inquiline) living in a tree hole (host).
iii. Metabiosis is a relationship that involves one species of organism accidently, or
unintentionally creating and providing a home for another species just by going about its
daily activities. Hermit crab and mollusc shells, maggots living on a dead organism.
Pd: one species is dependent on another organism for survival.

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 Pd: one species is dependent on another organism for survival.
iv. Phoresy is a type of commensalism in which one species of organism uses another species as
a means of transportation, and attaches itself to the organism. E.g mites and insects.
Pd: one organism attaches itself to another organism for the purpose of transportation.
Parasitism (+ -): parasite living off its host. Parasitism is different from parasitoidism in which the
host is always killed e.g when one organism lays its eggs inside another organism and the organism
is later killed by the hatchings.
Ectoparasites: ticks, leeches, fleas
Endoparasites: tapeworms, roundworm (intestinal worms).
• Social parasitism: social ant species without worker ants living among another ant species
that have workers.
Parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life because as many as half of all animals have at
least one parasitic mode of life in their life cycle. It is also frequent in plants and fungi.
Almost all animal species are hosts of one or more species of parasites.

Predation: predators eat prey e.g lions eating gazelles or zebras, owls or cats eating mice.
Competition: struggle for resources. It can be intraspecific or homospecific (within a species) and
interspecific and heterospecific (between species).
i. Consumptive or exploitative competition: competition for food or building materials.
ii. Interference competition: competition for territory
iii. Pre-emptive competition: individuals occupy space and prevent access to resources by other
individuals. When organisms compete for new territory by arriving there first, it is called
preemptive competition e.g lions and hyenas hunting for prey
Competition and predation are sometimes considered forms of symbiosis.

Saprophytism: fungi and bacteria secrete digestive enzymes into dead organic materials and
absorb the products of the digestion e.g mould growing on bread.

Feeding relationships
Food chain: linear sequence of organisms through which energy and nutrients pass as one
organism eats another. The position of an organism in its food chain is its trophic level.
Components of food chain
- Primary producers: autotrophs present at the base of the food chain e.g plants, algae,
cyanobacteria.
- Primary consumers: herbivores
- Secondary consumers: carnivores
- Tertiary consumers: carnivores that eat secondary consumers e.g weevils, big fishes
- Quaternary consumers: they eat tertiary consumers.
Organisms at the top of the food chain are called apex consumers.
E.g Algae -- mollusc -- slimy sculpin fish -- Chinook Salmon
- Decomposers: not included in most food chains. They feed on dead organic matter. Fungi and
bacteria are the major decomposers. Others are detritivores (debris or detritus eaters e.g
earthworms, crabs, slugs, vultures, some insects). In addition to eating dead organic matter,
they break them down and make them available for fungi and bacteria.

Food web: interlinked or interconnected food chains. Complex interrelated Food chains make up
food web. Food web maintains the stability of the ecosystem.
Primary producers: diatoms, algae, flagellates
Primary consumers: cyclopoids, amphipods, rotifers, shrimps.
Secondary consumers: small fishes
Tertiary consumers: larger fishes
All fishes are eaten by sea lampreys.

Energy flow in an ecosystem

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Energy flow in an ecosystem
**Only about 10% energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next.
Processes that reduce energy transfer between trophic levels are respiration, growth, reproduction,
defecation, non-predatory death.
Organisms utilize chemical energy from their food as energy sources. The chemical energy is
obtained by conversion of the radiant energy of the sun. The radiant energy is in the form of
electromagnetic waves which are released from the sun during the transmutation of hydrogen to
helium. The chemical energy from food is converted to potential energy in living organisms by the
arrangement of food in a particular manner.
In any ecosystem, there should be unidirectional flow of energy.
Energy flow is based on the two laws of thermodynamics
- First law: the amount of energy in the universe is constant, it can change from one form to
another but can neither be created nor destroyed. Light energy can be converted into
chemical energy or heat energy. This form of energy cannot be converted to EM radiation.
- Second law: non random energy can be changed without degradation into heat energy.

Main source of energy is sun.

Approximately 57% is absorbed from the atmosphere and scattered into space.
35% is sent to heat water bodies and land areas and evaporate water.
Approximately 8% energy strike the plant surface out of which 10-15% are reflected, 5% is
transmitted, 80-85% is absorbed and average of 2% (0.5-3.5%) is used for photosynthesis while
the rest is converted into heat energy.

Living organisms can use energy in two forms: radiant energy in form of electromagnetic wave
such as light and fixed energy which is potential chemical energy stored in food.
Autotrophs can fix radiant energy using inorganic substances. Heterotrophs depend on autotrophs.
Consumers obtain energy from living organisms while decomposers obtain energy from dead
organisms.
When light falls on green surfaces of plants, a part of it is transformed into chemical energy which is
stored in various organic products in plants.
When organisms consume plants as food, energy accumulated in plants convert into kinetic energy
with conversion into heat.

Ecological pyramids
The higher the steps, the lower the number of individual organisms and the larger their sizes.
- Pyramid of number: number of organisms decrease from base to apex.
- Pyramid of biomass: biomass of organisms decrease from base to apex. Dry weight is known
by destructive sampling.
- Pyramid of energy: successive decrease in energy level from base to apex. It shows the role of
organisms at each trophic level in energy transfer. Energy flow is unidirectional and energy
used by autotrophs come from outside source. At each step in a food chain, some amount of
P.E is lost as heat.
Energy flow in an ecosystem is unidirectional and non-cyclic.

BIOTIC COMMUNITIES
Biome: major biological communities that occur over large area of land. Biome is a major
geographically extensive ecosystem structurally characterized by its dominant life forms.
Terrestrial biomes are distinguished on the basis of their mature or climax vegetation.
Aquatic biomes especially marine are classified on the basis of their dominant animals.
Environmental factors affecting location of biomes: climate, latitude, topography, fire.

Tropical Africa: Biomes present are rainforest, guinea savannah, Sahel savannah, Desert, Swamp,
Freshwater, Marine and Estuarine types.

Local biotic communities or biomes are majorly classified into two in Nigeria:
• Forest

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 • Forest
• Savannah
Annual rainfall decreases progressively from South to North and the vegetation changes
accordingly.
Factors that determine the distribution of forest and savannah are mean annual rainfall, length and
severity of dry season, minimum relative humidity and temperature.

FOREST
Forest is an extensive community of plants dominated by tall trees.
Main forest biomes are:
1. Tropical rainforest: two types in Nigeria
a. Lowland rainforest
b. Montane rainforest
It is the most luxuriant of all vegetation types.
2. Coniferous forest
3. Temperature deciduous forest

Tropical rainforest
It is the most luxuriant of all vegetation types.
Xteristics
• Found near the equator
• Plenty sunshine and heavy rainfall of about 1500mm with over 9 months duration.
• High temp of about 250C to 260C.
• Relative humidity of at least 70%.
• They're among the most threatened ecosystem globally due to large scale fragmentation as a
result of human activities such as heavy logging and agricultural clearance.
• Rainforest states in Nigeria: Oyo, Edo, Imo, Cross rivers, Ogun, Ondo, Rivers states.
• Dominated by tall trees with average maximum height of 30m with whole spread canopied
often touching one another.
• Woody climbers with stems that climb up and hang down from trees called lianas.
• Growth of grasses and the ground level is not permitted.
• There are five layers of plant community; three top tree layers (emergent trees which show
up above the canopy, upper layer of tall trees which form continuous canopy, middle layer of
trees with narrow crowns), 4th is shrub layer and 5th is the brown vegetation.
• Tree trunks and branches provide support and exposure for epiphytes like ferns, orchids,
mosses.
• Ground vegetation consist of non woody plants like lichens, liverworts, fungi.
• Trees are evergreen with massive buttress roots, thin backs, broad dark green lethally leaves
with drip tips.
• Economic trees present are:
i. Milica excelsa (Iroko)
ii. Khaya ivorensis (African Mahogany)
iii. Terminalia (afara)
iv. Triplochiton (Obeche)
v. Elaies guinesis (oil palm)
• Animal fauna present include antelopes, elephants, wild pigs, reptiles such as lizards, turtles,
snakes, arthropods such as millipedes, centipedes, insects.
• Due to dominant tall trees, arboreal animals found are monkeys, birds, flying squirrels, bats.

Montane forest
Biotic communities of mountains. It is a forest with mountains and xteristics include low
temperature, high rainfall, high relative humidity, scattered few tall trees and grasses. Grasses form
the most predominant biotic community with abundant grazing animals.
Found in Taraba, Plateau, Cross rivers states in Nigeria.

Savannah tropical grassland

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Savannah tropical grassland
Mixed woodland and grassland with sufficiently spaced trees without closed canopies. Open
canopies permit light to reach the ground supporting growth of an unbroken herbaceous layer
consisting primarily of grasses.
• Scattered trees without canopy formed to support growth of grasses.
The main savanna region is in Africa, it forms a broad belt which covers the North, East and South
of the tropical rainforest region of West Africa and Zaire basin.
Found globally in West Africa, Brazil, Northern Argentina, India and China, Northern and Eastern
Australia.
Savannah region has hot, wet season which alternate into cool and dry season.
Major world grassland biomes of the world are:
1. Temperate grassland with low rainfall, hot wet summer and cold dry winter.
2. Tropical grassland with high temperature, distinct wet and dry seasons, annual rainfall of
500mm to 1500mm, monthly temperature range of 29°C in hot seasons to 18°C in cold
seasons.
Most of the rain occur during the hot season from May to October in West Africa region.
West Africa savannah (+ Nigeria) has three belts:
1. Guinea savannah (bordering rainforest) in Benue, Kaduna, Kwara states.
2. Sudan savannah in Borno, Sokoto, Niger, Gongola, Bauchi states.
3. Sahel savannah around lake Chad.

Southern Guinea savannah

• Mean annual rainfall of 500-1250mm.
• Lowest monthly relative humidity is above 28%
• Open savanna woodland with tall grasses up to 3m high.
• Trees with short trunks and broad leaves, usually up to 17m high but rarely up to 30m high.
• Grassland vegetation with scattered trees and shrubs. Green luxuriant vegetation in the rainy
season.
• Some herbs and grasses flower in dry season, trees shed leaves, vegetation turn dry and
brown.
• Several trees are adapted to fire by possessing thick fire resistant barks. They also produce
new suckers soon after each fire. Grasses have remarkable powers of producing new suckers
from the basis of old shoots.
• Savannah trees species
i. Daniella oliveri (African balsam)
ii. Terminalia (Afara)
iii. Lophira and Khaya senegalensis (Mahogany)
iv. Vitellaria paradoxa (shea butter tree)
v. Parkia biglobosa (Locust bean)
• Grasses found are Andropogon gayanus, Pennisetum, Panicum
• Animals found are guinea fowls, rats, grasscutter, deer, snakes, birds, termites.

Northern Guinea Savannah

• Mean annual rainfall above 500mm with longer dry season than Southern Guinea savannah.
• Vegetation is dominated by grasses with scattered trees and shrubs.
• Shorter grass species than in Southern Guinea savannah with thorny bushes.
• Common trees found are Isoberlina doka, Monotes kerstingii.
• Support a wide variety of herbivores and carnivores.

Sahel savannah
In West Africa: from Senegal to Chad and from Sahara to northern Guinea savannah
In Nigeria: occur only at the Northeast corner in Borno state near Lake Chad.
• Variable rainfall with annual range of 250-500mm conc in 3 to 4 months of the year.
• Severe and long dry season resulting in drought.
• Vegetation is open thorn savanna with trees up to 10m height having small leaves and thorns.
• Grasses are short and sparse.

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 • Grasses are short and sparse.
• Common plants are
i. Acacia (gum Arabic)
ii. Leptadenia spartium
iii. Date palm
• Common grasses: Aristida stipoides.
• Seasonal changes in temperature with less annual fires due to sparse vegetation.
• Common animals are: gazelles, buffalo, giraffe, elephant, zebra, bush cow, lions and hyena.

Desert
Large barren area with little or no rainfall. Two types of deserts; hot and cold desert.
▫ Hot desert: Sahara and Arabian desert occupying North Africa and South western Asia, North
West India and Central Asia, Central Australia and South western region of North America.
▫ Cold desert: found in Antarctic Greenland, northern and western China, Turkestan, Iran and
Nearctic areas.
• Plants have small, reduced or no leaves, water resistant cuticles and spines to deter
herbivory. Long lived plants survive for years with deep root system for tapping underground
moisture.
• Some animals conserve water while some remain in state of dormancy until the conditions
are favourable when they reproduce rapidly before returning to dormancy.
• Vegetation is scanty with annual rainfall of below 250mm.
• Sunshine is intense with high temperature during the day but low temperature at night.
• Animals present in this zone include black bear, deer, red fox and badger, rodents, insects,
reptiles, birds.
• Plants include cactus, Bryophyllum , sisal hemp, opuntia.
• Natural desert belt of the Sahara does not extend into Nigeria.
Desert encroachment has occurred in extreme Northern boundaries of Nigeria including
Sokoto, Borno.

Swamp
A swamp is a lowland flooded with shrubs and trees.
Two main types of swamp communities in Nigeria are saltwater (estuarine) and freshwater.

Estuarine (saltwater) is found in Lagos, Ondo, Delta, Rivers, Cross river, Akwa ibom. In Estuarine,
marine tide causes mixing of saltwater of the sea and freshwater from inflowing rivers into the sea.
• Estuary occurs as marshes, deltas, lagoons dense with mangrove plants.
• Mean annual rainfall in the belt is over 2000mm.
• During the rainy season, the river water brings down large amount of sand and silt which are
deposited at the Delta. Flow of river subsides in dry season and sea water brought in by tides
makes the estuary brackish.
• Vegetation is dense with plants having prop roots and breathing roots (pneumatophores).
• Prominent plants of the mangrove community are
i. Red mangrove (Rhizophora racemosa)
ii. White mangrove (Avicennia nitida)
iii. Coconut (Coco nucifera) on sandy beaches along the shores.
Animals found are:
i. Fishes: Periophthalamus, tilapia species, angel fish.
ii. Shelled animals: bloody clam (arca), barnacles, mangrove crab, hermit crab, lagoon crab
iii. Mosquitoes and birds such as heron.

Freshwater is a body of water formed mainly from inland waters and containing very low salinity
e.g rivers, ponds, streams, lakes.
Two types of freshwater:
• Lotic: flows continuously in a specific direction e.g rivers, streams springs.
• Lentic: stagnant, do not flow e.g lakes, ponds, dams.
Rainfall is very heavy, relative high humidity, evaporation of the river is low. Rivers overflow their

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Rainfall is very heavy, relative high humidity, evaporation of the river is low. Rivers overflow their
banks during rainy season and flood the land making the soil marshy and waterlogged.
Vegetation is rich with many types of trees.
• Trees present: palms and fibre plants such as Raphia species, Pandamus sp, Synphonia sp,
Alstonia sp. Fibre plants are used for building canoes.
• Other plants present: water lily, water hyacinth, spirogyra, water lettuce, hornwort, water
weed.
• Herbs: sedges, bushes, grasses, reeds and other floating plants.
Oxygen content is low, animals found have accessory respiratory organs e.g snails (biomphalaria),
lung fish (polypterus), mud fish (Clarias).

POPULATION
Population is a group of organisms of the same species occupying the same place at a given time.
Population density: average number of individuals of a species per unit area of a habitat.
Population density = number of individuals/unit area
A population has individual organisms that are similar in morphology, physiology, behaviour and
can interbreed.
A population may vary in number, density, genetic diversity and total mass of individuals.
Population ecology helps to understand dynamics (changes and functioning of an ecosystem).
Population does not grow indefinitely, population density is always put in check by environmental
factors.
Population distribution/dispersion
Population dispersion: uniform, random and clumped.
Uniform population dispersion is equally spaced apart.
Random is a dispersion type with no predictable pattern.
Clump dispersion is population clustered in groups.

Uniform and random are not common in nature and population dispersion is oftentimes clumped.

Methods for estimating population size

• Quadrat method
• Transect method
• Capture and recapture method: specific for estimating animal population
N (population size) = C1*C2/r
C1 = number of captured and marked animals
C2 = number of recaptured animals (second recapture only)
r = number of earlier marked recaptured animals
Example
A wildlife biologist wants to estimate the population size of a small mammal in a forest reserve. She
conducts a capture and recapture study using the following steps:
1. First Capture: The biologist captures and marks 50 animals.
2. Second Capture: After some time, she captures 60 animals. Among these, she finds that 15 of
them were previously marked.
Estimate the total population size (N) of the small mammal in the forest reserve.
Solution
We will use the capture and recapture formula:
N=C1×C2/r
C1 = Number of captured and marked animals in the first capture = 50
C2 = Number of captured animals in the second capture = 60

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C2 = Number of captured animals in the second capture = 60
r = Number of marked animals recaptured = 15
Plugging the values into the formula:
N=50×60/15
N=200
Estimated Population Size (N) = 200

Factors affecting a population

A. Biotic factors: predation, competition, parasitism, natality, mortality, diseases, dispersal,
territorial behaviour.
Abiotic factors: availability of space, oxygen, light, water, food.
B. Density dependent factors: factors influenced by population size and keep the size of a
population barely stable e.g availability of food decreases as population size increases.
Density independent factors: factors that affect the growth of a population irrespective of the
population density e.g drought, storm, diseases, fire.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Biotic communities are never static but keep changing (dynamic). They undergo series of changes
with time which include seasonal or annual changes, cyclic changes and succession.
Ecological succession is a predictable series of progressive changes in vegetation which normally
proceeds in a definite pattern until a climax vegetation which is stable is formed.
Types of succession
1. Primary succession: starts on a bare area of habitat (aquatic or terrestrial) and ends in a
climax community e.g succession on a bare rock surface in fresh water pond, deposition of
mud at the mouth of rivers to build a mud bank on which mangrove swamps develop which
later form rainforest.
2. Secondary succession: begins on an existing community which has been interfered with or
distorted through human activities (anthropogenic activities) or other natural disasters e.g
succession on abandoned farmland, overgrazed grassland, forest areas cleared of its timbers.
Secondary succession is faster than primary succession because soil which takes a lot of time to be
formed in primary succession is already present and existing plants can readily revegetate the
disturbed area.

Pioneers in succession are the colonizers. Examples are autotrophic bacteria, terrestrial algae,
lichens and mosses. The pioneering community on a bare surface are scattered, few in number with
little but significant effect on the bare area.
Adaptive features of pioneer species on a bare rock surface
- Produce tiny spores easily dispersed to long distances by wind.
- Spores do not need soil to germinate.
- They can withstand prolonged desiccation on bare rock surface.

Processes involved in ecological succession

1. Nudation: initiation of bare area on which plant succession can take place.
2. Migration: colonization of the bare area by colonizing community.
3. Ecesis: establishment, growth and spread of the successfully migrated species.
4. Aggregation: establishment of plant species that are formerly scattered in the habitat.
5. Competition: struggle of established plant species for ecological requirement available in
limited amounts.
6. Reactions: all activities carried out by the species in their habitat which influence the
development of the plant communities formed.
7. Stabilization: activities that are channeled towards attainment of a climax community.
Rate of successional changes is initially rapid but gradually slows down until a climax or stable
community is reached.
Lichens are usually the pioneers on are rock surface.

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Stages of plant communities in the lithosphere (eight stages)
1. Terrestrial algae and autotrophic bacteria
2. Crustose lichens
3. Foliose lichens
4. Fruticose lichens
5. Mosses
6. Herbaceous plants (broad leaved with sedges and grasses)
7. Shrubby species
8. Climax vegetation (forest)

POLLUTION
Pollution is the introduction by man into the environment substances or energy liable to cause
hazards to human health, living resources and ecological systems, damage to structure or amenities
or interference with legitimate uses of the environment.
A pollutant is a physical, chemical or biological substance that contaminates air, water or soil
directly or indirectly harmful to humans and other living organisms.
Artificial pollutants: pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Natural pollutants: oil, carbondioxide in harmful concentrations
Types of pollutants
1. Degradable (non-persistent): pollutants that can be rapidly decomposed by natural
processes e.g domestic waste, garbage, sewage
2. Slowly degradable: pollutants that remain in the environment for a long time because they
decompose slowly by natural processes e.g plastics, pesticides, aerosols.
3. Non degradable: pollutants that cannot be decomposed by natural processes e.g mercury,
lead, nuclear wastes

Causes of environmental pollution

1. Population growth
2. Nature of technology: production of synthetic and non-biodegradable materials e.g plastics,
chemicals, nitrogenous fertilizers, synthetic detergents, synthetic fibres, big cars,
petrochemicals and other environmentally injurious industries and disposable culture.
3. Urbanization
4. Others: poverty, deforestation, increase in affluence and economic growth, industrial
development, agricultural development of plants.

Effect of pollution
1. Environmental degradation: increase of CO2 in the atmosphere leads to smog which can
restrict sunlight from reaching the earth thus hindering photosynthesis in plants. Gases like
SO2 and Nitrogen oxides cause acid rain. Water pollution (oil spillage) can lead to the death of
several wildlife species.
2. Human health: decrease in quality of air leads to several respiratory problems e.g asthma,
lung cancer, chest pain, contestation and throat inflammation. Cardiovascular diseases and
respiratory diseases are some of the diseases that can be caused by air pollution. Water
pollution may cause skin related problems such as irritation and rashes. Noise pollution leads
to hearing loss, stress and disturbance.
3. Global warming: emission of greenhouse gases especially CO2 causes global warming. Ozone
layer stops ultraviolet rays from reaching the earth but human activities and chemicals e.g
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are released into the environment and they cause depletion of the
ozone layer, exposing the planet to more ultraviolet rays and leading to increase in
temperature. This causes melting of the ice polar caps and permafrost leading to increase in
the volume of water in the oceans ultimately causing flooding of great magnitudes especially
around coastal cities.
4. Infertile land: soil may become infertile due to constant and indiscriminate use of insecticides
and pesticides and plants may not be able to grow properly. Pollution affect humans by

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 and pesticides and plants may not be able to grow properly. Pollution affect humans by
destroying their respiratory], cardiovascular and neurological systems and also affect plants,
fruits, vegetables, river, ponds, forests, animals etc.

Types of pollution
Air, water, soil, noise, thermal, radiation, light pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance including noise and
radioactive radiation in the atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly or indirectly
injurious to humans or other living organisms or interferes with the normal environmental
processes. It is the most prominent dangerous form of pollution which occurs as a result of
industrial and certain domestic activities and ever increasing use of fossil fuels in power plants,
industries transportation, mining, construction of buildings, stone quarries have led to air pollution.
Types of air pollutants
1. Suspended particulate matter
2. Gaseous pollutants like CO2, NOx

Particulate pollutants
• Suspended particulate matter in the air are dusts and soot released from industries with
sizes ranging from 0.001-500micrometer. Particles less than 10mm float and move freely
with the air current. Particles more than 10mm in diameter settle down. Particles less than
0.02mm form persistent aerosols.
Sources of suspended particulate matter: vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil
refinery, railway gear, market place, industry etc. Smoke from domestic, industrial and
vehicular soot
Effects: Depends on compositions. Reduces visibility, increase corrosion, pneumonia, asthma,
cancers, lung related diseases
• Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal power plant as by product of coal burning activities. It is
part of smoke released from chimneys of factories and power plants. Fly ash pollutes air and
water and many cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies. Fly ash affects vegetation as a
result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces or indirect through its position on the soil. Fly
ash is now being used for making bricks and as a landfill material.
Effects: Settle down on vegetation and adds to houses suspended particulate matter. SPM in
the air leachates certain harmful materials.
• Lead and other metal particles: Tetraethyllead (TEL) is used as antiknock agent in petrol
for smooth and easy running of vehicles. The lead particles coming out of exhaust pipes of
which are mixed with air if inhaled produces injurious effect on kidney and liver and
interferes with development of RBCs. Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative
poisoning and it has long term effect on children and it lowers intelligence.
• Oxides of Aluminium, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Magnesium and other metals have adverse effect
due to deposition of dust on plants during mining activities and metallurgical processes. They
create physiological, biochemical and developmental disorder in plants and also contribute to
the reproductive failures in plants.

Gaseous pollutants
Power plants, industries, vehicles use petrol, diesel as fuels and release gaseous pollutants such as
CO2, NOx and SO2 along with particular matter in form of smoke. These pollutants have harmful
effects on plants and humans. The release of SO2 and hazardous gases into the air causes global
warming and acid rain which in turn have increased temperature, erratic rain and drought
worldwide making it difficult for animals to survive.
Atmospheric gases like CO2, methane, NOx, water vapour and CFCs are capable of trapping the
outgoing infrared radiation from the earth. Infrared radiation trapped by the earth surface cannot
pass through these gases and so increase the thermal energy or heat in the atmosphere. Thus, the
temperature of the global atmosphere is increased as this phenomenon of increase in temperature
is observed in greenhouses in the botanical gardens. These gases are known as greenhouse gases
and heating effect is Greenhouse effect. Increase in this effect may cause 50C increase in

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and heating effect is Greenhouse effect. Increase in this effect may cause 50C increase in
temperature which will melt the polar ice caps and increase the sea level leading to coastal flooding,
loss of coastal areas and ecosystem like swamps and marshes.

Gaseous air pollutants and their harmful effects

Pollutants Sources Effects
CO & CO2 Automobile exhaust, Respiratory problems.
burning of wood and Greenhouse effect
coal
SO2 & H2S Power plants and Respiratory problems in humans, loss of
refineries, volcanic chlorophyll in plants (chlorosis) and acid rain
eruption
NO & N2O Motor vehicles exhaust, Irritation in eyes and lungs, low productivity in
atmospheric reaction plants, acid rain, damages materials (metals and
stones)
Hydrocarbons Automobiles and Respiratory problems, cancer causing
(Benzene, ethylene) petroleum industries properties
Suspended particulate Thermal power plants, Poor visibility and breathing problems, lead
matter (solid and liquid construction activities, interferes with development of RBCs causing
particles in air; fly ash, metallurgical processes, diseases and cancer, smoke and fog formation
dust, lead) automobiles worsens asthma symptoms in patients
Fibres (cotton and Textile and carpet Lung disorder
wool) weaving industries

Method of control
SO2, smog and smoke are being reduced but lowered SO2 levels increase global warming. SO2 from
volcanoes can cool the planet by blocking sunlight.
The Paris agreement (a voluntary agreement among 118 nations ratified on November 4, 2016)
is one effort enacted on a global scale to combat climate change.
Each country agrees to combat climate change with the ultimate goal of keeping post industrial
global temperature rise below 20C.
Management measures against traffic pollution
1. Changing the type of fuel used to one that produces less pollution
2. Removing inefficient and grossly polluting vehicles
3. Attempting to manage the pollution once it is produced
4. Adopting measures to manage the use of motor vehicles.

Water pollution
Almost 60% of the species live in water bodies. Water pollution is caused by industrial weight
dumped into the river and other water bodies which cause imbalance leading to a severe
contamination and death of aquatic species. Other causes are spraying of insecticides, pesticides
like DDT on plants which pollute the ground water systems, oil spills. They cause water borne
diseases e.g cholera, diarrhoea.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication (Eu means well or healthy; trophy means nutrition) also cause water pollution.
Enrichment of water bodies with nutrient caused by discharge of domestic waste, agricultural
surface run-off, land drainage and industrial effluents causes eutrophication.
Excessive nutrient enrichment in a water body encourages growth of algae, deck weed, water
hyacinth, phytoplanktons and other aquatic plants and this causes increase in biological demand for
oxygen (BOD). Explosive growth of phytoplanktons as a result is called water bloom or algae bloom.
The phytoplanktons release toxic substances in water that causes sudden death of large population
of fishes.
Sources of water pollution

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Sources of water pollution
1. Point source pollution: any single identifiable source of pollution from which pollutants are
discharged e. industrial discharge, factory smoke stack, municipal sewage etc. Point source
pollution sources are discrete and identifiable and easy to monitor and regulate.
2. Non-point source pollution: sources of pollution which cannot be readily identified i.e
sources are scattered and diffused e.g run off from farmland, construction sites, parking lot,
agriculture logging, animal waste.
Effect of water pollution
1. Mercury causes Minamata disease in humans and dropsy in fishes.
2. Lead causes dyslexia
3. Cadmium causes Itai-Itai disease
4. Arsenic accumulation causes skin lesions, rough skin, dry and thickening of skin, skin cancer.
5. Oil kill marine birds and adversely affect other marine lives.

Soil pollution
Incorporation of unwanted chemicals into the soil which absorbs nitrogen compound from the soil
making it unfit for plants to derive nutrition from it. Caused by use of insecticides, pesticides,
industrial waste, deforestation.
Waterlogging and salinity makes soil infertile, soil pollution in tun affects human health.
Generally, water pollutants are sources of soil pollution. Sources of soil pollution are solid waste
(mixture of plastic, cloth, glass, leather, organic matter, sewage sludge, building debris), fly ash, iron
and steel slag, medical and industrial waste, fertilizer, pesticides, acidic rain, dry deposition of
pollutants on land. Contour cultivation and strip cropping instead of shifting cultivation controls
soil pollution.

Noise pollution
It causes psychological problems e.g stress, hypertension, hearing impairness. Also known as
environmental noise or sound pollution. Sound above 85dB is harmful. Controlling sound loudness
by people using ear muffs and plugs, suppression of noise at sources with soundproofing, acoustic
zoning, planting of trees and legislative measures control noise pollution.

Radioactive pollution
Destruction caused by the radioactive materials is because of the emission of hazardous ionizing
radiation.
Nuclear weapons (e.g in Hiroshima and Nagasaki that prompted end of war in 1945) cause
radioactive pollution. Cosmic rays are also a cause. Gamma rays are said to have the highest level of
radiation. Radioactive pollution cause genetic mutation, diseases, soil infertility, cell destruction,
burns, skin cancer.

Thermal (Heat) pollution

Harmful release of heated liquid into a body of water or heat released into the air.
Causes of thermal pollution
1. Power, industrial and manufacturing plants
2. Soil erosion: soil erosion causes water level to rise and be more exposed to sunlight.
3. Water runoff
4. Deforestation
5. Natural disaster e.g volcanoes and other geothermal activities on ocean floor
Effects of thermal pollution: decreased oxygen level, release of toxins, biodiversity loss,
reproductive consequences, mass migration, danger to ecosystems.

Light pollution (luminous or photo pollution)

It is caused by prominent excess illumination of an area due to e.g billboards, sports or
entertainment events at night. It causes visibility disruptions and ecosystem imbalance. Light
pollution modifies the daily rhythm and cycles of life which are directed by darkness and light thus
upsetting ecological activities.
Melatonin is responsible for regulating diurnal and nocturnal visions. Control of light pollution is

P.C.T Bio Note Page 16

Melatonin is responsible for regulating diurnal and nocturnal visions. Control of light pollution is
simply by planning and education.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources are the whole natural environment provided by nature e.g air, water, soil,
petroleum, minerals, animals, plants.
Renewable resources: fossil fuels, minerals.
Artificial resources are resources developed by human beings during the growth of civilization e.g
biogas, thermal electricity, plastics.

Classification of resources: Natural and artificial

Natural resources: exhaustible and inexhaustible
• Exhaustible: renewable and non-renewable
▫ Renewable e.g forest (wood and other products), fertile soil, vegetation, wildlife,
freshwater
▫ Non-renewable: coal, petroleum, iron, biological species/wildlife (rare plants and
animals, fossil fuels
• Inexhaustible e.g solar energy, wind, rainfall, tidal energy, water power (flowing streams),
substances like sand, clay, air, water in ocean
Artificial resources e.g electricity

Conservation of natural resources

Conservation is from two Latin words: con means together, servare means to keep or guard.
Conservation is the proper maintenance of natural resources for human survival and development.
Soil is renewable and unrenewable resource. Renewable because its productivity can be maintained
with fertilizers and manures, non-renewable if removed from a place by erosion. It is practically
non-renewable because formation of new soil can take hundred or thousand years. Contour
ploughing, terracing, reforestation, maintenance of soil fertility, controlling overgrazing conserve
soil.
Water is the most important component of all life forms and it is necessary for sustaining life. About
97% water is saline found in oceans and seas and 3% is freshwater most of which is stored in ice
caps and glaciers and about 0.36% is distributed in lakes, rivers, ponds. Freshwater is renewable
being produced by hydrological cycle.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity is defined as flora and fauna i.e plants, animals and microbes of a region.
Importance of biodiversity
Quinine for malaria treatment is derived from Chinchona officinalis.
Plants like Tusil or Holy Basil (Ocinum sanctum), sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), Banyaa (Ficus
benghalensis) and animals like cow, horse, elephants are worshipped.
Threat to biodiversity
1. Destruction of habitat through cutting down of trees, filling up the wet lawn, ploughing of
grassland or burning of forest.
2. Population explosion leading to increase in demand for food and shelter which has also led to
culture of a single crop or monocropping that will result into disappearance of other crops.
3. Industrialization and urbanization changing and destroying natural habitat of plants and
animals.
4. Pollution of soil, air, water changing the habitat quality reducing or eliminating sensitive
species.
5. Mining activities adding to pollution of air and water threatening survival of animals in
nearby areas.
6. Construction of dams, roads, railways destroying huge patches of forest, grassland thus
disturbing biodiversity.
7. Indiscriminate killing of animals for different purposes resulting in reduction in population.

P.C.T Bio Note Page 17

 7. Indiscriminate killing of animals for different purposes resulting in reduction in population.
8. Introduction of exotic or foreign species in an area threatening survival of existing or native
species e.g water hyacinth (Eichornia spp), clogs rivers and lakes and threaten the life of
many aquatic species.
Conservation of biodiversity
1. In-situ conservation: protection of plants and animals within their natural habitat or
protected areas e.g national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves etc.
2. Ex-situ (offsite) conservation: keeping of plants and animals outside their natural habitat
including botanical gardens, zoological gardens, gene banks, BMA banks, seed banks, pollen
banks, seedlings and tissue culture etc.

Endangered species
Plants and animals which have been reduced in number to a critical level and facing a high risk of
extinction in the near future.
World conservation Union formerly IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and Natural resources) has enlisted endangered plants and animals in the red data book.
• Endangered plants: pitcher plants, Indian Belladonna, Orchids, Niigiri Lily and Gingko
biloba.
• Endangered animals: Asiatic lion, green sea turtle, tortoises, marsh crocodile, Gharial, Tiger,
Rhinoceros, Asiatic elephant, Indian python, Great Indian Bustarg and Butterflies.

Wildlife includes animals and plants in their natural habitats.

Agencies dealing with conservation of wildlife
1. Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL)
2. Nigeria Conservation Foundation (NCF)
3. World Wildlife Fund for Nations (WWF): founded in 1961
4. Federal Environment Protection Agency (FEPA)
5. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
6. Wildlife Conservation Union (WCU)
7. Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES): to check trade products
from endangered animals.

Game Reserve and National Park Authorities

5 categories of protected areas were described in Nigeria including Game Reserves, Forest reserves,
Biosphere reserves, Nature Reserves and Special ecosystems and habitats such as sacred grooves.
Parks make up 3% of Nigeria's total land area. Collectively they contain abundant diversity of fauna
like buffalos, roan antelopes, chimpanzees, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, hyenas, giant forest hogs,
lions, leopards and flora.
Parks in Nigeria
1. Chad Basin Park: established in 1991. Chad basin is located in Borno and Yobe states. The
parks include the Sambisa game reserve and part of the Haeejia-Njuru water lands.
2. Cross River National Park: largest rainforest in Nigeria and the oldest surviving in Africa is
located in Cross River National Park. It has the highest tropical biodiversity in Africa.
3. Gashaka Gumti National Park: Largest national park in Nigeria established in 1991
located in Taraba and Adamawa state and along the Cameroon border. It contains grassland
as well as the country's highest peak "Chappal Wadi" known as the mountain of death with an
elevation of 7936 feet.
4. Kainji National Park: established in 1971 and the oldest National park in Nigeria. It encloses
the Kainji lake, the bubble and Zungum game reserves.
5. Kamuku National Park: founded in 1999 and is in Kaduna state. The vegetation is a
Savannah mowed land.
6. Okomu National Park: small park of only 44,736 acres is part of the largest Okomu forest
reserves. It is the second largest rainforest in Nigeria and a great place for birds and primate
watch. It is largely undisturbed, located in Edo state and established in 1999.
7. Old Oyo National Park: located in Oyo and Kwara states and established in 1999.
8. Yankari Game Reserve: situated in Bauchi state and it is a premier game reserve which first

P.C.T Bio Note Page 18

 8. Yankari Game Reserve: situated in Bauchi state and it is a premier game reserve which first
opened to the public in 1962. it is known for the largest population of Elephants in West
Africa as well as several endangered species like leopard.

Forest Reserves in Nigeria

1. Afi River Forest Reserve: located in Cross Rivers and one of the largest remaining forest
reserve in the state. It lies between the NBE mountains community forest and Asu mountain
wildlife sanctuary.
2. Akare Forest Reserve: located in South West Nigeria and it a relatively small area
surrounded by towns. It is on the list of Forest Reserve protected on the International level.
3. Edunanom Forest Reserve: located in Niger Delta region. It is known as one of the habitat
area for chimpanzees in Nigeria. It has been degraded by oil production function industries
and has now passed a threat to the local wildlife.
4. Idanre Forest Reserve: covers an area of 56km2 and located in Ondo state. It is on the list of
the IUCN.
5. Ngelnyaki Forest Reserve: established in 1969. It can be reached from Yelwa village
6. Oba Hills Forest Reserve: located in Osun state.
7. Okomu Forest Reserve: one of the biggest Forest reserve in Nigeria, located about 50km
from the hill.
8. Oluwa Forest Reserve: located in Ondo state. It is endangered as a result of hunting and
poaching and farming activities.
9. Ise Forest Reserve: located in South West Nigeria and is currently registered in the world
database of protected area.
10. Okeluse Forest Reserve: located in South West Nigeria.

The National Park Service manages all National parks and each of the National Park is headed by
General Manager and supported by professional and technicians.
Other conservation areas apart from National Parks are game reserves, wildlife sanctuaries and
Strict Nature Reserves (SNRs). These categories of conservation areas are managed mainly by
wildlife sections or the state Forestry Department (SFDs). Foreign organization and non-
governmental organizations are very active in the management of SNRs. Examples of SNRs include
Omo biosphere reserve and Lekki Conservation Foundation etc.

National Agencies for Environmental Matters

1. National Environmental Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency (NESREA)
2. Federal Ministry of Water Resources
3. Federal Ministry of Environment (FMOE)
4. National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA)
5. Federal Ministry of Environment, Housing and Urban Development (FMEHUD)
6. Department of Petroleum Resources
7. State Forestry Department

Environmental Education started in Nigeria due to Environmental Issues of the early 1980s
shouldered by NCF and Nigeria Educational Research Development Council (NERDC).
Foundation for Environmental Development and Education in Nigeria (FEDEN) is a NGO
established in 1991 to promote awareness on the environment and sustainable development in
Nigeria and enhance the building of local capacity required to drive the nation's transition to a
more sustainable development.

Conservation Laws in Nigeria

1. The Forest Ordinance (1937); Chapter 75
2. The Eastern Region Forest Law 1935
3. The Forestry Ordinance with Amendment (Northern region; 1960
4. The Forestry Law (Eastern state); Chapter 38
5. The Forestry Amendment Edict (Western state); 1969
6. The Forestry Amendment Edict (Western state); 1973

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 6. The Forestry Amendment Edict (Western state); 1973
7. The Wild animal Preservation Law; Chapter 132
8. The Sea Fisheries Decree 1971
9. Sea Fisheries (Fishing) Regulation 1972
10. The Wild animal Preservation Law (Western Nigeria) 1959
11. Exclusive Economic Zone Decree 1978
12. The Wild Animal's Law (Northern Nigeria) 1963
13. The Wild Animal's Law (Eastern Nigeria) 1965
14. The Wild animal Preservation Law (Lagos state) 1972
15. The Wild Animal's Amendment Edict (North-East State) 1975
16. The Wild Animal's Amendment Edict (Kano state) 1978
17. The Kanji Lake National Park Decree 1979
18. The Endangered Species Decree 1985
19. Federal Environment Protection Agency Decree 1988

P.C.T Bio Note Page 20