Internet

The Internet (or internet)[a] is the global system of interconnected

computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP)[b] to
communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks
that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic,
wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast
range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked
hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW),
electronic mail, internet telephony, and file sharing.

The origins of the Internet date back to research that enabled the time-
sharing of computer resources, the development of packet switching in
the 1960s and the design of computer networks for data communication.
[2][3]
The set of rules (communication protocols) to enable internetworking
on the Internet arose from research and development commissioned in the
1970s by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the
United States Department of Defense in collaboration with universities and
researchers across the United States and in the United Kingdom and
France.[4][5][6] The ARPANET initially served as a backbone for the

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 interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the United
States to enable resource sharing. The funding of the National Science
Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private
funding for other commercial extensions, encouraged worldwide
participation in the development of new networking technologies and the
merger of many networks using DARPA's Internet protocol suite.[7] The
linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s, as well
as the advent of the World Wide Web,[8] marked the beginning of the
transition to the modern Internet,[9] and generated sustained exponential
growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers
were connected to the internetwork. Although the Internet was widely
used by academia in the 1980s, the subsequent commercialization of the
Internet in the 1990s and beyond incorporated its services and
technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.

Most traditional communication media, including telephone, radio,

television, paper mail, and newspapers, are reshaped, redefined, or even
bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email,
Internet telephone, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers,
and video streaming websites. Newspapers, books, and other print
publishing have adapted to website technology or have been reshaped
into blogging, web feeds, and online news aggregators. The Internet has
enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interaction through instant
messaging, Internet forums, and social networking services. Online
shopping has grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses,
and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar"
presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely
online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect
supply chains across entire industries.

The Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological

implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network
sets its own policies.[10] The overarching definitions of the two principal

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 name spaces on the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address)
space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer
organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core
protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a
non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that
anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.[11] In
November 2006, the Internet was included on USA Today's list of the New
Seven Wonders.[12]

Terminology
The word internetted was used as early as 1849, meaning interconnected
or interwoven.[13] The word Internet was used in 1945 by the United States
War Department in a radio operator's manual,[14] and in 1974 as the
shorthand form of Internetwork.[15] Today, the term Internet most
commonly refers to the global system of interconnected computer
networks, though it may also refer to any group of smaller networks.[16]

When it came into common use, most publications treated the word
Internet as a capitalized proper noun; this has become less common.[16]
This reflects the tendency in English to capitalize new terms and move
them to lowercase as they become familiar.[16][17] The word is sometimes
still capitalized to distinguish the global internet from smaller networks,
though many publications, including the AP Stylebook since 2016,
recommend the lowercase form in every case.[16][17] In 2016, the Oxford
English Dictionary found that, based on a study of around 2.5 billion
printed and online sources, "Internet" was capitalized in 54% of cases.[18]

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably; it

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 is common to speak of "going on the Internet" when using a web browser
to view web pages. However, the World Wide Web, or the Web, is only one
of a large number of Internet services,[19] a collection of documents (web
pages) and other web resources linked by hyperlinks and URLs.[20]

History

A sketch of the ARPANET in

December 1969. The nodes at UCLA
and the Stanford Research Institute
(SRI) are among those depicted.[21]

In the 1960s, computer scientists began developing systems for time-

sharing of computer resources.[22][23] J. C. R. Licklider proposed the idea
of a universal network while working at Bolt Beranek & Newman and, later,
leading the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States

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 Department of Defense (DoD). Research into packet switching, one of the
fundamental Internet technologies, started in the work of Paul Baran at
RAND in the early 1960s and, independently, Donald Davies at the United
Kingdom's National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in 1965.[2][24] After the
Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in 1967, packet switching
from the proposed NPL network and routing concepts proposed by Baran
were incorporated into the design of the ARPANET, an experimental
resource sharing network proposed by ARPA.[25][26][27]

ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were

interconnected between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
and the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) on 29 October
1969.[28] The third site was at the University of California, Santa Barbara,
followed by the University of Utah. In a sign of future growth, 15 sites were
connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971.[29][30] These early
years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds
of Resource Sharing.[31] Thereafter, the ARPANET gradually developed
into a decentralized communications network, connecting remote centers
and military bases in the United States.[32] Other user networks and
research networks, such as the Merit Network and CYCLADES, were
developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[33]

Early international collaborations for the ARPANET were rare. Connections

were made in 1973 to Norway (NORSAR and NDRE),[34] and to Peter
Kirstein's research group at University College London (UCL), which
provided a gateway to British academic networks, forming the first
internetwork for resource sharing.[35] ARPA projects, the International
Network Working Group and commercial initiatives led to the development
of various protocols and standards by which multiple separate networks
could become a single network or "a network of networks".[36] In 1974,
Vint Cerf at Stanford University and Bob Kahn at DARPA published a
proposal for "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication".[37] They
used the term internet as a shorthand for internetwork in RFC 675 (https://

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 [Link]/doc/html/rfc675) ,[15] and later RFCs repeated this
use. Cerf and Kahn credit Louis Pouzin and others with important
influences on the resulting TCP/IP design.[37][38] National PTTs and
commercial providers developed the X.25 standard and deployed it on
public data networks.[39]

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science
Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In
1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized, which
facilitated worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks. TCP/IP
network access expanded again in 1986 when the National Science
Foundation Network (NSFNet) provided access to supercomputer sites in
the United States for researchers, first at speeds of 56 kbit/s and later at
1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s.[40] The NSFNet expanded into academic and
research organizations in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan in
1988–89.[41][42][43][44] Although other network protocols such as UUCP
and PTT public data networks had global reach well before this time, this
marked the beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental network.
Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the
United States and Australia.[45] The ARPANET was decommissioned in
1990.[46]

T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992

Steady advances in semiconductor technology and optical networking

created new economic opportunities for commercial involvement in the
expansion of the network in its core and for delivering services to the

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 public. In mid-1989, MCI Mail and Compuserve established connections to
the Internet, delivering email and public access products to the half million
users of the Internet.[47] Just months later, on 1 January 1990, PSInet
launched an alternate Internet backbone for commercial use; one of the
networks that added to the core of the commercial Internet of later years.
In March 1990, the first high-speed T1 (1.5 Mbit/s) link between the
NSFNET and Europe was installed between Cornell University and CERN,
allowing much more robust communications than were capable with
satellites.[48]

Later in 1990, Tim Berners-Lee began writing WorldWideWeb, the first web
browser, after two years of lobbying CERN management. By Christmas
1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9,[49] the HyperText Markup
Language (HTML), the first Web browser (which was also an HTML editor
and could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files), the first HTTP server
software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server,[50] and the first
Web pages that described the project itself. In 1991 the Commercial
Internet eXchange was founded, allowing PSInet to communicate with the
other commercial networks CERFnet and Alternet. Stanford Federal Credit
Union was the first financial institution to offer online Internet banking
services to all of its members in October 1994.[51] In 1996, OP Financial
Group, also a cooperative bank, became the second online bank in the
world and the first in Europe.[52] By 1995, the Internet was fully
commercialized in the U.S. when the NSFNet was decommissioned,
removing the last restrictions on use of the Internet to carry commercial
traffic.[53]

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 Worldwide Internet users[54]

2005 2010 2017 2023

World population (billions)[55] 6.5 6.9 7.4 8.0

Worldwide 16% 30% 48% 67%

In developing world 8% 21% 41.3% 60%

In developed world 51% 67% 81% 93%

As technology advanced and commercial opportunities fueled reciprocal

growth, the volume of Internet traffic started experiencing similar
characteristics as that of the scaling of MOS transistors, exemplified by
Moore's law, doubling every 18 months. This growth, formalized as
Edholm's law, was catalyzed by advances in MOS technology, laser light
wave systems, and noise performance.[56]

Since 1995, the Internet has tremendously impacted culture and

commerce, including the rise of near-instant communication by email,
instant messaging, telephony (Voice over Internet Protocol or VoIP), two-
way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web[57] with its discussion
forums, blogs, social networking services, and online shopping sites.
Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds
over fiber optic networks operating at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, or more. The
Internet continues to grow, driven by ever-greater amounts of online
information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and social
networking services.[58] During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic
on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual
growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20%
and 50%.[59] This growth is often attributed to the lack of central
administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the
non-proprietary nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor
interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much
control over the network.[60] As of 31 March 2011, the estimated total

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 number of Internet users was 2.095 billion (30% of world population).[61] It
is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information
flowing through two-way telecommunication. By 2000 this figure had
grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated
information was carried over the Internet.[62]

Governance

ICANN headquarters in the Playa Vista

neighborhood of Los Angeles,
California, United States

The Internet is a global network that comprises many voluntarily

interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a central
governing body. The technical underpinning and standardization of the
core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated
international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing
technical expertise. To maintain interoperability, the principal name spaces
of the Internet are administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN). ICANN is governed by an international
board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business,

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 academic, and other non-commercial communities. ICANN coordinates the
assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain
names, IP addresses, application port numbers in the transport protocols,
and many other parameters. Globally unified name spaces are essential for
maintaining the global reach of the Internet. This role of ICANN
distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body for the
global Internet.[63]

Regional Internet registries (RIRs) were established for five regions of the
world. The African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa, the
American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America, the
Asia–Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific
region, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry
(LACNIC) for Latin America and the Caribbean region, and the Réseaux IP
Européens – Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe, the
Middle East, and Central Asia were delegated to assign IP address blocks
and other Internet parameters to local registries, such as Internet service
providers, from a designated pool of addresses set aside for each region.

The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an

agency of the United States Department of Commerce, had final approval
over changes to the DNS root zone until the IANA stewardship transition
on 1 October 2016.[64][65][66][67] The Internet Society (ISOC) was founded
in 1992 with a mission to "assure the open development, evolution and use
of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world".[68] Its
members include individuals (anyone may join) as well as corporations,
organizations, governments, and universities. Among other activities ISOC
provides an administrative home for a number of less formally organized
groups that are involved in developing and managing the Internet,
including: the IETF, Internet Architecture Board (IAB), Internet Engineering
Steering Group (IESG), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and Internet
Research Steering Group (IRSG). On 16 November 2005, the United
Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis

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 established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-
related issues.

Infrastructure

2007 map showing submarine

fiberoptic telecommunication cables
around the world

The communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware

components and a system of software layers that control various aspects
of the architecture. As with any computer network, the Internet physically
consists of routers, media (such as cabling and radio links), repeaters,
modems etc. However, as an example of internetworking, many of the
network nodes are not necessarily Internet equipment per se. The internet
packets are carried by other full-fledged networking protocols with the
Internet acting as a homogeneous networking standard, running across
heterogeneous hardware, with the packets guided to their destinations by
IP routers.

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 Service tiers

Packet routing across the Internet

involves several tiers of Internet
service providers.

Internet service providers (ISPs) establish the worldwide connectivity

between individual networks at various levels of scope. End-users who
only access the Internet when needed to perform a function or obtain
information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. At the top of
the routing hierarchy are the tier 1 networks, large telecommunication
companies that exchange traffic directly with each other via very high
speed fiber-optic cables and governed by peering agreements. Tier 2 and
lower-level networks buy Internet transit from other providers to reach at
least some parties on the global Internet, though they may also engage in
peering. An ISP may use a single upstream provider for connectivity, or
implement multihoming to achieve redundancy and load balancing.
Internet exchange points are major traffic exchanges with physical
connections to multiple ISPs. Large organizations, such as academic
institutions, large enterprises, and governments, may perform the same
function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing transit on behalf of
their internal networks. Research networks tend to interconnect with large
subnetworks such as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2, and the UK's national
research and education network, JANET.

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 Access
Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a
computer modem via telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable,
fiber optics or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular telephone
technology (e.g. 3G, 4G). The Internet may often be accessed from
computers in libraries and Internet cafés. Internet access points exist in
many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops. Various terms
are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web
payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals that are usually fee-
based. These terminals are widely accessed for various usages, such as
ticket booking, bank deposit, or online payment. Wi-Fi provides wireless
access to the Internet via local computer networks. Hotspots providing
such access include Wi-Fi cafés, where users need to bring their own
wireless devices, such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to
all, free to customers only, or fee-based.

Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial

Wi-Fi services that cover large areas are available in many cities, such as
New York, London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago
and Pittsburgh, where the Internet can then be accessed from places such
as a park bench.[69] Experiments have also been conducted with
proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed
data services over cellular networks, and fixed wireless services. Modern
smartphones can also access the Internet through the cellular carrier
network. For Web browsing, these devices provide applications such as
Google Chrome, Safari, and Firefox and a wide variety of other Internet
software may be installed from app stores. Internet usage by mobile and
tablet devices exceeded desktop worldwide for the first time in October
2016.[70]

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 Mobile communication

Number of mobile cellular

subscriptions 2012–2016

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) estimated that, by the

end of 2017, 48% of individual users regularly connect to the Internet, up
from 34% in 2012.[71] Mobile Internet connectivity has played an important
role in expanding access in recent years, especially in Asia and the Pacific
and in Africa.[72] The number of unique mobile cellular subscriptions
increased from 3.9 billion in 2012 to 4.8 billion in 2016, two-thirds of the
world's population, with more than half of subscriptions located in Asia
and the Pacific. The number of subscriptions was predicted to rise to
5.7 billion users in 2020.[73] As of 2018, 80% of the world's population
were covered by a 4G network.[73] The limits that users face on accessing
information via mobile applications coincide with a broader process of
fragmentation of the Internet. Fragmentation restricts access to media
content and tends to affect the poorest users the most.[72]

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 Zero-rating, the practice of Internet service providers allowing users free
connectivity to access specific content or applications without cost, has
offered opportunities to surmount economic hurdles but has also been
accused by its critics as creating a two-tiered Internet. To address the
issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept
of 'equal rating' and is being tested in experiments by Mozilla and Orange
in Africa. Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content and
zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. In a study published by
Chatham House, 15 out of 19 countries researched in Latin America had
some kind of hybrid or zero-rated product offered. Some countries in the
region had a handful of plans to choose from (across all mobile network
operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered as many as 30 pre-paid
and 34 post-paid plans.[74]

A study of eight countries in the Global South found that zero-rated data
plans exist in every country, although there is a great range in the
frequency with which they are offered and actually used in each.[75] The
study looked at the top three to five carriers by market share in
Bangladesh, Colombia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Peru and Philippines.
Across the 181 plans examined, 13 percent were offering zero-rated
services. Another study, covering Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa,
found Facebook's Free Basics and Wikipedia Zero to be the most
commonly zero-rated content.[76]

Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet
protocol suite (also called TCP/IP, based on the first two components.)
This is a suite of protocols that are ordered into a set of four conceptional

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 layers by the scope of their operation, originally documented in RFC 1122 (
[Link] and RFC 1123 ([Link]
[Link]/doc/html/rfc1123) . At the top is the application layer,
where communication is described in terms of the objects or data
structures most appropriate for each application. For example, a web
browser operates in a client–server application model and exchanges
information with the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and an
application-germane data structure, such as the HyperText Markup
Language (HTML).

Below this top layer, the transport layer connects applications on different
hosts with a logical channel through the network. It provides this service
with a variety of possible characteristics, such as ordered, reliable delivery
(TCP), and an unreliable datagram service (UDP).

Underlying these layers are the networking technologies that interconnect

networks at their borders and exchange traffic across them. The Internet
layer implements the Internet Protocol (IP) which enables computers to
identify and locate each other by IP address and route their traffic via
intermediate (transit) networks.[77] The Internet Protocol layer code is
independent of the type of network that it is physically running over.

At the bottom of the architecture is the link layer, which connects nodes
on the same physical link, and contains protocols that do not require
routers for traversal to other links. The protocol suite does not explicitly
specify hardware methods to transfer bits, or protocols to manage such
hardware, but assumes that appropriate technology is available. Examples
of that technology include Wi-Fi, Ethernet, and DSL.

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 As user data is processed through the
protocol stack, each abstraction layer
adds encapsulation information at the
sending host. Data is transmitted over
the wire at the link level between
hosts and routers. Encapsulation is
removed by the receiving host.
Intermediate relays update link
encapsulation at each hop, and
inspect the IP layer for routing
purposes.

Internet protocol

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 Conceptual data flow in a simple
network topology of two hosts (A and
B) connected by a link between their
respective routers. The application on
each host executes read and write
operations as if the processes were
directly connected to each other by
some kind of data pipe. After the
establishment of this pipe, most
details of the communication are
hidden from each process, as the
underlying principles of
communication are implemented in
the lower protocol layers. In analogy,
at the transport layer the
communication appears as host-to-
host, without knowledge of the
application data structures and the
connecting routers, while at the
internetworking layer, individual
network boundaries are traversed at
each router.

The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet

Protocol (IP). IP enables internetworking and, in essence, establishes the
Internet itself. Two versions of the Internet Protocol exist, IPv4 and IPv6.

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 IP Addresses

A DNS resolver consults three name

servers to resolve the domain name
user-visible "[Link]" to
determine the IPv4 Address
[Link].

For locating individual computers on the network, the Internet provides IP

addresses. IP addresses are used by the Internet infrastructure to direct
internet packets to their destinations. They consist of fixed-length
numbers, which are found within the packet. IP addresses are generally
assigned to equipment either automatically via DHCP, or are configured.

However, the network also supports other addressing systems. Users

generally enter domain names (e.g. "[Link]") instead of IP
addresses because they are easier to remember; they are converted by
the Domain Name System (DNS) into IP addresses which are more
efficient for routing purposes.

IPv4
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit
number.[77] IPv4 is the initial version used on the first generation of the
Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed in 1981 to address up
to ≈4.3 billion (109) hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet
has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011,

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 [78]
when the global IPv4 address allocation pool was exhausted.

IPv6
Because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4
addresses, a new version of IP IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s,
which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient
routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 uses 128 bits for the IP address and was
standardized in 1998.[79][80][81] IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since
the mid-2000s and is currently in growing deployment around the world,
since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource
managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.[82]

IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In essence, it

establishes a parallel version of the Internet not directly accessible with
IPv4 software. Thus, translation facilities must exist for internetworking or
nodes must have duplicate networking software for both networks.
Essentially all modern computer operating systems support both versions
of the Internet Protocol. Network infrastructure, however, has been lagging
in this development. Aside from the complex array of physical connections
that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-
lateral commercial contracts, e.g., peering agreements, and by technical
specifications or protocols that describe the exchange of data over the
network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing
policies.

Subnetwork

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 Creating a subnet by dividing the host identifier

A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network.[83]: 1, 16

The practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called
subnetting. Computers that belong to a subnet are addressed with an
identical most-significant bit-group in their IP addresses. This results in
the logical division of an IP address into two fields, the network number or
routing prefix and the rest field or host identifier. The rest field is an
identifier for a specific host or network interface.

The routing prefix may be expressed in Classless Inter-Domain Routing

(CIDR) notation written as the first address of a network, followed by a
slash character (/), and ending with the bit-length of the prefix. For
example, [Link]/24 is the prefix of the Internet Protocol version 4
network starting at the given address, having 24 bits allocated for the
network prefix, and the remaining 8 bits reserved for host addressing.
Addresses in the range [Link] to [Link] belong to this
network. The IPv6 address specification [Link]/32 is a large address
block with 296 addresses, having a 32-bit routing prefix.

For IPv4, a network may also be characterized by its subnet mask or

netmask, which is the bitmask that when applied by a bitwise AND
operation to any IP address in the network, yields the routing prefix.
Subnet masks are also expressed in dot-decimal notation like an address.
For example, [Link] is the subnet mask for the prefix
[Link]/24.

Traffic is exchanged between subnetworks through routers when the

routing prefixes of the source address and the destination address differ. A

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 router serves as a logical or physical boundary between the subnets.

The benefits of subnetting an existing network vary with each deployment

scenario. In the address allocation architecture of the Internet using CIDR
and in large organizations, it is necessary to allocate address space
efficiently. Subnetting may also enhance routing efficiency or have
advantages in network management when subnetworks are
administratively controlled by different entities in a larger organization.
Subnets may be arranged logically in a hierarchical architecture,
partitioning an organization's network address space into a tree-like
routing structure.

Routing
Computers and routers use routing tables in their operating system to
direct IP packets to reach a node on a different subnetwork. Routing tables
are maintained by manual configuration or automatically by routing
protocols. End-nodes typically use a default route that points toward an
ISP providing transit, while ISP routers use the Border Gateway Protocol to
establish the most efficient routing across the complex connections of the
global Internet. The default gateway is the node that serves as the
forwarding host (router) to other networks when no other route
specification matches the destination IP address of a packet.[84][85]

IETF
While the hardware components in the Internet infrastructure can often be

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 used to support other software systems, it is the design and the
standardization process of the software that characterizes the Internet
and provides the foundation for its scalability and success. The
responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems
has been assumed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).[86] The
IETF conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about
the various aspects of Internet architecture. The resulting contributions
and standards are published as Request for Comments (RFC) documents
on the IETF web site. The principal methods of networking that enable the
Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that constitute the
Internet Standards. Other less rigorous documents are simply informative,
experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP)
when implementing Internet technologies.

Applications and
services
The Internet carries many applications and services, most prominently the
World Wide Web, including social media, electronic mail, mobile
applications, multiplayer online games, Internet telephony, file sharing, and
streaming media services. Most servers that provide these services are
today hosted in data centers, and content is often accessed through high-
performance content delivery networks.

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 World Wide Web

This NeXT Computer was used by Tim

Berners-Lee at CERN and became the
world's first Web server.

The World Wide Web is a global collection of documents, images,

multimedia, applications, and other resources, logically interrelated by
hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), which
provide a global system of named references. URIs symbolically identify
services, web servers, databases, and the documents and resources that
they can provide. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access
protocol of the World Wide Web. Web services also use HTTP for
communication between software systems for information transfer, sharing
and exchanging business data and logistics and is one of many languages
or protocols that can be used for communication on the Internet.[87]

World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet

Explorer/Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple's Safari, and Google Chrome,
enable users to navigate from one web page to another via the hyperlinks
embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any
combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video,
multimedia and interactive content that runs while the user is interacting
with the page. Client-side software can include animations, games, office

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 applications and scientific demonstrations. Through keyword-driven
Internet research using search engines like Yahoo!, Bing and Google, users
worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online
information. Compared to printed media, books, encyclopedias and
traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization
of information on a large scale.

The Web has enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and
information to a potentially large audience online at greatly reduced
expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a
website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available.
However, publishing and maintaining large, professional websites with
attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and
expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies and groups
use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily being able to
update online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to
communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that
visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information
and be attracted to the corporation as a result.

Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce,

which is the sale of products and services directly via the Web, continues
to grow. Online advertising is a form of marketing and advertising which
uses the Internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to
consumers. It includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM),
social media marketing, many types of display advertising (including web
banner advertising), and mobile advertising. In 2011, Internet advertising
revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and
nearly exceeded those of broadcast television.[88]: 19 Many common online
advertising practices are controversial and increasingly subject to
regulation.

When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in

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 completed form on a web server, formatted in HTML, ready for
transmission to a web browser in response to a request. Over time, the
process of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic, creating
a flexible design, layout, and content. Websites are often created using
content management software with, initially, very little content.
Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of an
organization or the public, fill underlying databases with content using
editing pages designed for that purpose while casual visitors view and
read this content in HTML form. There may or may not be editorial,
approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly
entered content and making it available to the target visitors.

Communication
Email is an important communications service available via the Internet.
The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties,
analogous to mailing letters or memos, predates the creation of the
Internet.[89][90] Pictures, documents, and other files are sent as email
attachments. Email messages can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses.

Internet telephony is a common communications service realized with the

Internet. The name of the principal internetworking protocol, the Internet
Protocol, lends its name to voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). The idea
began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for
personal computers. VoIP systems now dominate many markets and are as
easy to use and as convenient as a traditional telephone. The benefit has
been substantial cost savings over traditional telephone calls, especially
over long distances. Cable, ADSL, and mobile data networks provide

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 Internet access in customer premises[91] and inexpensive VoIP network
adapters provide the connection for traditional analog telephone sets. The
voice quality of VoIP often exceeds that of traditional calls. Remaining
problems for VoIP include the situation that emergency services may not
be universally available and that devices rely on a local power supply, while
older traditional phones are powered from the local loop, and typically
operate during a power failure.

Data transfer
File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the
Internet. A computer file can be emailed to customers, colleagues and
friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) server for easy download by others. It can be put into a
"shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The
load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror"
servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of these cases, access to the file
may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the
Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands
for access to the file. The price can be paid by the remote charging of
funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed—
usually fully encrypted—across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of
the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other
message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide
basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that
can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all
manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video,
photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic

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 shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the
production and distribution of these products.

Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for immediate

consumption or enjoyment by end users. Many radio and television
broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video
productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as
Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have
been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-
air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a
computer or something more specific, can be used to access online media
in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or
radio receiver. The range of available types of content is much wider, from
specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia
services. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where—usually audio—
material is downloaded and played back on a computer or shifted to a
portable media player to be listened to on the move. These techniques
using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing
control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide. Digital media
streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example,
standard image quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p
quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs
4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p.[92]

Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some

webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture either is usually small
or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African
waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or
monitor their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and
video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for
personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was
founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free
streaming video with more than two billion users.[93] It uses an HTML5

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 based web player by default to stream and show video files.[94] Registered
users may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own
personal profile. YouTube claims that its users watch hundreds of millions,
and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily.

Social impact
The Internet has enabled new forms of social interaction, activities, and
social associations. This phenomenon has given rise to the scholarly study
of the sociology of the Internet. The early Internet left an impact on some
writers who used symbolism to write about it, such as describing the
Internet as a "means to connect individuals in a vast invisible net over all
the earth."[95]

Users

Share of population using the

Internet.[96] Source data.

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 Internet users per 100 population
members and GDP per capita for
selected countries

Internet users per 100 inhabitants

[97][98]
Source: International Telecommunication Union.

Between 2000 and 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from
390 million to 1.9 billion.[99] By 2010, 22% of the world's population had
access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million
Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on YouTube.
[100]
In 2014 the world's Internet users surpassed 3 billion or 44 percent of
world population, but two-thirds came from the richest countries, with 78
percent of Europeans using the Internet, followed by 57 percent of the
Americas.[101] However, by 2018, Asia alone accounted for 51% of all
Internet users, with 2.2 billion out of the 4.3 billion Internet users in the
world. China's Internet users surpassed a major milestone in 2018, when

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 the country's Internet regulatory authority, China Internet Network
Information Centre, announced that China had 802 million users.[102]
China was followed by India, with some 700 million users, with the United
States third with 275 million users. However, in terms of penetration, in
2022 China had a 70% penetration rate compared to India's 60% and the
United States's 90%.[103] In 2022, 54% of the world's Internet users were
based in Asia, 14% in Europe, 7% in North America, 10% in Latin America
and the Caribbean, 11% in Africa, 4% in the Middle East and 1% in
Oceania.[104] In 2019, Kuwait, Qatar, the Falkland Islands, Bermuda and
Iceland had the highest Internet penetration by the number of users, with
93% or more of the population with access.[105] As of 2022, it was
estimated that 5.4 billion people use the Internet, more than two-thirds of
the world's population.[106]

The prevalent language for communication via the Internet has always
been English. This may be a result of the origin of the Internet, as well as
the language's role as a lingua franca and as a world language. Early
computer systems were limited to the characters in the American Standard
Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the Latin alphabet.
After English (27%), the most requested languages on the World Wide
Web are Chinese (25%), Spanish (8%), Japanese (5%), Portuguese and
German (4% each), Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Korean
(2%).[107] The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent
years, especially in the use of Unicode, that good facilities are available for
development and communication in the world's widely used languages.
However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of some
languages' characters) still remain.

In a US study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very
slightly ahead of the percentage of women, although this difference
reversed in those under 30. Men logged on more often, spent more time
online, and were more likely to be broadband users, whereas women
tended to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as

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 email). Men were more likely to use the Internet to pay bills, participate in
auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and videos. Men
and women were equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and
banking.[108] In 2008, women significantly outnumbered men on most
social networking services, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the
ratios varied with age.[109] Women watched more streaming content,
whereas men downloaded more.[110] Men were more likely to blog. Among
those who blog, men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas
women were more likely to have a personal blog.[111]

Several neologisms exist that refer to Internet users: Netizen (as in "citizen
of the net")[112] refers to those actively involved in improving online
communities, the Internet in general or surrounding political affairs and
rights such as free speech,[113][114] Internaut refers to operators or
technically highly capable users of the Internet,[115][116] digital citizen
refers to a person using the Internet in order to engage in society, politics,
and government participation.[117]

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 Internet users by language[107]

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 Website content languages[118]

Usage

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 Internet users in 2021 as a percentage of a country's
population
Source: Our World in Data.

Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012

as a percentage of a country's population
Source: International Telecommunication Union.[119]

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 Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012
as a percentage of a country's population
Source: International Telecommunication Union.[120]

The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location,

especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections. The
Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including
through mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld
game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet
wirelessly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other
limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet,
including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may
restrict the services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly
higher than other access methods.

Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is

available from websites. Examples range from CBeebies, through school
and high-school revision guides and virtual universities, to access to top-
end scholarly literature through the likes of Google Scholar. For distance
education, help with homework and other assignments, self-guided
learning, whiling away spare time or just looking up more detail on an
interesting fact, it has never been easier for people to access educational
information at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and the
World Wide Web in particular are important enablers of both formal and
informal education. Further, the Internet allows researchers (especially
those from the social and behavioral sciences) to conduct research

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 remotely via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in reach and
generalizability of findings as well as in communication between scientists
and in the publication of results.[121]

The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and
skills have made collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of
collaborative software. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and
share ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups more
easily to form. An example of this is the free software movement, which
has produced, among other things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and
[Link] (later forked into LibreOffice). Internet chat, whether using
an IRC chat room, an instant messaging system, or a social networking
service, allows colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while
working at their computers during the day. Messages can be exchanged
even more quickly and conveniently than via email. These systems may
allow files to be exchanged, drawings and images to be shared, or voice
and video contact between team members.

Content management systems allow collaborating teams to work on

shared sets of documents simultaneously without accidentally destroying
each other's work. Business and project teams can share calendars as well
as documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide
variety of areas including scientific research, software development,
conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and
political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet
access and computer literacy spread.

The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers

and information stores easily from any access point. Access may be with
computer security; i.e., authentication and encryption technologies,
depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of remote
work, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An
accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in

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 another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely
maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been
created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based
on information emailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of
these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but
the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible
in practice. An office worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other
side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can access their emails,
access their data using cloud computing, or open a remote desktop
session into their office PC using a secure virtual private network (VPN)
connection on the Internet. This can give the worker complete access to
all of their normal files and data, including email and other applications,
while away from the office. It has been referred to among system
administrators as the Virtual Private Nightmare,[122] because it extends the
secure perimeter of a corporate network into remote locations and its
employees' homes. By the late 2010s the Internet had been described as
"the main source of scientific information "for the majority of the global
North population".[123]: 111

Social networking and

entertainment
Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports
reports, to plan and book vacations and to pursue their personal interests.
People use chat, messaging and email to make and stay in touch with
friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had
pen pals. Social networking services such as Facebook have created new

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 ways to socialize and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide
variety of information to pages, pursue common interests, and connect
with others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow
communication among existing groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster
commercial and business connections. YouTube and Flickr specialize in
users' videos and photographs. Social networking services are also widely
used by businesses and other organizations to promote their brands, to
market to their customers and to encourage posts to "go viral". "Black hat"
social media techniques are also employed by some organizations, such as
spam accounts and astroturfing.

A risk for both individuals' and organizations' writing posts (especially

public posts) on social networking services is that especially foolish or
controversial posts occasionally lead to an unexpected and possibly large-
scale backlash on social media from other Internet users. This is also a risk
in relation to controversial offline behavior, if it is widely made known. The
nature of this backlash can range widely from counter-arguments and
public mockery, through insults and hate speech, to, in extreme cases,
rape and death threats. The online disinhibition effect describes the
tendency of many individuals to behave more stridently or offensively
online than they would in person. A significant number of feminist women
have been the target of various forms of harassment in response to posts
they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been
criticized in the past for not doing enough to aid victims of online abuse.
[124]

For organizations, such a backlash can cause overall brand damage,

especially if reported by the media. However, this is not always the case,
as any brand damage in the eyes of people with an opposing opinion to
that presented by the organization could sometimes be outweighed by
strengthening the brand in the eyes of others. Furthermore, if an
organization or individual gives in to demands that others perceive as
wrong-headed, that can then provoke a counter-backlash.

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 Some websites, such as Reddit, have rules forbidding the posting of
personal information of individuals (also known as doxxing), due to
concerns about such postings leading to mobs of large numbers of
Internet users directing harassment at the specific individuals thereby
identified. In particular, the Reddit rule forbidding the posting of personal
information is widely understood to imply that all identifying photos and
names must be censored in Facebook screenshots posted to Reddit.
However, the interpretation of this rule in relation to public Twitter posts is
less clear, and in any case, like-minded people online have many other
ways they can use to direct each other's attention to public social media
posts they disagree with.

Children also face dangers online such as cyberbullying and approaches

by sexual predators, who sometimes pose as children themselves.
Children may also encounter material that they may find upsetting, or
material that their parents consider to be not age-appropriate. Due to
naivety, they may also post personal information about themselves online,
which could put them or their families at risk unless warned not to do so.
Many parents choose to enable Internet filtering or supervise their
children's online activities in an attempt to protect their children from
inappropriate material on the Internet. The most popular social networking
services, such as Facebook and Twitter, commonly forbid users under the
age of 13. However, these policies are typically trivial to circumvent by
registering an account with a false birth date, and a significant number of
children aged under 13 join such sites anyway. Social networking services
for younger children, which claim to provide better levels of protection for
children, also exist.[125]

The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception,
with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being
conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups
receiving much traffic.[126] Many Internet forums have sections devoted to
games and funny videos.[126] The Internet pornography and online

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 gambling industries have taken advantage of the World Wide Web.
Although many governments have attempted to restrict both industries'
use of the Internet, in general, this has failed to stop their widespread
popularity.[127]

Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is multiplayer gaming.[128]

This form of recreation creates communities, where people of all ages and
origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from
MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing video games to
online gambling. While online gaming has been around since the 1970s,
modern modes of online gaming began with subscription services such as
GameSpy and MPlayer.[129] Non-subscribers were limited to certain types
of game play or certain games. Many people use the Internet to access
and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and
relaxation. Free and fee-based services exist for all of these activities,
using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Some
of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists'
copyrights than others.

Internet usage has been correlated to users' loneliness.[130] Lonely people

tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their feelings and to share their
stories with others, such as in the "I am lonely will anyone speak to me"
thread. A 2017 book claimed that the Internet consolidates most aspects
of human endeavor into singular arenas of which all of humanity are
potential members and competitors, with fundamentally negative impacts
on mental health as a result. While successes in each field of activity are
pervasively visible and trumpeted, they are reserved for an extremely thin
sliver of the world's most exceptional, leaving everyone else behind.
Whereas, before the Internet, expectations of success in any field were
supported by reasonable probabilities of achievement at the village,
suburb, city or even state level, the same expectations in the Internet
world are virtually certain to bring disappointment today: there is always
someone else, somewhere on the planet, who can do better and take the

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 now one-and-only top spot.[131]

Cybersectarianism is a new organizational form that involves, "highly

dispersed small groups of practitioners that may remain largely
anonymous within the larger social context and operate in relative secrecy,
while still linked remotely to a larger network of believers who share a set
of practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a particular leader.
Overseas supporters provide funding and support; domestic practitioners
distribute tracts, participate in acts of resistance, and share information on
the internal situation with outsiders. Collectively, members and
practitioners of such sects construct viable virtual communities of faith,
exchanging personal testimonies and engaging in the collective study via
email, online chat rooms, and web-based message boards."[132] In
particular, the British government has raised concerns about the prospect
of young British Muslims being indoctrinated into Islamic extremism by
material on the Internet, being persuaded to join terrorist groups such as
the so-called "Islamic State", and then potentially committing acts of
terrorism on returning to Britain after fighting in Syria or Iraq.

Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average

UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work,
according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.[133] Internet
addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life.
Nicholas G. Carr believes that Internet use has other effects on individuals,
for instance improving skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep
thinking that leads to true creativity.[134]

Electronic business

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 Electronic business (e-business) encompasses business processes
spanning the entire value chain: purchasing, supply chain management,
marketing, sales, customer service, and business relationship. E-
commerce seeks to add revenue streams using the Internet to build and
enhance relationships with clients and partners. According to International
Data Corporation, the size of worldwide e-commerce, when global
business-to-business and -consumer transactions are combined, equate
to $16 trillion for 2013. A report by Oxford Economics added those two
together to estimate the total size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion,
equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global sales.[135]

While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-

enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the
Internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce
economic inequality and the digital divide.[136] Electronic commerce may
be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop, brick
and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.[137][138]
[139]

Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social transformations

caused by the Internet, has focused on the economic effects of
consolidation from Internet businesses. Keen cites a 2013 Institute for
Local Self-Reliance report saying brick-and-mortar retailers employ 47
people for every $10 million in sales while Amazon employs only 14.
Similarly, the 700-employee room rental start-up Airbnb was valued at
$10 billion in 2014, about half as much as Hilton Worldwide, which employs
152,000 people. At that time, Uber employed 1,000 full-time employees
and was valued at $18.2 billion, about the same valuation as Avis Rent a
Car and The Hertz Corporation combined, which together employed
almost 60,000 people.[140]

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 Remote work
Remote work is facilitated by tools such as groupware, virtual private
networks, conference calling, videotelephony, and VoIP so that work may
be performed from any location, most conveniently the worker's home. It
can be efficient and useful for companies as it allows workers to
communicate over long distances, saving significant amounts of travel
time and cost. More workers have adequate bandwidth at home to use
these tools to link their home to their corporate intranet and internal
communication networks.

Collaborative publishing
Wikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and
dissemination of information across institutional and international
boundaries.[141] In those settings, they have been found useful for
collaboration on grant writing, strategic planning, departmental
documentation, and committee work.[142] The United States Patent and
Trademark Office uses a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding
prior art relevant to examination of pending patent applications. Queens,
New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and
planning of a local park.[143] The English Wikipedia has the largest user
base among wikis on the World Wide Web[144] and ranks in the top 10
among all sites in terms of traffic.[145]

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 Politics and political
revolutions

Banner in Bangkok during the 2014

Thai coup d'état, informing the Thai
public that 'like' or 'share' activities
on social media could result in
imprisonment (observed 30 June
2014)

The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The

presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was
notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political
groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing for carrying
out their mission, having given rise to Internet activism.[146][147] The New
York Times suggested that social media websites, such as Facebook and
Twitter, helped people organize the political revolutions in Egypt, by
helping activists organize protests, communicate grievances, and
disseminate information.[148]

Many have understood the Internet as an extension of the Habermasian

notion of the public sphere, observing how network communication
technologies provide something like a global civic forum. However,

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 incidents of politically motivated Internet censorship have now been
recorded in many countries, including western democracies.[149][150]

E-government is the use of technological communications devices, such

as the Internet, to provide public services to citizens and other persons in
a country or region. E-government offers opportunities for more direct and
convenient citizen access to government[151] and for government provision
of services directly to citizens.[152]

Philanthropy
The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has
opened up new possibilities for peer-to-peer charities, which allow
individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for other
individuals. Websites, such as DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving, allow
small-scale donors to direct funds to individual projects of their choice. A
popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is the use of peer-to-peer
lending for charitable purposes. Kiva pioneered this concept in 2005,
offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for
funding. Kiva raises funds for local intermediary microfinance
organizations that post stories and updates on behalf of the borrowers.
Lenders can contribute as little as $25 to loans of their choice and receive
their money back as borrowers repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-
to-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being funded by lenders
and borrowers do not communicate with lenders themselves.[153][154]

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 Security
Internet resources, hardware, and software components are the target of
criminal or malicious attempts to gain unauthorized control to cause
interruptions, commit fraud, engage in blackmail or access private
information.[155]

Malware
Malware is malicious software used and distributed via the Internet. It
includes computer viruses which are copied with the help of humans,
computer worms which copy themselves automatically, software for denial
of service attacks, ransomware, botnets, and spyware that reports on the
activity and typing of users. Usually, these activities constitute cybercrime.
Defense theorists have also speculated about the possibilities of hackers
using cyber warfare using similar methods on a large scale.[156]

Malware poses serious problems to individuals and businesses on the

Internet.[157][158] According to Symantec's 2018 Internet Security Threat
Report (ISTR), malware variants number has increased to 669,947,865 in
2017, which is twice as many malware variants as in 2016.[159] Cybercrime,
which includes malware attacks as well as other crimes committed by
computer, was predicted to cost the world economy US$6 trillion in 2021,
and is increasing at a rate of 15% per year.[160] Since 2021, malware has
been designed to target computer systems that run critical infrastructure

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 such as the electricity distribution network.[161][162] Malware can be
designed to evade antivirus software detection algorithms.[163][164][165]

Surveillance
The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data
and traffic on the Internet.[166] In the United States for example, under the
Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and
broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are
required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law
enforcement agencies.[167][168][169] Packet capture is the monitoring of
data traffic on a computer network. Computers communicate over the
Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages,
files, etc.) into small chunks called "packets", which are routed through a
network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are
assembled back into a complete "message" again. Packet Capture
Appliance intercepts these packets as they are traveling through the
network, in order to examine their contents using other programs. A
packet capture is an information gathering tool, but not an analysis tool.
That is it gathers "messages" but it does not analyze them and figure out
what they mean. Other programs are needed to perform traffic analysis
and sift through intercepted data looking for important/useful information.
Under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act all U.S.
telecommunications providers are required to install packet sniffing
technology to allow Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to
intercept all of their customers' broadband Internet and VoIP traffic.[170]

The large amount of data gathered from packet capture requires

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 surveillance software that filters and reports relevant information, such as
the use of certain words or phrases, the access to certain types of web
sites, or communicating via email or chat with certain parties.[171]
Agencies, such as the Information Awareness Office, NSA, GCHQ and the
FBI, spend billions of dollars per year to develop, purchase, implement,
and operate systems for interception and analysis of data.[172] Similar
systems are operated by Iranian secret police to identify and suppress
dissidents. The required hardware and software were allegedly installed by
German Siemens AG and Finnish Nokia.[173]

Censorship

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 Internet censorship and surveillance by country (2018)[174][175][c]
[176][177]

Pervasive
Substantial
Selective
Little or none
Unclassified / No data

Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North Korea, Mainland

China, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, restrict access to
content on the Internet within their territories, especially to political and
religious content, with domain name and keyword filters.[178]

In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, major Internet service

providers have voluntarily agreed to restrict access to sites listed by
authorities. While this list of forbidden resources is supposed to contain
only known child pornography sites, the content of the list is secret.[179]
Many countries, including the United States, have enacted laws against
the possession or distribution of certain material, such as child
pornography, via the Internet but do not mandate filter software. Many
free or commercially available software programs, called content-control
software are available to users to block offensive websites on individual
computers or networks in order to limit access by children to pornographic

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 material or depiction of violence.

Performance
As the Internet is a heterogeneous network, its physical characteristics,
including, for example the data transfer rates of connections, vary widely.
It exhibits emergent phenomena that depend on its large-scale
organization.[180]

Traffic volume

Global Internet Traffic as of 2018

The volume of Internet traffic is difficult to measure because no single

point of measurement exists in the multi-tiered, non-hierarchical topology.
Traffic data may be estimated from the aggregate volume through the
peering points of the Tier 1 network providers, but traffic that stays local in
large provider networks may not be accounted for.

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 Outages
An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signaling
interruptions. Disruptions of submarine communications cables may cause
blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in the 2008 submarine
cable disruption. Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due to the
small number of high-capacity links. Land cables are also vulnerable, as in
2011 when a woman digging for scrap metal severed most connectivity for
the nation of Armenia.[181] Internet blackouts affecting almost entire
countries can be achieved by governments as a form of Internet
censorship, as in the blockage of the Internet in Egypt, whereby
approximately 93%[182] of networks were without access in 2011 in an
attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests.[183]

Energy use
Estimates of the Internet's electricity usage have been the subject of
controversy, according to a 2014 peer-reviewed research paper that found
claims differing by a factor of 20,000 published in the literature during the
preceding decade, ranging from 0.0064 kilowatt hours per gigabyte
transferred (kWh/GB) to 136 kWh/GB.[184] The researchers attributed
these discrepancies mainly to the year of reference (i.e. whether efficiency
gains over time had been taken into account) and to whether "end devices
such as personal computers and servers are included" in the analysis.[184]

In 2011, academic researchers estimated the overall energy used by the

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 Internet to be between 170 and 307 GW, less than two percent of the
energy used by humanity. This estimate included the energy needed to
build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops,
a billion smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the
energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and
cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet traffic.[185][186]
According to a non-peer-reviewed study published in 2018 by The Shift
Project (a French think tank funded by corporate sponsors), nearly 4% of
global CO2 emissions could be attributed to global data transfer and the
necessary infrastructure.[187] The study also said that online video
streaming alone accounted for 60% of this data transfer and therefore
contributed to over 300 million tons of CO2 emission per year, and argued
for new "digital sobriety" regulations restricting the use and size of video
files.[188]

See also

Internet
portal
World
portal

Crowdfunding
Crowdsourcing

[Link] 8/1/25, 22 02
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:
 Cyberspace
Darknet
Deep web
Hyphanet
Internet industry jargon
Index of Internet-related
articles
Internet metaphors
Internet video
"Internets"
Outline of the Internet

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:
 Notes

a. See Capitalization of
Internet
b. Despite the name, TCP/IP
also includes UDP traffic,
which is significant.[1]
c. Due to legal concerns the
OpenNet Initiative does not
check for filtering of child
pornography and because
their classifications focus

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:
 on technical filtering, they
do not include other types
of censorship.

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Sources

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 This article incorporates text
from a free content work. Text
taken from World Trends in
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 Massachusetts: MIT Press.
ISBN 978-0-262-01172-3.

Further reading

First Monday ([Link]

[Link]/) , a peer-
reviewed journal on the
Internet by the University
Library of the University of
Illinois at Chicago, ISSN 1396-
0466 ([Link]
g/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:139

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 6-0466)
The Internet Explained (http
s://[Link]/articles/interne
t-explained/) , Vincent Zegna
& Mike Pepper, Sonet Digital,
November 2005, pp. 1–7.
Castells, Manuel (2010). The
Rise of the Network Society.
Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-
9686-4.
Yeo, ShinJoung (2023),
Behind the Search Box:

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 Google and the Global
Internet Industry, U of Illinois
Press, ISBN 978-0-252-
04499-1,
JSTOR 10.5406/jj.4116455 (h
ttps://[Link]/stable/10.
5406/jj.4116455)

External links

The Internet Society ([Link]

[Link]/)
Living Internet ([Link]

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 [Link]/) , Internet history
and related information,
including information from
many creators of the Internet

Retrieved from
"[Link]
title=Internet&oldid=1266230519"

This page was last edited on 30

December 2024, at 18:23 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA

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