Chapter

Descriptive Statistics
Hazhar Talaat Abubaker Blbas

Abstract

Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that deals with summarizing and

describing the main features of a dataset. This chapter will cover the value of statistics,
how data analysis occurs in scientific study, the distinction between a sample and the
population, the different types of variables, sampling techniques, measures of central
tendency, and measures of dispersion. The summary of descriptive statistics gives a
succinct overview of various metrics and visual representations, enabling researchers
and analysts to learn more about the features of the dataset and draw accurate
conclusions.

Keywords: mean, median, mode, standard deviation, coefficient of variation,

probability sampling, non-probability sampling

1. Introduction

Descriptive statistics involve summarizing and describing data using numerical

measures and graphical representations. It provides a concise and meaningful way to
understand and communicate the main characteristics of a dataset. This introduction
explores the basics of descriptive statistics, including measures of central tendency,
measures of dispersion, and graphical representations. By examining these statistical
tools, we can gain insights into the patterns, variability, and distribution of data,
allowing us to make informed interpretations and draw meaningful conclusions.

2. What is the process of analyzing data in statistics?

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data

in order to make decisions as shown in Figure 1.

3. Sample and population

A population is the collection of all outcomes, responses, measurements, or counts

that are of interest since sample is a subset of a population as shown in Figure 2 [1–3].

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Figure 1.
Process of data analysis in scientific research. Source: Author has been created as a new work.

Figure 2.
Difference between sample and population. Source: Author has been created as a new work.

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4. Type of variables

Variable is a characteristic that can assume different values and alphabetic. There
are two common types of variables, such as quantitative variables and qualitative
variables, as shown in Figure 3 [4, 5].

1. Quantitative variables (numerical variables) are variables that represent

measurable quantities or amounts. They can be further classified into two types:

i. Discrete variables: Discrete variables are numerical variables that can

only take on specific, separate values. These values are typically whole
numbers or counts and cannot be subdivided further. Examples of
discrete variables include the number of children in a family, the
number of customers in a store, or the number of items sold.

ii. Continuous variables: Continuous variables are numerical variables that

can take on any value within a certain range. They can be measured with
a high degree of precision and can have infinite possible values between
any two points. Examples of continuous variables include height,
weight, temperature, and income.

2. Qualitative variables (categorical variable): This type of variable represents data

that can be divided into distinct categories or groups. Examples include gender,
ethnicity, marital status, and level of education.

i. Nominal variables: Nominal variables are categorical variables that

represent data with no ranking. Examples of nominal variables include
gender (male/female), ethnicity (Asian, African, European, etc.),
marital status (single, married, divorced), and eye color (blue, brown,
green).

Figure 3.
Type of variables. Source: Author has been created as a new work.

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ii. Ordinal variables: Ordinal variables represent data that has a natural
order or ranking, but the differences between the categories may not be
consistent or measurable. The categories can be ranked or ordered based
on some criterion, but the magnitude of the difference between
categories is not known. Examples of ordinal variables include
satisfaction levels (very satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied, very
dissatisfied), educational attainment (high school diploma, bachelor’s
degree, master’s degree), and survey responses using Likert scales
(“strongly agree,” “agree,” “neutral,” “disagree,” “strongly disagree”).

5. Sampling plan

Once the target population has been identified, next the sampling plan must be
devised. Goal: Randomly select a small percent of the population that will in turn
represent the ideas of the population as a whole. There are two general types of
sampling techniques [1, 2, 5]:

5.1 Probability (random) sampling

All members of the population must be specified prior to drawing the sample and
each member of the population has equal probability of being chosen or included in
the sample. There are four common types of Probability (Random) Sampling:

5.1.1 Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is a statistical sampling technique in which each member

of a population has an equal probability of being selected to be part of the sample. The
selection process is conducted randomly, without any bias or preference toward
certain individuals or elements in the population.
A researcher wants to conduct a survey to understand the opinions of students at a
university regarding a new policy. The university has a total population of 1500
students. For example, a researcher wants to select 100 out of 1500 students as a
sample. Put a unique identifier to each of the students such as a student ID number.
Then, randomly select the 100 students as a sample like a lottery game.

5.1.2 Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is a statistical sampling technique that involves selecting

every kth element from a population, where k is a predetermined interval. It is similar
to simple random sampling but incorporates a systematic approach to the selection
process.
Depending on the previous example of simple random sampling, the researcher
wants to select 100 students using systematic sampling. We will calculate the sam-
pling interval, which divides the population size by the desired sample size to deter-
mine the sampling interval. In this case, the sampling interval would be 1000/
100 = 10. Next, select a random starting point within the first k elements (in this case,
the first 10 students). Next, starting from the random starting point, select every 10th
student thereafter. So, you would select the 10th, 20th, 30th, and so on, until you
reach the desired sample size.
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5.1.3 Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling is a statistical sampling technique that involves dividing the

population into two or more than two homogeneous groups. Then, randomly select
the desire case in each groups using simple random sampling.
Depending on the previous example in simple random sampling, the researcher
wants to select 100 students using stratified sampling.
First, students can be stratified based on their academic disciplines into four strata:
statistics, accounting, business, and economics department.

1. Determine the sample size: Decide on the desired sample size for each stratum.
Let us say you want to sample 25 students from each stratum (department),
resulting in a total sample size of 100 students.

2. Divide the population into four strata: Categorize the students into the respective
strata based on their academic disciplines. Each student should belong to only
one stratum.

3. Determine the allocation: Calculate the proportionate allocation for each stratum
by dividing the desired sample size for that stratum by the total sample size. In
this case, since each stratum has the same desired sample size (25 students), the
allocation would be 1/4 (25%) for each stratum.

4. Sample within each stratum: Perform simple random sampling within each
stratum separately. Randomly select 25% (25 students) from the statistics
stratum, 25% from the accounting stratum, 25% from business stratum, and 25%
from the economics stratum.

5. Collect data: Once the samples are selected, collect the relevant data or
information from the students in each stratum.

5.1.4 Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters
or groups, often based on geographical proximity, and randomly selecting entire more
than one clusters as the sampling units. This technique is useful when it is impractical
or costly to sample individuals individually, and it can provide cost and time
efficiencies.

5.2 Nonprobability sampling

Every element in the population does not have an equal probability of being
chosen. The process of inclusion in the sample is based on the judgment of the person
selecting the sample. There are four common types of nonprobability sampling.

5.2.1 Judgment sampling

Purposive sampling: Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental or selective

sampling, involves handpicking individuals based on specific criteria or the
researcher’s judgment. This technique is often used in qualitative research or when a
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specific subgroup of the population is of particular interest. Purposive sampling allows

the researcher to target individuals who possess the desired characteristics or have
relevant experiences.

5.2.2 Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling involves selecting individuals who

are easily accessible or readily available to the researcher. This method is convenient
and often used in situations where time, cost, or accessibility is a constraint. However,
convenience sampling can introduce bias, as the sample may not be representative of
the entire population.

5.2.3 Quota sampling

Quota sampling: Quota sampling involves setting specific quotas or targets for
certain characteristics or subgroups within the population. The researcher selects
individuals to fulfill the predetermined quotas until they are satisfied with the sample
composition. Quota sampling allows for control over sample proportions but does not
involve random selection.

5.2.4 Snowball sampling

Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a technique where initial participants are

selected, and then they help identify and recruit additional participants from their
social networks. This method is useful when studying hard-to-reach or hidden
populations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals and networks to expand the
sample size.

6. Measures of central tendency

It is a statistical measure that represents information about the central or middle

value of a dataset. The three common measures of central tendency are the mean,
median, and mode [4–6].

1. Mean (average), is calculated by summing up all the values in a dataset and

dividing by the number of values. It represents the balancing point of the dataset
and is sensitive to outliers. Depending on 894 people from Kurdistan Region of
Iraq, the average age of people for the survey about depression and anxiety
during the outbreak of COVID-19 is 33 years [1].
P
Xi
X¼ (1)
n

Example: Consider the following dataset of exam scores: 85, 90, 92, 88, 95. The
mean is calculated as (85 + 90 + 92 + 88 + 95) / 5 = 90.

2. Median: The median is the middle value in a dataset when it is arranged in

ascending or descending order. If there is an even number of values, the median
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is the average of the two middle values. The median is less influenced by outliers
compared to the mean.
Example: Using the same dataset of exam scores: 85, 90, 92, 88, 95. When
arranged in ascending order, the middle value is 90. Therefore, the median is 90.

3. Mode: The mode represents the most frequently occurring value(s) in a dataset.
It is the value that appears with the highest frequency. A dataset can have no
mode (when all values occur equally) or multiple modes (when multiple values
have the same highest frequency).

Example: Consider the following dataset of exam scores: 85, 90, 92, 88, 90.
The mode is 90 because it appears twice, which is more frequently than any
other value.

7. Measures of dispersion (variation)

Measures of dispersion (Variation), provide information about the spread or dis-

persion of data points around the central tendency. The first three main measures of
dispersion including range, standard deviation, and variance, are used when we have
the same unit of datasets but we can use coefficient of variation once we have
different units of datasets [4–8].

1. Range (R): It is the difference between the maximum and minimum values in a
dataset.

R ¼ Highest value  Lowest value (2)

Example: Consider the following dataset of exam scores: 85, 90, 92, 88, 95. The
range is calculated as 95–85 = 10.

2. Variance (S2): It measures the average squared deviation of each data point from
the mean. It provides a more precise measure of dispersion by considering the
differences between individual data points and the mean. However, it is in
squared units and is sensitive to outliers.
P 2
Xi  X
S2 ¼ (3)
n1

Example: Using the same dataset of exam scores: 85, 90, 92, 88, 95. The variance is
calculated as follows:

• Calculate the mean: (85 + 90 + 92 + 88 + 95) / 5 = 90.

• Calculate the squared deviation for each data point from the mean: (85–90)^2,
(90–90)^2, (92–90)^2, (88–90)^2, (95–90)^2.

• Calculate the average of these squared deviations: (25 + 0 + 4 + 4 + 25) / 5 = 12.8.

Therefore, the variance is 12.8.
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1. Standard Deviation (S): It is the square root of the variance. It is the most
commonly used measure of dispersion as it is in the original units of the data,
making it more interpretable. It provides a measure of how much the data
deviates from the mean.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P 2
Xi  X
S¼ (4)
n1

Example: Using the same dataset of exam scores: 85, 90, 92, 88, 95. The standard
deviation is the square root of the variance calculated in the previous example,
which is approximately 3.58.

2. The coefficient of variation (CV) is a relative measure of dispersion that

expresses the standard deviation as a percentage of the mean. It is used to
compare the variability of datasets with different means or scales. The formula
for calculating the coefficient of variation is:

S
CV ¼ ∗ 100 (5)
X

Here’s an example to illustrate the calculation of the coefficient of variation.

Consider two datasets representing the monthly sales of two stores:
Store A: Mean = $10,000, Standard Deviation = $2000.
Store B: Mean = $15,000, Standard Deviation = $3000

• CV foe the store A = (2000 / 10,000) * 100 = 20%

• CV foe the store B = (3000 / 15,000) * 100 = 20%

In this example, both stores have the same coefficient of variation of 20%. It
indicates that the relative variability or dispersion of sales is the same for both stores,
even though Store B has a higher mean and standard deviation compared to Store A.
A lower coefficient of variation indicates less variability relative to the mean, while
a higher coefficient of variation suggests greater relative variability.

Additional information

ORCID account: [Link]

Google Scholar Citation: [Link]
JoAAAAJ&hl=en&authuser=1

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Author details

Hazhar Talaat Abubaker Blbas

Department of Statistics, College of Administration and Economics, Salahaddin
University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

*Address all correspondence to: [Link]@[Link]

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License ([Link]
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
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