ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

Basic Electrical
Engineering Concepts
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● Nature of Electricity
● Electric Current
● Electric Potential
● EMF and Potential Difference
● Potential Rise and Potential Drop
● Resistance
● Ohm’s Law
● Non-ohmic Conductors
● Electric Power
● Electrical Energy
NATURE OF ELECTRICTY

● If the number of protons is equal to the number

of electrons in a body, the resultant charge is
zero and the body will be electrically neutral.
● If from a neutral body, some electrons are
removed, there occurs a deficit of electrons in
the body. Consequently, the body attains a
positive charge.
● If a neutral body is supplied with electrons, there
occurs an excess of electrons. Consequently,
the body attains a negative charge.
 UNIT OF CHARGE

1 coulomb = Charge on 625 × 1016 electrons

1 −19
Charge on electron = 16 = 1.6 × 10 C
625 ×10
 ELECTRON

● Subatomic particles that is negatively charged.

● Important properties:
○ Charge on an electron, 𝑒 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
○ Mass of an electron, 𝑚 = 9.0 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
○ Radius of an electron, 𝑟 = 1.9 × 10−15 𝑚
 VALENCE ELECTRON
● The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom
are known as valence electrons.
● The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8
electrons
● When the number of valance electrons is less than
4, it is usually a metal and a conductor.
● When the number of valence electrons of an atom
is more than 4, the material is usually a non-metal
and an insulator.
● When the number of valence electrons of an atom
is 4 , the material has both metal and non-metal
properties and is usually a semi-conductor.
 FREE ELECTRONS
● Those valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus of an
atom are called free electrons.
● Conductors has a large number of free electrons at room temperature. The
best conductors are silver, copper and gold in that order.
● Insulators has very few free electrons. It is commonly used as insulator
materials for wires. Most substances including plastics, ceramics, rubber,
paper and most liquids and gases fall in this category.
● Semi-conductors are neither conductors nor insulators. Most common semi-
conductors are silicon, germanium, and carbon.
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

● The directed flow of free electrons (or charge) is

called electric current.
● Current is flow of electrons and electrons are
the constituents of matter. Therefore, electric
current is matter (i.e. free electrons) in motion.
● The actual direction of current (i.e. flow of
electrons) is from negative terminal to the
positive terminal through that part of the circuit
external to the cell.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
 ELECTRIC CURRENT
● Electric current is a scalar quantity
● The strength of electric current I is the rate of flow of electrons i.e. charge flowing per
second.
Current, 𝑰 = 𝑸/𝒕
The charge Q is measured in coulombs and time t in seconds.
● 1 Coulomb = charge on 625 ×1016 electrons. If the current through a wire is 1 A, it means
that 625 ×1016 electrons per second flow past any cross-section of the wire.
● One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any cross section one coulomb
of charge flows in one second. Thus, if 5 amperes current is flowing through a wire, it
means that 5 coulombs per second flow past any cross section of the wire.
𝑰 = 𝑸Τ𝒕 = 𝒏𝒆Τ𝒕
where 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶; 𝑛 = number of electrons
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
● If a charge of 25 C passes a given point in a circuit at a time of
125 ms, determine the current of the circuit.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
● A 60 W light bulb has a current of 0.5 A flowing through it. Calculate (a)
the number of electrons per second passing through a cross-section of
the filament and (b) the number of electrons that pass the cross-
section in one hour.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
● The current in a certain conductor is 40 mA.
a. Find the total charge in coulombs that passes through the
conductor in 1.5 s.
b. Find the total number of electrons that pass through the
conductor in that time.
 TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
● Steady current (Direct Current). When the magnitude of current does not
change with time, it is called a steady current.
● Varying current. When the magnitude of current changes with time, it is called
a varying current.
● Alternating current. An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes
continuously with time and direction changes periodically.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
● The capacity of a charged body to do work is called its electric
potential.
● The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its
electric potential.
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑾
Electric potential, 𝑽 = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑸

● If 𝑊 = 1 joule and 𝑄 = 1 coulomb, then 𝑉 = 1 𝐽Τ𝐶 or 1 𝑉

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

● The difference in the potentials of two

charged bodies is called potential
difference (p.d.).
● If the potential difference between
two points is 1 volt if one joule of work
is done or released in transferring 1
coulomb of charge from one point to
the other.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

● The electromotive force (e.m.f.) represents

the driving influence that cause the current
to flow.
● It is not a force but represents the energy
expended during the passing of a unit charge
through the source.
 CONCEPT OF EMF AND PD
● EMF maintains potential difference while PD
causes current to flow.
● Here battery has an e.m.f. of 4 volts. It
means battery supplies 4 joules of energy to
each coulomb continuously. As each coulomb
travels from the positive terminal of the
battery, it gives up its most of energy to
resistances (2 Ω and 2 Ω in this case) and
remaining to connecting wires. When it
returns to the negative terminal, it has lost
all its energy originally supplied by the
battery.
POTENTIAL RISE & POTENTIAL DROP
● A potential rise occurs when the electric
potential (voltage) increases as current flows
through a circuit element such as a battery or
a voltage source.
● A potential drop occurs when the electric
potential (voltage) decreases as current flows
through a circuit element such as a resistor,
capacitor, or inductor.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
● The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called
potential difference.
● If the potential difference between two points is 1 volt if one
joule of work is done or released in transferring 1 coulomb of
charge from one point to the other.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
● A charge of 4 coulombs is flowing between points A and B of a
circuit. If the potential difference between A and B is 2 volts,
how many joules will be released by part AB of the circuit ?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
● How much work will be done by an electric energy source with a
potential difference of 3 kV that delivers a current of 1 A for 1
minute ?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
● The potential difference across a battery is 9 V. How much
charge must it deliver to do 50 J of work ?
 RESISTANCE
● The opposition offered by a substance to the
flow of electric current is called its
resistance.
● Resistance is the electric friction offered by
the substance and causes production of heat
with the flow of electric current.
● The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is
represented by the symbol Ω.

𝑹 = 𝑽/𝑰
 OHM’S LAW
● Ohm's Law describes the relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and
resistance (R) in an electrical circuit.
● It states that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅=
𝑅 𝐼
● It takes one volt to push one amp through one ohm.
 NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS
● Non-ohmic conductors are conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law vacuum tubes,
transistors, electrolytes, etc.
● A non-ohmic conductor may have one or more of the following properties:
○ The V-I graph is non-linear i.e. V/I is variable.
○ The V-I graph may not pass through the origin as in case of an ohmic conductor.
○ A non-ohmic conductor may conduct poorly or not at all when the p.d. is
reversed.
● The non-linear circuit problems are generally solved by graphical methods.
 ELECTRIC POWER
● The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called its electric power
Work done in electric circuit
Electric power =
Time
● Electric Power Formulas
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
● 1 W = 1 J/s ; 1 kW = 1000 W ; 1 MW = 106 W or 103 kW ; 1 hp = 746 W or 0.746 kW
 ELECTRICAL ENERGY
● The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy

Electrical Energy = Electric power × Time

● Electrical Energy Formulas

𝑾 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕
𝑾 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕
𝑽𝟐 𝒕
𝑾=
𝑹
● One kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electrical energy is expended in a circuit if 1 kW (1000
watts) of power is supplied for 1 hour.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
● A 100 V lamp has a hot resistance of 250 Ω. Find the current
taken by the lamp and its power rating in watts. Calculate also
the energy it will consume in 24 hours.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
● A heating element supplies 300 kilojoules in 50 minutes. Find
the p.d. across the element when current is 2 amperes.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
● A 10 watt resistor has a value of 120 Ω. What is the rated current
through the resistor ?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
● What is the maximum voltage that can be applied across a 100 Ω, 10 W
resistor in order to keep within the resistor’s power rating?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
● The following are the details of load on a circuit connected
through a supply meter :
○ Six lamps of 40 watts each working for 4 hours per day
○ Two fluorescent tubes 125 watts each working for 2 hours
per day
○ One 1000 watt heater working for 3 hours per day
○ If 1kWh of energy costs Php 15.00, what will be the
electricity bill for the month of June?
 ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

Resistors
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● Resistance
● Factors Upon Which Resistance Depends
● Conductance
● Types of Resistors
● Resistor Color Coding
● Effect of Temperature on Resistance
 RESISTANCE
● The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of
electric current is called its resistance.
● Resistance is the electric friction offered by the
substance and causes production of heat with the flow of
electric current.
● The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented
by the symbol Ω.

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
 FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
● The resistance R of a conductor
i. is directly proportional to its length (𝑅 ∝ 𝑙)
1
ii. is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area (𝑅 ∝ )
𝐴
iii. Depends upon the nature of the material
iv. Depends upon temperature.
● From the first three points, we have:
𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨
where ρ (Greek letter ‘Rho’) is a constant and is known as resistivity or specific
resistance of the material. Its value depends upon the nature of the material.
 SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY
● Specific resistance of a material is the resistance offered by 1 m length of
wire of material having an area of cross-section of 1 m2.
● If the length is measured in meters and area of cross-section in m2, then unit
of resistivity will be ohm-meter (Ω m).
ohm×m2
ρ= = ohm-m
m
● If length is measured in cm and area of cross-section in cm2, then unit of
resistivity will be ohm-cm (Ω cm).
ohm×cm2
ρ= = ohm-cm
cm
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY
 FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
● The resistance R of a conductor
i. is directly proportional to its length (𝑅 ∝ 𝑙)
1
ii. is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area (𝑅 ∝ )
𝐴
iii. Depends upon the nature of the material
iv. Depends upon temperature.
● From the first three points, we have:
𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨
where ρ (Greek letter ‘Rho’) is a constant and is known as resistivity or specific
resistance of the material. Its value depends upon the nature of the material.
 CONDUCTANCE
● The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G). If a
conductor has resistance R, then its conductance G is given by;
𝑮 = 𝟏 Τ𝑹
● SI unit of conductance is mho. These days, it is a usual practice to use
siemen (S) as the unit of conductance.
 CONDUCTIVITY
● The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity.
1
Conductivity, 𝜎 =
𝜌
● The SI unit of conductivity is Siemen meter-1 (S m-1)
● Conductance can be computed as:
1 𝐴 𝜎𝐴
𝐺= = =
𝑅 𝜌𝑙 𝑙
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Find the resistance of 1000 meters of a copper wire 25 sq. mm in cross-
section. What will be the resistance of another wire of the same material,
three times as long and one-half area of cross-section?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-sectional area
of 0.8 mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of
copper is 0.02 μΩ-m. Find the resistance of the coil and power absorbed
by the coil when connected across 110 V d.c. supply.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
What is the resistivity and conductivity of a copper if the resistance is 1/58
ohm per meter length and 1 sq. mm cross-section.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A transmission line cable consists of 19 strands of identical copper
conductors, each 1.5 mm in diameter. The length of the cable is 2 km but
because of the twist of the strands, the actual length of each conductor is
increased by 5 percent. What is resistance of the cable ?
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
● A component whose function in a circuit is to provide a specified value of
resistance is called a resistor.
● Common types of resistors in electrical and electronic circuits:
○ Carbon composition types
○ Film resistors
○ Wire-wound resistors
○ Cermet resistors
 Carbon Composition Type
● This type of resistor is made with a mixture of
finely ground carbon, insulating filler and a
resin binder.
● The ratio of carbon and insulating filler decides
the resistance value.
● The mixture is formed into a rod and lead
connections are made.
● The entire resistor is then enclosed in a plastic
case to prevent the entry of moisture and
other harmful elements from outside.
● The carbon resistors are available in power
ratings ranging from 1/8 to 2 W
 Film Resistors
● A resistive material is deposited uniformly
onto a high-grade ceramic rod. The resistive
film may be carbon (carbon film resistor) or
nickel-chromium (metal film resistor).
● In these types of resistors, the desired
resistance value is obtained by removing a part
of the resistive material in a helical pattern
 Wire-Wound Resistors
● A wire-wound resistor is constructed by
winding a resistive wire of some alloy around
an insulating rod.
● It is then enclosed in an insulating cover.
● Nickel-chromium alloy is used because of its
very small temperature coefficient of
resistance.
● Wire-wound resistors can safely operate at
higher temperatures than carbon types.
● These resistors have high power ratings
ranging from 12 to 225 W.
 Cermet Resistors
● A cermet resistor is made by depositing a thin
film of metal such as nichrome or chromium
cobalt on a ceramic substrate.
● They are cermet which is a contraction for
ceramic and metal.
● These resistors have very accurate values.
 COLOR CODE
● The values of resistor can often
be determined by the color code.
● Color bands represents
resistance value, tolerance, and
in some cases reliability.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE
● The resistance of pure metals (e.g. copper, aluminum) increases with the
increase of temperature. Since the resistance of metals increases with the
rise in temperature, they have positive temperature co-efficient of
resistance.
● The resistance of electrolytes, insulators (e.g. glass, mica, rubber etc.) and
semiconductors (e.g. germanium, silicon etc.) decreases with the increase in
temperature. Hence these materials have negative temperature co-efficient
of resistance.
● The resistance of alloys increases with the rise in temperature but this
increase is very small and irregular. For some high resistance alloys (e.g.
Eureka, manganin, constantan etc.), the change in resistance is practically
negligible over a wide range of temperatures.
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE
● The resistance graph for pure metals is a
straight line such as the graph for copper
shown.
● If this line is extended backward, it would
cut the temperature axis at −234.5°C. It
means that theoretically, the resistance of
copper wire is zero at −234.5°C. However, in
actual practice, the curve departs (point A)
from the straight line path at very low
temperature
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝒊 (𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

𝑅𝑡 - Resistance of the material at given temperature, Ω

𝑅𝑖 - Initial resistance of the material, Ω
∆𝑇 - Change in temperature from the reference temperature (𝑅𝑖 ), °C
α - Temperature coefficient of resistance, per °C
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A coil copper wire has a resistance of 200 Ω when its mean temperature
is 20 ºC. Calculate the resistance of the coil when its mean
temperature is 80 ºC.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
A piece of copper wire has a cross section area of 2.0 mm2 and a length of 5
meters. What is the electrical resistance at 20°C? What will be the
resistance of the wire at 75°C?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
The resistance of a transformer winding is 460 Ω at room temperature of 25
ºC. When the transformer is running, the resistance of the winding increases
to 520 Ω due to increase in temperature. Find the final temperature of
winding, assuming that α20 = 1/250 per ºC.
 VARIABLE RESISTORS
● Variable resistors are resistors with adjustable
resistance values. They allow the user to change
the resistance in a circuit manually, typically by
turning a knob or sliding a lever.
● A rheostat is a device that controls the current
in a circuit by varying the resistance.
● A potentiometer is a device that controls the
voltage across a load by dividing the input
voltage.
 ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

DC Circuit
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● DC Circuits
● Series Circuits
● Parallel Circuits
● Series-Parallel Circuits
● Applications of DC Circuits
 DC CIRCUIT
● A DC (Direct Current) circuit is an electrical
circuit where the current flows in one
direction, without changing direction over
time.
● In a DC circuit, the voltage polarity remains
constant, and the current flows from the
positive terminal of the voltage source to
the negative terminal.
 DC SERIES CIRCUIT
● The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end
to end so that there is only one path for current to flow is
called a d.c. series circuit.

𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

The total conductance, 𝐺𝑃 of the circuit is given by:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐺𝑠 𝐺1 𝐺 2 𝐺 3
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the series circuit values shown below:

𝑉1 = 40 V
𝐼1 = _____
𝑉𝑆 = _____ 𝑅1 = _____ 𝑉2 = 20 V
𝐼𝑆 = 2 A 𝐼2 = _____
𝑅𝑆 = _____ 𝑅2 = _____

𝑉3 = 40 V
𝐼3 = _____
𝑅3 = _____
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A 100 watt, 250 V lamp is connected in series with a 100 watt, 200 V lamp
across 250 V supply. Calculate (i) circuit current and (ii) voltage across each
lamp. Assume the lamp resistances to remain unaltered.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
The element of 500 watt electric iron is designed for use on a 200 V supply.
What value of resistance is needed to be connected in series in order that
the iron can be operated from 240 V supply?
 DC PARALLEL CIRCUIT
● When one end of each resistance is joined to a common
point and the other end of each resistance is joined to
another common point so that there are as many paths
for current flow as the number of resistances, it is called
a parallel circuit.
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

The total conductance, 𝐺𝑃 of the circuit is given by:

𝐺𝑃 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Calculate the series circuit values shown below:

𝑉𝑃 = 120 V 𝑉1 = _____ 𝑉2 = _____ 𝑉3 = _____

𝐼𝑃 = _____ 𝐼1 = 8 A 𝐼2 = 12 A 𝐼3 = 4 A
𝑅𝑃 = _____ 𝑅1 = _____ 𝑅2 = _____ 𝑅3 = _____
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A 100 watt, 250 V lamp is connected in parallel with an unknown resistance
R across a 250 V supply. The total power dissipated in the circuit is 1100
watts. Find the value of unknown resistance. Assume the resistance of lamp
remains unaltered.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Two coils connected in series have a resistance of 18 Ω and when connected
in parallel have a resistance of 4 Ω. Find the value of resistances.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Find the total resistance and branch currents below using the current
divider rule for parallel conductance.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
An aluminum wire 7.5 m long is connected in parallel with a copper wire
6 m long. When a current of 5 A is passed through the combination, it is
found that current in the aluminum wire is 3 A. The diameter of aluminum
wire is 1 mm. Determine the diameter of copper wire. Resistivity of copper is
0.017 μΩ-m and that of aluminum is 0.028 μΩ-m.
 DC SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
● This circuit is a combination of series and parallel
circuits.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
Calculate the circuit values shown below:

𝑅1 = 325 Ω 𝑅3 = 150Ω

𝐼𝑇 = 1 𝐴

𝑅2 = 275Ω
𝑅4 = 250 Ω
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Calculate the circuit values shown below:

𝑉1 𝑉3

𝑉𝑇 = 12𝑉 𝑉2 = 8𝑉 𝑉4 = 2 𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = 150 𝑚𝐴
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
Calculate the circuit values shown below:
 ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

DC Circuit
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● Applications of DC Circuits
● Equivalent Resistance
● Open Circuit
● Short Circuit
● Wheatstone Bridge
● Complex Circuit
● Kirchhoff's Current Law
● Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
● Delta/Star Transformation
● Star/Delta Transformation
 APLLICATIONS OF DC CIRCUITS
● In an automobile, the starting, lighting and ignition circuits are all
individual circuits joined to make a series-parallel circuit drawing its
power from one battery.
● Radio and television receivers contain a number of separate circuits
such as tuning circuits, r.f. amplifiers, oscillator, detector and picture
tube circuits. Individually, they may be simple series or parallel circuits.
However, when the receiver is considered as a whole, the result is a
series-parallel circuit.
● Power supplies are connected in series to get a higher voltage and in
parallel to get a higher current.
 EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
● Equivalent resistance refers to the
combined resistance of multiple resistors
or resistive elements in an electrical circuit
when viewed from a certain perspective. It
is the single resistance value that would
replace multiple resistors in a circuit
without altering the circuit's behavior or
overall resistance.
Solve for the total resistance and total voltage of the circuit
 OPEN CIRCUIT
● When there is a break in any part of a
circuit, that part is said to be open
circuited. No current can flow through an
open. Since no current can flow through an
open, according to Ohm’s law, an open has
infinite resistance ( R = V I = V /0 = ∞). An
open circuit may be as a result of
component failure or disintegration of a
conducting path such as the breaking of a
wire.
1. Open circuit in a series circuit
● The circuit current becomes zero.
● There will be no voltage drop across the
resistors that are normal.
● Since the circuit current is zero, there is no
voltage drop in the internal resistance of
the source. Therefore, terminal voltage may
appear higher than the normal.
2. Open circuit in a parallel circuit
● Branch current 𝐼3 will be zero because 𝑅3 is
open.
● The total current 𝐼 will be less than the
normal.
● The operation of the branches without
opens will be normal.
● The open device will not operate. If 𝑅3 is a
lamp, it will be out. If it is a motor, it will not
run.
 SHORT CIRCUIT
● A short circuit is an unwanted path of low resistance. When
a short circuit occurs, the resistance of the circuit
becomes low. As a result, current greater than the normal
flows which can cause damage to circuit components. The
short circuit may be due to insulation failure, components
get shorted etc.
1. Partial short in a series circuit
● An unwanted path has connected 𝑅1 to
𝑅3 and has eliminated 𝑅2 from the circuit.
Therefore, the circuit resistance decreases
and the circuit current becomes greater
than normal. The voltage drop across
components that are not shorted will be
higher than normal. Since current is
increased, the power dissipation in the
components that are not shorted will be
greater than the normal. A partial short may
cause healthy component to burn out due
to abnormally high dissipation.
2. Dead Short in a Series Circuit
● Here all the loads (i.e. resistors in this case)
have been removed by the unwanted path.
Therefore, the circuit resistance is almost
zero and the circuit current becomes
extremely high. If there are no protective
devices (fuse, circuit breaker etc.) in the
circuit, drastic results (smoke, fire,
explosion etc.) may occur.
3. Partial short in a parallel circuit
● The circuit resistance will
decrease and total current
becomes greater than the
normal. Further, the current flow
in the healthy branches will be
less than the normal. Therefore,
healthy branches may operate
but not as they are supposed to.
4. Dead short in a parallel circuit
● Note that all the loads are
eliminated by the short circuit so
that the circuit resistance is
almost zero. As a result, the
circuit current becomes
abnormally high and may cause
extensive damage unless it has
protective devices (e.g. fuse,
circuit breaker etc.).
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
● The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit arrangement
used to measure an unknown electrical resistance
by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit. It is
commonly used in instrumentation and
measurement applications where precise resistance
measurements are required. The Wheatstone bridge
consists of four resistive arms forming a diamond
shape, with a galvanometer connected between the
midpoints of two opposite arms.
● Example of its application is measuring resistance
and in sensor circuits where changes in resistance
need to be detected accurately, such as in strain
gauges and temperature sensors.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
𝐼2 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
and 𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑋
Dividing exp. (i) by (ii), we get,
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑋

or 𝑃𝑋 = 𝑄𝑅
i.e. 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑄
𝑈𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑋 = 𝑅
𝑃
Note. When the bridge is balanced, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐷 so the voltage
across galvanometer is zero i.e. 𝑉𝐵𝐷 = 𝑉𝐵 – 𝑉𝐷 = 0. When
there is zero voltage across the galvanometer, there is also
zero current though the galvanometer.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Verify that the Wheatstone bridge shown below is balanced. Then find the
voltage 𝑉𝑇 across the 0.2 A current source. (i) replacing the 200 Ω resistor
with a short.(ii) replacing the 200 Ω resistor with an open.
 COMPLEX CIRCUITS
● Complex circuits occurs when there is
more than one e.m.f. on the circuit or when
resistors are connected in complicated
manner.
● In these cases, series and parallel
combination is impossible.
● Kirchhoff gave two laws to solve complex
circuits, namely;
○ Kirchhoff’s Current Law ( KCL )
○ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
● The algebraic sum of the currents meeting
at a junction in an electrical circuit is zero.
𝐼𝑖𝑛 + 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
𝐼1 + 𝐼4 + −𝐼2 + −𝐼3 = 0
𝐼1 + 𝐼4 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
● The sum of currents flowing towards any
junction in an electrical circuit is equal to
the sum of currents flowing away from that
junction.
● Note: Kirchhoff’s current law is also called
junction rule.
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
● In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the
algebraic sum of all the electromotive forces
(e.m.f.) and voltage drops in resistors is equal to
zero, i.e., In any closed circuit or mesh,
● 𝐴𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 . + 𝐴𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 0

● Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on the law of

*conservation of energy, i.e., net change in the
energy of a charge after completing the closed path
is zero.
● Note. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is also called loop rule.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Using Kirchhoff’s Law, determine the total current and the
voltages across A,B,C, and D for these series circuits:

A B A B A B

D C D C D C

(a) (b) (c)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Apply Kirchhoff’s Law for these parallel circuits:

(a) (b)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
For the circuit shown, find the currents flowing in all branches.
 DELTA/STAR TRANSFORMATION

The delta-star (Δ-Y or delta-wye)

transformation or vice-versa is a
technique used in electrical engineering
to convert a delta-connected network
(also known as a delta configuration) into
an equivalent star-connected network
(also known as a wye configuration), or
vice versa. This transformation allows for
easier analysis of circuits
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Convert the Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent Star Network.

30 Ω 20 Ω

80 Ω
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Convert the Star Resistive Network into an equivalent Delta Network.

180 Ω 60 Ω

150 Ω
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Convert the Star Resistive Network into an equivalent Delta Network.

180 Ω 60 Ω

150 Ω
 ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● Alternating Current Concepts &
Advantages
● Capacitors and Capacitance
● Series and Parallel Capacitors
● Inductors and Inductance
● Series and Parallel Inductors
● Inductive and Capacitive Reactance
● RL, RC, LC, and RLC Circuits
● Power Factor
 CONCEPT OF ELECTRICITY

Generation Transmission Distribution Consumption

ALTERNATING CURRENT

● In an A.C. system, the voltage acting in the

circuit changes polarity at regular intervals of
time and the resulting current (called alternating
current) changes direction accordingly.
● This system has offered so many advantages
that at present electrical energy is universally
generated, transmitted and used in the form of
alternating current.
● Even when D.C. energy is necessary, it is a
common practice to convert A.C. into D.C. by
means of rotary converters or rectifiers.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Advantages Alternating Current (A.C.)System
1. Alternating voltages can be stepped up or stepped down efficiently by means of
a transformer. This permits the transmission of electric power at high voltages
to achieve economy and distribute the power at utilization voltages.
2. A.C. motors (induction motors) are cheaper and simpler in construction than
D.C. motors.
3. The switchgear (e.g. switches, circuit breakers etc.) for A.C. system is simpler
than the D.C. system.
 CAPACITOR

● It is any two conducting surfaces separated by

an insulating material known as dielectric
● passive device that opposes a change in voltage
● stores energy in the form of an electric field
 TYPES OF CAPACITOR

● Fixed Capacitor - mica, ceramic, electrolytic,

tantalum, and polyester film capacitors
● Polarized Capacitor – has negative and positive
end
● Variable Capacitor - the dielectric is air.
 CAPACITANCE

• It is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store

charge on its plates
• Unit of measure is Farad

C = Q/V

1 Farad = 1 Coulomb/1 Volt

 FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE
○ Area of plate
The greater the area of capacitor plates, the larger is the capacitance of the
capacitor and vice-versa.

○ Thickness of dielectric
The capacitance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the thickness (i.e.
distance between plates) of the dielectric.

○ Relative permittivity of dielectric

The greater the relative permittivity of the insulating material (i.e., dielectric), the
greater will be the capacitance of the capacitor and vice-versa.
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
○ This is the ability of a dielectric material to concentrate electric lines of force
between the plates of a capacitor. This is also called relative permittivity of the
material.
○ It is the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor with that material as a dielectric to
the capacitance of the same capacitor with air as dielectric.

6𝑄
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎 = = 6𝐶𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎
= 6 Dielectric constant of mica
𝐶𝑎𝑖𝑟
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
 PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR
The most common type of capacitor is parallel-plate type. The capacitance (in
Farads) is determined by:

𝐶 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝜖𝑟 𝐴/𝑑

Where:
𝜖𝑟 = relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
𝐴 = area of plates (m2)
𝑑 = distance between plates (m)

8.854×10−12 F/m is the permittivity of free space

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
● Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a
plate area of 100 cm2 and a plate separation of 0.5 mm.
Assume the medium between the plates is mica.
● Also calculate the charge it can store per unit voltage of supply.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
● In the circuit shown, the total charge is 750 μC. Determine the
values of V1, V and C2.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
● Obtain the equivalent capacitance for the network shown. For 300
V d.c. supply, determine the charge and voltage across each
capacitor
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
● In the network shown, C1 = C2 = C3 = C4 = 8 μF and C5 = 10 μF. Find
the equivalent capacitance between points A and B.
● Determine the total capacitance and total charge. Also determine
the potential difference and charge of each capacitors
 INDUCTOR

• are coils of various dimensions designed to

introduce specified amounts of inductance
into a circuit
• passive device that opposes a change in
current
• stores energy in the form of an magnetic field
• also called choke
 TYPES OF INDUCTOR

● categorized based on the type of inner core

they are wound around

A. Fixed – inner core has fixed material

B. Variable - has a ferromagnetic shaft that can
be moved within the coil to vary the flux
linkages of the coil and thereby its
inductance
 SELF INDUCTANCE/
INDUCTANCE
• This is the ability of a coil to oppose any change in
current.
• Measured in Henry

𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙
where N represents the number of turns;
µ, the permeability of the core
A, the area of the core in square meters; and
l, the mean length of the core in meters.
SELF INDUCTANCE/ INDUCTANCE
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
● A solenoid coil with 200 turns is wound on an iron core. The
core has a permeability of 4 π × 10−7 H/m, an area of 0.005 m2,
and a mean length of 0.1m. Calculate the inductance of the
solenoid coil.
 INDUCED VOLTAGE

• Inductance is a property of an electrical

conductor by which a change in current flowing
through it induces an electromotive force (emf)
and, consequently, a voltage across its terminals
∆𝐼
𝑉𝐼𝑁𝐷 = 𝐿
∆𝑡
Where:
𝑉𝐼𝑁𝐷 = induced voltage, V
𝐿 = inductance of the coil, H
∆𝐼
= the rate of change in inductor current, A/s
∆𝑡
 INDUCTORS IN SERIES

𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + … + 𝐿𝑁

INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + …+
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
● What is the total inductance on the figures shown:

(a) (b)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
● What is the total inductance of the circuit below?
 ENERGY STORAGE
● For Capacitors
1 2
𝑊= 𝐶𝑉
2
● For Inductors
1 2
𝑊= 𝐿𝐼
2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
● A capacitor with a capacitance of 100μF is charged to a voltage
of 50V. Calculate the energy stored in the capacitor.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
● An inductor with an inductance of 2mH carries a current of 1A.
Calculate the energy stored in the inductor.
SUMMARY OF PASSIVE
ELEMENTS
 RESISTANCE
● Resistance
○ for a purely resistive element, the voltage
across and the current through the element
are in phase, with their peak values related
by Ohm’s law.

𝑉𝑚
R=
𝐼𝑚
 INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
● Inductance
○ for an inductor, vL leads iL by 90°, or iL lags vL
by 90°.
𝑉
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑚
𝐼𝑚

where;
𝑋𝐿 = ωL ; ω = 2πf

𝑋𝐿 is called Inductive Reactance

 CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
● Capacitance
○ for a particular change in voltage across the
capacitor, the greater the value of capacitance, the
greater will be the resulting capacitive current
○ for a particular capacitance, the greater the rate of
change of voltage across the capacitor, the greater
the capacitive current
○ for a capacitor, iC leads vC by 90°, or vC lags iC by 90°
𝑉𝑚
𝑋𝐶 =
𝐼𝑚

where;
1
𝑋𝐶 = ; ω = 2πf
ω𝐶

𝑋𝐶 is called Capacitive Reactance

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
● Calculate the reactance of the inductor and the current through
the circuit

E
10 V
f = 60 Hz

● If the inductor is replaced with 10 μF capacitor, calculate the

reactance of the capacitor and the current through the circuit
 SERIES AND PARALLEL REACTANCES
● When reactive components are connected in series or parallel, the total reactance if
computed in the same manner as total resistance.

𝑋𝐿1 𝑋𝐿2 𝑋𝐿3

𝑋𝐿𝑇 𝑋𝐿1 𝑋𝐿2 𝑋𝐿3

X LT = X L1 + X L2 + X L3
X 1
LT= 1 1 1
+ +
XL1 XL2 XL3

(a) series inductive reactance (b) parallel inductive reactance

 SERIES AND PARALLEL REACTANCES
● When reactive components are connected in series or parallel, the total reactance if
computed in the same manner as total resistance.

𝑋𝐶1 𝑋𝐶2 𝑋𝐶3

𝑋𝐶𝑇 𝑋𝐶1 𝑋𝐶2 𝑋𝐶3

X CT = X C1 + X C2 + X C3
X 1
CT= 1 1 1
+ +
XC1 XC2 XC3

(a) series inductive reactance (b) parallel inductive reactance

 IMPEDANCE

For any configuration (series, parallel, series-

parallel, etc.), the angle associated with the
total impedance is the angle by which the
applied voltage leads the source current. For
inductive networks, ϴT will be positive,
whereas for capacitive networks, ϴT will be
negative.
RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE (RL) CIRCUITS

For series RL circuit: For parallel RL circuit:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑅
𝐸= 𝑉𝐿 2 + 𝑉𝑅 2 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐿 2 + 𝐼𝑅 2
1 𝑋𝐿 𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅 2 𝑍𝑇 = =
2 2 𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑅 2
VL 𝑋𝐿 1 1
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1 +
𝑋𝐿 𝑅
VR 𝑅
−𝐼𝐿 −𝑅
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1
𝐼𝑅 𝑋𝐿
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
● Calculate the impedance, current and phase
angle for the circuit shown. Calculate also the
voltage drop across inductor and resistor. E
120 V
f = 60 Hz
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
● Calculate the impedance, voltage and phase angle for the circuit shown.
Calculate also the current across inductor and resistor.

E
120 V
f = 60 Hz
RESISTIVE-CAPACITIVE (RC) CIRCUITS

For series RC circuit: For parallel RC circuit:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅

𝐸= 𝑉𝐶 2 + 𝑉𝑅 2 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 2 + 𝐼𝑅 2
1 𝑋𝐶 𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅 2 𝑍𝑇 = =
2 2
1 1 𝑋𝐶2 + 𝑅 2
−1
−𝑉𝐶 −𝑋𝐶 +
𝜃 = tan = tan−1 𝑋𝐶 𝑅
𝑉𝑅 𝑅
𝐼𝐶 𝑅
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1
𝐼𝑅 𝑋𝐶
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
E
● Calculate the impedance, current and phase 120 V
angle for the circuit shown. Calculate also the f = 60 Hz
voltage drop across capacitor and resistor.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
● Calculate the voltage, impedance and phase angle for the circuit shown.
Calculate also the current across capacitor and resistor.

E
120 V
f = 60 Hz
INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE (LC) CIRCUITS

For series RL circuit: For parallel RL circuit:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿
𝑋𝐿𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 1 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
𝑋𝐿𝐶 = =
1 1 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
−
𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14
● What is the total reactance and total current of a series LC circuit with
inductance of 300 mH and 150 μF. The voltage of the source is 220 V and the
frequency of the circuit is 120 Hz. Determine also the voltage drop across each
component.

● How about if it is arranged in parallel? Is it possible?

 INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE (LC) CIRCUITS
● Series LC Circuits characteristics
○ an inductive circuit when 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶
○ a capacitive circuit when 𝑉𝐿 < 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶
○ a short circuit when 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
● Parallel LC Circuit characteristics
○ an inductive circuit when 𝐼𝐿 > 𝐼𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶
○ a capacitive circuit when 𝐼𝐿 < 𝐼𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶
○ An open circuit when 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
 RESONANT CIRCUITS
● An LC circuit with equal values of 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 is said to be operating at resonance.
● The frequency at which resonance occurs for a given LC circuit is referred to as its
resonant frequency (𝑓𝑟 ).
● Resonant frequency varies inversely with the values of L and C; that is, an increase in
either L or C causes 𝑓𝑟 to decrease, and vice versa.

The resonant frequency of a given LC

circuit is found as:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
SAMPLE PROBLEM 15
● What is the resonant frequency (𝑓𝑟 ) in the circuit shown:
 RESONANT CIRCUITS
● When a series LC circuit is operating at resonance:
○ The total series reactance of the LC circuit is 0 Ω.
○ The voltage across the LC circuit is 0 V.
○ The circuit voltage and current are in phase
● When a parallel LC circuit is operating at resonance:
○ The sum of the component currents is 0 A.
○ The circuit has infinite reactance; that is, it acts as an open.
RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE (RLC) CIRCUITS

For parallel RL circuit:

For series RL circuit:
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑇 = (𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿 )2 +𝐼𝑅 2
𝐸= (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 +𝑉𝑅 2
2 2
𝑍𝑇 = (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 +𝑅 2 1 1 1 1
= − +
𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑍𝑇 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 𝑅
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1
𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1
𝐼𝑅 𝑋 𝐿 𝑋𝐶
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
 INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE (LC) CIRCUITS
● Series RLC Circuits characteristics
○ an inductive circuit when 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶
○ a capacitive circuit when 𝑉𝐿 < 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶
○ a purely resistive circuit when 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
● Parallel RLC Circuit characteristics
○ an inductive circuit when 𝐼𝐿 > 𝐼𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶
○ a capacitive circuit when 𝐼𝐿 < 𝐼𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶
○ A purely resistive circuit when 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
SAMPLE PROBLEM 16
● Calculate the impedance and phase angle for the circuit shown:

R
100 Ω

XL
500 Ω
E Ω
120 V
XC
150 Ω
SAMPLE PROBLEM 17
● Calculate the total impedance and phase angle for the circuit shown:

R
220 Ω

L
265.26 mH
E Ω
120 V
60 Hz C
9.4735 μF
SAMPLE PROBLEM 18
● Calculate the source voltage and phase angle for the circuit shown

VR
34 V

VL
120 V
Ω
E
VC
48 V
SAMPLE PROBLEM 19
● Calculate the reactances, currents, impedance, and phase angle for the circuit
shown:

E
R L C
12 V
20 Ω Ω 47 mH 100 μF
60 Hz
 ADMITTANCE
● In AC circuits, we define admittance (Y) as
being equal to 1/Z.
● The unit of measure for admittance as defined
by the SI system is siemens, which has the
symbol S.
● Admittance is a measure of how well an ac
circuit will admit, or allow, current to flow in
the circuit. The larger its value, therefore, the
heavier the current flow for the same applied
potential.
● The total admittance of a circuit can also be
found by finding the sum of the parallel
admittances. The total impedance ZT of the
circuit is then 1/YT;
 SUSCEPTANCE

● The reciprocal of reactance (1/X) is

called susceptance and is a measure of
how susceptible an element is to the
passage of current through it.
● Susceptance is also measured in
siemens and is represented by the
capital letter B.
 POWER FACTOR

● Power factor is an expression of energy

efficiency. It is usually expressed as a
percentage—and the lower the
percentage, the less efficient power
usage is.
● It is the ratio of the real power absorbed
by the load to the apparent power
flowing in the circuit.

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑓 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
 POWER FACTOR

● Real power (P) is the actual power

consumed by the circuit, measured in
watts (W).
● Apparent Power (S) is the product of
voltage and current, measured in volt-
amperes (VA).
● Reactive Power (Q) is the component of
apparent power that is out of phase with
the voltage, measured in volt-amperes
reactive (VAR).
 POWER TRIANGLE
● In Pythagorean Theorem

● Power factor, pf = cos θ

SAMPLE PROBLEM 20
● A 3 HP motor is connected to a 240 V supply. Using a clamp meter, you
determine that the motor is drawing 11.5 A from its power source. Determine
the real power, apparent power, power factor and reactive power of the
circuit.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 21
● A single-phase motor operating off a 400 V, 50 Hz supply is developing 10 kW
with an efficiency of 84 per cent and a power factor of 0.7. Calculate:
(a) the input apparent power;
(b) the active power;
(c) the reactive power (in kilovars).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 22
● A coil having a resistance of 7 Ω and an inductance of 31.8mH is connected to
230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (i) the circuit current (ii) phase angle (iii) power
factor (iv) power consumed v) Reactive power vi) Apparent power.
 RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE (RL) CIRCUITS

For series RL circuit:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅

𝐸 = √𝑉𝐿 2 + 𝑉𝑅 2

𝑍𝑇 = √𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅 2

V 𝑋
𝜃 = tan−1 (VL ) = tan−1 ( 𝑅𝐿 ) → positive phase angle indicates
R
voltage lead to the current

For parallel RL circuit:

𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑅

𝐼𝑇 = √𝐼𝐿 2 + 𝐼𝑅 2

1 𝑋𝐿 𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = =
2 2 √𝑋𝐿2 +𝑅2
√( 1 ) +( 1 )
𝑋𝐿 𝑅

−𝐼 −𝑅
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝐼 𝐿 ) = tan−1 ( 𝑋 ) → negative phase angle
𝑅 𝐿
indicates current lag to the voltage

(1) Calculate the impedance, current and phase angle for the circuit
shown. Calculate also the voltage drop across inductor and resistor.

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋(60)(0.33𝐻) = 124.41 𝛺

𝑍𝑇 = √𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅 2 = √124.412 + 682 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝜴

𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = 𝑍 = 141.78Ω = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟔 𝑨
𝑇

𝑉
𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑉𝐿 ) = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟒° (Voltage lead)
𝑅

𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 = 0.846𝐴(124.41Ω) = 𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟐𝟓 𝑽

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 = 0.846𝐴(68Ω) = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓𝟑 𝑽
(2) Calculate the impedance, voltage and phase angle for the circuit shown. Calculate also the current
across inductor and resistor.
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋(60)(0.47) = 𝟏𝟕𝟕. 𝟏𝟗 𝜴
𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑋 = 177.19Ω = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝑨
𝐿

𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅 = 300Ω = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝑨

𝐼𝑇 = √𝐼𝐿2 + 𝐼𝑅2 = √0.6772 + 0.42 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟔 𝑨

𝐸 120𝑉 𝑋𝐿 𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = 𝐼 = 0.786𝐴 = 𝟏𝟓𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝜴 → the impedance must be equal or close to answer if is used.
𝑇 √𝑋𝐿2 +𝑅2

𝐼 −0.677𝐴
𝜃 = tan−1 (− 𝐼 𝐿 ) = tan−1 ( 0.4𝐴
) = −𝟓𝟗. 𝟒𝟐°
𝑅

RESISTIVE-CAPACITIVE (RC) CIRCUITS

For series RC circuit:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅

𝐸 = √𝑉𝐶 2 + 𝑉𝑅 2

𝑍𝑇 = √𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅 2

−𝑉𝐶 −𝑋𝐶
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) → negative phase angle
𝑉𝑅 𝑅
indicates voltage lag to the current

For parallel RC circuit:

𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅

𝐼𝑇 = √𝐼𝐶 2 + 𝐼𝑅 2

1 𝑋𝐶 𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = =
2 2 √𝑋𝐶2 +𝑅2
√( 1 ) +( 1 )
𝑋𝐶 𝑅

𝐼 𝑅
𝜃 = tan−1 (𝐼𝐶 ) = tan−1 (𝑋 ) → positive phase angle
𝑅 𝐶
indicates current lead to the voltage

(3) Calculate the impedance, current and phase angle for the circuit shown. Calculate also the voltage
drop across inductor and resistor.
 1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2𝜋(60)(33×10−6 ) = 80.38 𝛺

𝑍𝑇 = √𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅 2 = √80.382 + 3002 = 𝟑𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 𝜴

𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = 𝑍 = 310.58Ω = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟔 𝑨
𝑇

−𝑋𝐶 −80.38
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝑅
) = tan−1 ( 300
) = −𝟏𝟓 (Voltage lag)

𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶 = 0.386𝐴(80.38Ω) = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 𝑽

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 = 0.386𝐴(300Ω) = 𝟏𝟏𝟓. 𝟖 𝑽
(4) Calculate the voltage, impedance and phase angle for the circuit shown. Calculate also the current
across capacitor and resistor.
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2𝜋(60)(10×10−6 ) = 𝟐𝟔𝟓. 𝟐𝟔 𝜴

𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼𝐶 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟐 𝑨
𝑋𝐶 265.26Ω

𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅 = 300Ω = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝑨

𝐼𝑇 = √𝐼𝐶2 + 𝐼𝑅2 = √0.4522 + 0.42 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟒 𝑨

𝐸 120𝑉 𝑋𝐿 𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = 𝐼 = 0.604𝐴 = 𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟔𝟕𝜴 → the impedance must be equal or close to answer if is used.
𝑇 √𝑋𝐿2 +𝑅2

𝐼 0.452𝐴
𝜃 = tan−1 (𝐼𝐶 ) = tan−1 ( 0.4𝐴
) = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟒𝟗°
𝑅

INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE (LC) CIRCUITS

For series RC circuit:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶
𝑋𝐿𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶

For parallel RC circuit:

1
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 𝑋𝐿𝐶 = 1 1
−
𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿
(5) What is the total reactance and total current of a series LC circuit with inductance of 300 mH and 150
μF. The voltage of the source is 220 V and the frequency of the circuit is 120 Hz. Determine also the voltage
drop across each component.

How about if it is arranged in parallel? Is it possible?

1
𝑥𝐿 = 2𝜋(120)(0.3) = 226.195 𝛺; 𝑥𝑐 = 2𝜋(120)(150 ×10−6 ) = 8.842 𝛺; 𝑥𝐿𝐶 = 𝑥𝐿 − 𝑥𝑐 = 𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 𝜴

𝐸 220
𝐼𝑇 = = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝑨; 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑥𝐿 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟗𝟎𝟗 Ω; 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑥𝐶 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟒𝟖 𝑽
𝑥𝐿𝐶 217.353

For parallel:

𝑥𝐿𝐶 = (226.195−1 − 8.842−1 )−1 = −9.202Ω (negative reactance indicates that the circuit is
capacitive)
220 220
𝐼𝐿 = = 0.9726 𝐴; 𝐼𝐶 = = 24.88 𝐴
226.195 8.842

See slide 48. For parallel LC Circuit, a capacitive circuit is when 𝐼𝐿 < 𝐼𝐶 or 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 (this is a correction
from the last problem I had solved)

The circuit is also possible for parallel arrangement.

RESONANT CIRCUIT (LC circuit with equal values of 𝑿𝑳 and 𝑿𝑪 )

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
(6) What is the resonant frequency (𝑓𝑟 ) in the circuit shown:
1
𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋 = 50.3 𝐻𝑧
√𝐿𝐶

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 31.6 𝛺
1
𝑋𝐶 = = 31.6 𝛺
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE (RLC) CIRCUITS

For series RLC circuit:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅

𝐸 = √(𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 + 𝑉𝑅 2

𝑍𝑇 = √(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 + 𝑅 2
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝑉𝑅
) = tan−1 ( 𝑅
)

For parallel RLC circuit:

𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅

𝐼𝑇 = √(𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿 )2 + 𝐼𝑅 2

1 1 1 1 2 2
𝑍𝑇
= √(𝑋 − 𝑋 ) + (𝑅)
𝐿 𝐶

𝐼 −𝐼𝐿 𝑅
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝐶𝐼 ) = tan−1 ( 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 )
𝑅
𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶

(7) Calculate the impedance and phase angle for the circuit shown:

𝑍𝑇 = √(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 + 𝑅 2 = 𝟑𝟔𝟒𝛀
𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝑅
) = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟎𝟔° (voltage lead)

(8) Calculate the total impedance and phase angle for the circuit shown:
 𝑋𝐿 = 100 Ω; 𝑋𝐶 = 280 Ω

𝑍𝑇 = √(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 + 𝑅 2 = 𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝛀
𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝑅
) = −𝟑𝟗. 𝟑° (voltage lag)

(9) Calculate the source voltage and phase angle for the circuit shown

𝐸 = √(𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 + 𝑉𝑅 2 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟔𝟐 𝑽

𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟕𝟐 ° (voltage lead)
𝑉𝑅

(10) Calculate the reactances, currents, impedance, and phase angle for the circuit shown:

𝑋𝐿 = 17.7 𝛺; 𝑋𝐶 = 26.5 𝛺
𝐸
𝐼𝐿 = = 0.678 𝐴
𝑋𝐿

𝐸
𝐼𝐶 = = 0.453 𝐴
𝑋𝐶

𝐸
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅 = 0.6 𝐴

𝐼𝑇 = √(𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿 )2 + 𝐼𝑅 2 = 0.641 𝐴

𝐸
𝑍𝑇 = 𝐼 = 18.7 𝛺
𝑇

1
(it can also be solved through 𝑍𝑇 = )
2
1 2
√( 1 − 1 ) +( )
𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 𝑅

𝐼 −𝐼𝐿
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝐶𝐼 ) = −20.6°
𝑅
 ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

WIRING FOR
AB STRUCTURES
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● Wire as conductor
● Type of wire insulation
● Wire sizes
● Ampacity tables
● Temperature ratings of wires
● Correction factors
● Termination temperature
● Reducing voltage drop
● Grounding
What are the essential parts of an electric circuit?
 WIRE AS CONDUCTOR
● CONDUCTOR IS ANY MATERIAL that can carry electric current.
● Wires are the most common form of conductors.
● Copper is the material most commonly used.
● All electric wires therefore are electric conductors, but not all conductors
are wires.
● Insulators are materials that do not conduct electric current. Metal wire is
enclosed in plastic or other insulation to help protect against stray current.
 WIRE AS CONDUCTOR
● Current flowing through a wire causes heat.
● There is a limit to the degree of heat that various types of wire insulation can
safely withstand, and even bare wire must not be allowed to reach a
temperature that might cause a fire. The NEC (National Electrical Code)
specifies the ampacity (the maximum continuous current-carrying capacity
in amperes under the conditions of use) that is safe for wires of different
sizes with different insulations and under different circumstances.
 WIRE AS CONDUCTOR
You must always use wire :
(1) that has insulation suitable for the voltage, temperature, and location (wet,
dry, corrosive, direct burial, etc.);
(2) that has an ampacity rating adequate for the current.

▪ These conditions assure that your installation meets the minimum safety
threshold required by the NEC.
▪ A responsible designer goes beyond these minimums and selects
conductors of sufficient size to avoid excessive voltage drop, which is
wasted power.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
The insulation type you choose must be suitable for
1. the voltage,
2. temperature,
3. and location.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSULATION LOCATIONS
Damp location
Partially protected locations under canopies, marquees, roofed open porches, and like
locations, and interior locations subject to moderate degrees of moisture, such as some
basements, some barns, and some cold-storage warehouses.

Dry location
Location not normally subject to dampness or wetness. A location classified as dry may be
temporarily subject to dampness or wetness, as in the case of a building under
construction.

Wet location
Installations underground or in concrete slabs or masonry in direct contact with the earth,
and locations subject to saturation with water or other liquids, such as vehicle washing
areas, and locations exposed to weather and unprotected.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
COLOR CODING
● Black : Hot wire, for switches or outlets.
● Red : Hot wire, for switch legs. Also for connecting wire
between 2 hardwired smoke detectors.
● Blue and Yellow : Hot wires, pulled in conduit. Blue for 3-4
way switch application, and yellow for switch legs to control
fan, lights etc.
● White : Always neutral.
● Green and Bare Copper : Only for grounding.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Letter Coding
T – Thermoplastic insulation
H – Heat resistance
HH – High heat resistance (up to 194°F)
W – Suitable for wet locations
N – Nylon coating, resistant to damage by oil or gas
X – Synthetic polymer that is flame-resistant
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Types TW and THW
Both types have simple thermoplastic insulation over the conductor.
Suitable for dry, damp, or wet locations.
Type TW is rated for 60°C while type THW has better insulation, rated for 75°C.
Mostly replaced by Type THHN/THWN and XHHW wires.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Types THHN and THWN
Both feature thermoplastic insulation with an additional nylon jacket.
THWN is designed to resist moisture, suitable for wet locations. THHN is primarily
for dry or damp locations due to its higher temperature rating.
THHN is Rated for 90°C, higher than THW and THWN (both 75°C).
THHN typically has a slightly higher ampacity due to its higher temperature rating.
Nylon provides exceptional insulation and mechanical strength, resulting in a
smaller wire diameter compared to conventional TW and THW wires of the same
size.
Most wires today are dual-rated as THHN/THWN, ensuring versatility.
THHN's higher temperature rating applies only in dry or damp locations.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Types THHN and THWN
In a given raceway size, more small-diameter wires like THHN or THWN are
allowed compared to thicker insulation wires like TW or THW. This flexibility may
influence wire selection.
Type THW and Type THWN wires are available with a “-2” suffix (e.g., THWN-2 or
THW-2), combining moisture resistance with a higher temperature rating.
These enhanced wires (THWN-2 and THW-2) can operate at the full 90°C ampacity
in both dry and wet locations, offering versatility and performance.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Type XHHW
This wire resembles Types TW or THW in appearance, but because of a thinner
layer of insulation, the overall diameter is smaller, although not as small as Type
THWN/THHN in sizes 6 AWG and smaller.
The insulation is cross-linked synthetic polymer, which has excellent insulating,
heat-resisting, and moisture-resisting properties. It may be used in dry or wet
locations.
Two different temperature ratings apply depending on whether the wires are in a
wet location (restricted to 75°C), with the higher 90°C ampacity value allowed only
in dry or damp locations.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Type XHHW

If the wire carries the “-2” suffix it can be

used in wet locations at the higher
temperature rating.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Rubber-covered wire
Wire used to have natural rubber insulation, but this is no
longer the case. The "R" now indicates a thermosetting
polymer.
Commonly known as Type RHW, with a 75°C temperature
rating, suitable for dry and wet locations.
Similar to thermoplastic insulation, it now also comes in a
version that withstands 90°C, marked with the "-2" suffix.
Commonly used for appliances, automotive, industrial and
construction use
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Fixture wire
Fixture wire is used for the internal wiring of luminaires
(light fixtures).
There are many types of fixture wire, chosen based on
the temperature inside the luminaire when it is in use.
For wiring incandescent and high-wattage, high-
intensity discharge lamps in enclosed luminaires, wires
must handle very high temperatures, often 150°C or
higher
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
For fluorescent ballast compartments, the 90°C fixture-wire counterpart to THHN
(TFN or TFFN) is commonly used.
 TYPES OF WIRE INSULATOR
Fixture wire

Fixture wires may be used only in the internal wiring of luminaires, and from the
fixture up to the circuit wires in the outlet box on which the luminaire is mounted.
They may never be used as branch-circuit wires leading to an outlet.

Fixture wires have their own ampacity table. The NEC permits 18 AWG fixture wire
(ampacity of 6 amps) in lengths not over 50 ft to be protected by up to a 20-amp
branch-circuit protective device, and similarly 16 AWG (ampacity of 8 amps) in
lengths not over 100 ft.
 WIRE SIZES
The diameter of wire
-is measured in mils (1 mil = 1⁄1,000 or 0.001 in.)

Area of wire
- measured in circular mil (abbreviated cmil)
- a wire that is 0.001 in. or 1 mil in diameter has a cross-sectional area
of 1 cmil.

The cross-sectional area of any round wire in circular mils is the area of the metal
only, and is found by squaring the diameter in mils or thousandths of an inch.

A = d2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Determine the diameter of a wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.823 mm² in mils,
and calculate its cross-sectional area in circular mils (cmil).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
What is the diameter (in mm) of a 16510 cmil wire?
 WIRE SIZES
● The commonly used sizes of wire have been assigned a numbering system.
● The gauge commonly used is the American Wire Gauge (AWG).
● The approximate sizes of typical sizes of wire without the insulation are shown
below:
 WIRE SIZES
● Number 14 AWG wire, commonly used for ordinary house wiring, has a copper
conductor 0.064 in., or 64 mils, in diameter.
● Wires smaller than 14 AWG are 16, 18, 20 AWG and so on. Number 40 AWG has a
diameter of approximately 3 mils (0.003 in.), as small as a hair; many still
smaller sizes are made.
● Sizes progressively larger than 14 AWG are 12, 10, 8 AWG and so on.
 WIRE SIZES
● Zero is indicated as 1/0 AWG, and is followed by 2/0, 3/0, and 4/0 AWG; these
are sometimes shown as 0, 00, 000, 0000 AWG, and in either case called one-
aught (or naught), two-aught, etc.
● Wires larger than 4/0 AWG are designated simply by their cross-sectional area
in circular mils, beginning with 250,000 cmil (250 kcmil) up to the largest
recognized size of 2,000,000 mil (2,000 kcmil or thousands of circular mils).
 WIRE SIZES
any wire three sizes larger than another will have a cross-sectional area twice that of the
other.

For example, 3 AWG has an area twice that of 6 AWG.

Any wire six sizes larger than another has exactly twice the diameter and four times the
area of the smaller wire.

Number 6 AWG wire has exactly four times the area of 12 AWG.
WIRE SIZES
 WIRE SIZES
The usual gauge used in measuring wire size
is shown.

The wire is measured by the slot into which

it fits, not by the hole behind the slot.

You will not actually need this gauge

because the NEC requires all building wire to
be continuously marked with its size. If it is
not properly marked, do not use it.
 WIRE SIZES
Stranded wires

The conductors consist of many strands of fine wire twisted together where considerable
flexibility is needed.
This has slightly larger in overall diameter than a solid wire of the same size.

The number assigned to stranded conductors is determined by the total cross-sectional

areas of all the fine wires (the individual strands) added together.
Number 6 AWG and larger building wires (also 8 AWG if pulled into conduit or other
raceways) must be stranded to be practical.
 WIRE SIZES
Solid wires in larger sizes are too stiff to handle, although this does not apply to wires
such as the weatherproof type installed only overhead in free air. The stranding of each
size has been Standardized.
 WIRE SIZES
Homeowners and electricians use the solid wire in home applications for single phase
circuits due to the following reasons.

❑ Cost-Effective: Solid wire is cheaper than stranded wire due to a simpler production
process.
❑ Higher Ampacity: Solid wire can carry more power than stranded wire of the same
diameter, meaning it has a higher current-carrying capacity.
❑ Smaller Cross-Sectional Area: For the same gauge size (e.g., 6 or 10 AWG), solid wire has
a smaller cross-sectional area compared to stranded wire, which has air gaps between
strands. This difference is significant when multiple wires are used in an electrical box or
confined space.
❑ Suitability for Permanent Installations: While stranded wire is more flexible and easier to
route and bend, solid wire is ideal for permanent installations behind walls, ceilings, and
floors. Flexibility is less important in these fixed locations, making solid wire a practical
choice.
 WIRE SIZES
❑ Reliable Terminations and Connections: Solid wire provides perfect terminations for
breakers, switches, and outlets. Stranded wire can be more complex to connect due to
individual strands potentially escaping the screw terminals, leading to loose connections
when folding back the wires into or out of the box.
❑ Ease of Splicing: Solid wire is easier to splice with a wire nut and remains durable even if
pulled out tightly to check connections. Undoing wire nut connections is simpler with solid
wire, whereas stranded wire may break strands when undoing joints or wire nuts.
❑ Negligible Skin Effect: The skin effect in solid wire is negligible for home wiring, as the skin
depth is 8.5mm (1/3″) for copper at 60Hz supply frequency. For wire diameters less than 17mm
(2/3″), the skin effect is insignificant. Hence, stranded wire can be used for flexibility up to
6mm (10AWG), while solid wire remains perfect for other applications.
❑ Resistance to Corrosion and Vibration: Solid wire is less prone to corrosion and vibration
due to having less surface area compared to stranded wire, making it especially suitable for
outdoor applications.
TYPICAL USES OF VARIOUS WIRE SIZES
❑ 50 AWG to 20 AWG: These sizes (diameter less than 1/1,000 in. for 50 AWG) are mainly
used in manufacturing various types of electrical equipment.
❑ 18 and 16 AWG: Primarily used for flexible cords, signal systems, and similar
applications where small currents are involved. Smaller sizes like 24 AWG are common
in telephone and computer cables due to the low currents in modern electronics.
❑ 14 to 4/0 AWG: Commonly used in residential, farm, industrial, and commercial wiring.
14 AWG is the smallest size allowed for regular wiring.
❑ Common and Rare Sizes: Even sizes (e.g., 18, 16, 14, 12, 8 AWG) are frequently used.
Odd sizes (e.g., 15, 13, 11, 9 AWG) are rarely used in wiring, except for 3 and 1 AWG in
service-entrance cables and large circuits.
❑ Odd Sizes in Magnet Wire: Odd sizes are often used as magnet wire for manufacturing
motors, transformers, and similar equipment. Fractional sizes like 15½ AWG are also
common in this context.
 AMPACITY TABLES
Ampacity table is used to predict what value of current will overheat and damage the
insulation on a wire.

Conductor insulation can be damaged by excessive heat in various ways, depending on

the kind of insulation and the degree of overheating.
The ampacity specified in
ampacity tables for any particular
kind and size of wire

It is the current that it can carry

without increasing the
temperature of its insulation
beyond the danger point.
 AMPACITY TABLES
The insulation of Type TW wire stands the least heat, consequently this type has a lower
ampacity than other kinds. High temperature fixture wire will stand far more heat, and
consequently has a much higher ampacity per given wire size.

The temperature of such wire carrying its rated current will be much higher than the
temperature of plastic-insulated wire carrying its rated current, but the insulation of the
high temperature fixture wire will not be damaged by the higher temperature.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A single copper conductor is installed in free air with an ambient temperature of 30°C.
What is the maximum current (ampacity) that a 4 AWG wire can carry according to the
NEC (National Electrical Code)?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Recommend minimum size of wire for a circuit with ampacity of 50 A at a maximum
temperature of 35 ºC.
 TEMPERATURE RATING OF WIRES
✓ The rated ampacity of each kind and size of wire is based on an ambient temperature
of 30°C, or 86°F.

✓ Ambient temperature is the normal air temperature in an area while there is no current
flowing in the wire. When current does flow, heat is created, and the surrounding air
temperature as well as the conductor temperature will increase above the ambient.

✓ That temperature will be reached when a wire is carrying its full ampacity where the
ambient temperature is 30°C, or 86°F.

✓ The maximum permitted temperature is called the temperature rating of the wire.
 CORRECTION FACTORS
Correction factors for higher ambient temperature

The first adjustment occurs when 30°C as a temperature limitation would be invalid. In
this case, there is a series of adjustment factors to be used.

For example, 3/0 THHN has a normal ampacity of 225 amps.

However, if it runs through a hot attic in a part of the country where a design temperature
of 55°C is assumed for these conditions, that nominal ampacity must be adjusted using
the correction factor 0.76. Multiplying 225 amps by the 0.76 correction factor gives the
actual ampacity under these conditions of 171 amps.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A 2 AWG aluminum conductor is installed in an area where the ambient temperature is
50°C. What is the adjusted ampacity of the wire?
 CORRECTION FACTORS
Adjustment factors for higher number of wires

The second adjustment concerns the phenomenon of mutual conductor heating. The
more wires that are confined in a given space, the more difficult it is for them to dissipate
heat. NEC requires that if the number of conductors in a raceway or cable assembly
exceeds three, the ampacities given in the table need to be adjusted by the factors in this
table.

For example, if you were installing seven 3/0 THHN wires in one conduit, even if some
were spares for future use, you would adjust the table ampacity by 70%. The only
exemption is for wires used in electrical circuits that only carry current when others don’t
(non coincident loading), such as one of the two three-way switch travelers. However,
equipment grounding conductors and some neutrals that are part of multiwire branch
circuits need not be counted.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
You have four current-carrying conductors running in a single conduit. Each conductor is
a 12 AWG copper wire with a temperature rating of 90°C. The running temperature is
70°C. According to the National Electrical Code (NEC), determine the derated ampacity of
each conductor.
 TERMINATION TEMPERATURE
✓ Termination temperatures sometimes determine minimum wire size

✓ Although the 90°C column is perfectly valid for its insulation materials, including the
common THHN and XHHW wires, it can’t be used to decide how big a wire is needed to
terminate at an overcurrent device or other piece of equipment.
✓ This is because test labs and NEC limit termination temperatures.

✓ Terminations on equipment rated over 100 amps can’t exceed 75°C. This means taking
your assumed current and making an entirely separate calculation using the 75°C
column.
 TERMINATION TEMPERATURE
✓ Using our example of 3/0 THHN, it could not be loaded beyond 200 amps unless the
devices connected to it, at both of its ends, were listed and marked with an allowance
for 90°C terminations.

✓ In ordinary work, there are no such devices.

✓ The 90°C column, with its higher ampacities, is still an advantageous place to start if
you’re facing derating penalties for high temperatures or mutual heating.
 TERMINATION TEMPERATURE
✓ For example, in the case of the seven wires in the attic, 3/0 THHN could carry 120
amps, as before. However, a 3/0 THW (75°C rating) could carry only 200 amps × 0.67
(due to temperature correction factor) × 0.7, or 94 amps. That’s quite a difference, and
well worth the use of the higher temperature insulation.

✓ The same considerations apply to devices rated 100 amps and below, except the
temperature restriction drops to 60°C. In this case, however, there are a number of
devices rated “60/75°C” which can use the 75°C column. Here again, remember that a
wire has two ends and the restriction applies at both ends.
 REDUCING THE VOLTAGE DROP
✓ It is impossible to prevent all voltage drop.
✓ Sometimes it is difficult to hold the voltage drop to a desired level.
✓ But you must hold it to a practical minimum.
✓ A drop of over 3% on the branch-circuit conductors at the farthest outlet, or a total of
over 5% on both feeder and branch-circuit conductors, is definitely excessive and
inefficient.
✓ It is usually possible and practical to reduce the voltage drop to less than that.
 REDUCING THE VOLTAGE DROP
✓ Limit the wasted power
If an electric motor is operated on a voltage 5% below its rated voltage, its power output
drops almost 10%; if operated at a voltage 10% below normal, its power output drops 19%.

✓ Control the stress in equipment

A motor may burn out early caused by excessive voltage drop.
 REDUCING THE VOLTAGE DROP
assume that a 500-watt floodlight is to be operated at a distance of 500 ft from the
branch-circuit circuit breaker or fuse. This requires 1,000 ft of wire. At 120 volts, a 500-
watt lamp draws about 4.2 amps.

If 14 AWG wire is used, NEC Table 8 shows that it has a resistance of 2.57 ohms per 1,000
ft.
R2 = R1 [ 1 + α (T2 – T1)]
R2 = 3.07Ω/1000 ft [ 1 + 0.00323 (25-75)]
R2 = 2.57Ω/1000 ft
(Note that, for practical reasons, this resistance is based on a 25°C temperature and not
the 75°C used in NEC Table 8.

R1 = 3.07 ohm/ k-ft

T2 = 25 deg-Celsius
T1 = 75 deg-Celsius
Alpha = 0.00323 for copper
 REDUCING THE VOLTAGE DROP
The voltage drop then is:
V = (4.2A)(2.57Ω) = 10.8 volts (far greater than 2%. It is 9%.)

Trying other sizes, 6 AWG with 0.410 ohms per 1,000 ft has a drop of 1.7 volts, less than 1.5%.
Number 8 AWG with 0.764 ohms per 1,000 ft has a drop of 3.2088 volts, or nearly 2.674%.

Therefore if the floodlight is to be used a great deal, use 6 AWG wire;

if it is to be used relatively little, use 8 AWG wire;
if it is to be used only in emergencies, use 10 AWG wire (4.28 volts drop, about 3-1⁄2%), or even 12
AWG wire with 6.8 volts drop, about 5-1⁄2%.

The amount of power wasted when used so rarely would be insignificant. Normally, however, a drop
of 5-1⁄2 % should not be tolerated.
If in this example the distance had been 400 ft instead of 500 ft, the length of the wire would have
been 800 ft instead of 1,000 ft. The voltage drop then would have been 800⁄1,000 or 80% of what it is
for 1,000 ft.
 GROUNDING
● This refers to deliberately connecting
parts of a wiring installation to the earth.
● Actually the connection is made to
something called a “grounding electrode”
that is in contact with the earth—such as
the buried metal piping of a water
system, or the grounded metal frame of a
building, or a ground rod driven into the
earth.
NO GROUNDING SYSTEM
WITH GROUNDING SYSTEM
 GROUNDING
Three categories:
● system grounding, or grounding one of the current-carrying wires of the installation;
● equipment grounding, or grounding non-current-carrying parts of the installation, such as
service equipment cabinet, the frames of ranges or motors, the metal conduit or metal
armor of armored cable; and
● bonding, or permanently joining conductive parts together to assure continuity and
conductivity.
 GROUNDING
In ordinary residential or light commercial wiring, the power comes into the premises from the
utility over three wires. the wires are marked N, A, and B.

Wire N is grounded (both at the service equipment and at the transformer supplying the power)
and is called the grounded neutral wire, and wires A and B are ungrounded and are called
“ungrounded" wires, “phase" wires, or usually just “hot” wires.

Note that the voltage between the neutral N and either A or B is 120 volts; between the two hot
wires A and B it is 240 volts.
 GROUNDING
If you touch both A and B, you will receive a 240-volt shock. If you touch either A or B while also
touching N, you will receive a 120-volt shock. But note that N is connected to the ground; so to
receive a 120-volt shock you don’t have to actually touch N.
Touching A or B while standing on the ground is the same as touching A or B while touching N—
you will receive the 120-volt shock.

The two hot wires may be any color except white, gray, green, or green with one or more yellow
stripes. One is usually black and the other red, and sometimes both are black.
The grounded wire is never interrupted by a circuit breaker, fuse, switch, or other device.
 GROUNDING TYPE RECEPTACLE
The original receptacle having only two parallel openings for the blades of the plug. If the
appliance is defective, anyone handling it could receive a shock.

This danger led to the development of the “grounding receptacle,” which has the usual two
parallel slots for two blades of a plug, plus a third round or U-shaped opening for a third prong
on the corresponding plug.
 GROUND-FAULT CIRCUIT
INTERRUPTERS (GFCI)
A GFCI or GFI is a device that can be installed
to protect either a complete 120-volt, two-
wire circuit or a single receptacle against
ground-fault currents.
 GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION OF
EQUIPMENT (GFPE)
This is a form of protection closely related to
the GFCI that is used to prevent very low-level
arcing faults from causing fires.
It is typically available in specialized circuit
breakers.
 ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR

AB STRUCTURES
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● Definition of a Luminaire
● Components of a Luminaire
● Luminaire Performance
● Coefficient of Utilization
● Types of Luminaire
● Lighting Design Considerations
● Receptacle Outlets
● Switches
● Switch Configuration
 LUMINAIRE
● A luminaire a term used for a complete
lighting unit.
● Its function is to direct light to appropriate
location
● Designing and choosing luminaires that
efficiently provide appropriate luminance
patterns for the application is an important
part of energy efficient lighting design.
COMPONENTS OF LUMINAIRE

1. Lamps and lamp holders or sockets

2. Ballasts to start and operate the lamps
3. Reflectors to direct the light
4. Shielding/diffusion components (lens,
diffuser, louver, or the like) to shield the
lamps from the eyes at normal viewing
angles, reduce discomfort and disability
glare, and to distribute light evenly
5. Housings to contain the above elements as
well as electrical components, such as
wiring connections
 COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
This is based on Room Cavity Ratio (RCR):

RCR = [5 hRC (L+W)] / LW

where;
hRC – room cavity height
L – length of the room
W – width of the room
 CAVITY RATIOS
Ceiling Cavity Ratio (CCR) – space between ceiling & luminaire plane
CCR = [5 hCC (L+W)] / LW = RCR (hCC/hRC)

Floor Cavity Ratio (FCR) – space between workplane & the floor
FCR = [5 hFC (L+W)] / LW = RCR (hFC/hRC)
CAVITY RATIOS
 REFLECTION FACTORS
Ceiling Reflection Factors
White & Very Light – 70%
Light – 50%
Medium – 30%

Wall Reflection Factors

White & Very Light – 50%
Medium – 30%
Dark – 10%
ROOM DIRT DEPRECIATION
FIXTURE DATA
 TYPES OF LUMINAIRE
1. General Lighting
2. Architectural
3. Task Lights
4. Decorative
 GENERAL LIGHTING
Purpose:
1. General illumination of large areas
2. Majority of the energy consumed is for lighting

These lighting systems consist of a luminaire layout pattern that provides uniform
lighting throughout the space.
 GENERAL LIGHTING
1. Open Direct Luminaires
They do not employ shielding.
These systems include surface- and pendant mounted
strip fluorescent fixtures and suspended open industrial
and commercial luminaires.
Open direct lighting systems are often very efficient,
with high CU values, but they may cause visual
discomfort and disability glare.
 GENERAL LIGHTING
2. Shielded Direct Luminaires
They use some form of lens, louver, or baffle
to prevent direct viewing of the lamps at
normal angles of view.
 GENERAL LIGHTING
3. Parabolic Louvered Recessed Troffers
An increasingly popular commercial general
lighting fixture which uses specular
parabolic louvers to control the luminaire’s
light distribution, providing sharp cut-off
glare control.
 GENERAL LIGHTING
4. Standard lensed troffers
These typically have higher efficiency and
CU values than parabolic louvered troffers,
but provide less precise glare control. Many
lens types can be used (i.e., patterned
prismatic, batwing, linear batwing, and
polarizing), though final photometric
performance also depends on a number of
other factors such as reflector type, number
of lamps, lamp type, and ballast type.
 GENERAL LIGHTING
5. Indirect Lighting Systems
These radiate light up to a reflecting ceiling.
These systems generally employ luminaires
suspended from the ceiling, though cove
lights and lights mounted to walls and
furniture can also be used.
 GENERAL LIGHTING
6. Direct/Indirect Lighting Systems
These systems combine the benefits of both
traditional direct lighting and indirect
lighting systems. Combing the high CU of
direct illumination with the uniformity and
glare control of indirect lighting can be an
ideal solution for many spaces.
 ARCHITECTURAL LUMINAIRES
These are generally used in building spaces such as lobbies and corridors. These
include recessed downlights, wall washers, track lights, and wall sconces.
Since these luminaires are employed mainly for highlighting high-quality spaces,
aesthetics is a principal consideration in their design and selection.
Nevertheless, there are many opportunities to utilize efficient lighting in these
applications.
 ARCHITECTURAL LUMINAIRES
1. Recessed Low-Wattage (High Intensity
Discharge) HID Downlights
They are equipped with high-CRI compact
metal halide and white high pressure sodium
lamps, can replace traditional incandescent
downlights in high-quality and/or low-ceiling
spaces, thereby achieving significant energy
savings and extended lamp life.
 ARCHITECTURAL LUMINAIRES
2. Recessed Compact Fluorescent
Downlights
They replace incandescent downlights on a 1
watt for 3 watts basis. A relatively recent
development, the 1’x 1’ parabolic downlight
for compact fluorescent lamps is extremely
efficient, allowing replacement of
incandescent lamps on a 1 watt for 4 watts
basis.
 ARCHITECTURAL LUMINAIRES
3. Track Mounted Lighting
These systems provide flexibility in design
and make it possible to accommodate
changing displays.
 ARCHITECTURAL LUMINAIRES
4. Task Lights
These work in conjunction with general
lighting systems to meet diverse needs of
individual occupants for specific visual
tasks.
 DECORATIVE LUMINAIRES
These are lighting fixtures in the form of pendants, wall sconces, chandeliers,
exterior lanterns, and landscaping lights.
Decorative lighting luminaires are used to provide general or ambient lighting in areas
where a more customized appearance is desired.
 DECORATIVE LUMINAIRES
1. Wall-Mounted Luminaires
Decorative lighting for walls and hallways.
 DECORATIVE LUMINAIRES
2. Compact Fluorescent Pendants and
Chandeliers
Decorative lighting for ceiling.
 LIGHTING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1. Surface Reflectance
2. Surface Color
3. Surface Finish & Texture
4. Surface Illumination
 SURFACE REFLECTANCE
This is the feature of a surface that determines
its degree of lightness or darkness.
For example if it is required that a surface, or an
interior, appears 'light‘ then it will be essential
for the surface or surfaces to have a high
reflectance.
 SURFACE COLOR
This is the feature of a surface that determines its unique color.
i.e. its redness, blueness, greenness or yellowness and as long as there is a
sufficient illuminance and an amount of neutral or achromatic surface colors within
the field of view then the appearance should be largely correct
Color temperature (Kelvin):
The temperature of a Planckian, or 'full radiator' whose radiation has the same
chromaticity as that of the light source being considered.
 SURFACE FINISH & TEXTURE
This will not affect the total amount of light being reflected from the surface but it
will affect its appearance.
 SURFACE ILLUMINATION
The illuminance distribution should be considered. For example if a surface is lit with
a high illuminance uniformity then it will appear uniformly bright and uniformly
colored.
Illuminance (lux or lumen/square metre): The luminous flux density at a surface, i.e.
the luminous flux incident per unit area.
Luminous flux (lumen): The light emitted by a source, or received by a surface. The
quantity is derived from radiant flux by modifying the radiation in accordance with
the spectral sensitivity of the standard eye as described by the CIE standard
photopic observer (V(λ)).
 SURFACE ILLUMINATION
Luminance (candela/square metre): The physical measure of the stimulus which
produces the sensation of brightness measured by the luminous intensity of the
light emitted or reflected in a given direction from a surface element, divided by the
projected area of the element in the same direction. The relationship between
luminance and illuminance for a reflecting surface is given by the equation:
Luminance = (illuminance x reflectance factor)/Area
Note: for diffuse surfaces reflectance factor is replaced by reflectance

Reflectance factor: The ratio of the radiant or luminous flux reflected into a given
cone to that reflected in the same cone by a perfect reflecting diffuser, identically
irradiated or illuminated.
REQUIRED ILLUMINATION
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Ten incandescent lamps of 500 W (10,600 lumens per lamp) are used in an area of 50
m2. With CU = 0.6 and LLF = 0.8; illumination can be calculated as
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Design the lighting system for 20 x 10 m housing for hogs.

- Determine the area and assume required illumination

- Choose the light fixtures to be used
- Calculate number of fixtures needed
LEDtube EM/Mains T8 Other assumptions:
● Intended use: indoor Illuminations required: 50-200 lux (PAES401)
● Dimmable: No (Use 50 lux for growing and finishing)
● Bulb Finish: Frosted Artificial lighting UF: 0.5 – 0.9 for animal housing
● Bulb Material: Glass Maintenance factor: 0.6 – 0.8 due to higher dirt
● Length x width: 60.3 x 2.8cm accumulation
● Nominal luminous flux: 800 lumens
● Wattage: 8 W
● Voltage: 220-240 V
● Apparent power: 18 VA
● Source: [Link]
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Design the lighting system for 20 x 10 m housing for hogs.

- Determine the area and assume required illumination

- Choose the light fixtures to be used
- Calculate number of fixtures needed
 RECEPTACLE OUTLETS
- An outlet with one or more receptacles
1. Single Receptacles – special use

2. Duplex Receptacles – commonly use

 RECEPTACLE OUTLETS
1. 15A Receptacles - Typically used in
residential applications for standard outlets.
2. 20A Receptacles – Common in kitchens and
commercial settings where appliances may
draw more power.
3. 30A to 50A Receptacles – Used for heavy-
duty appliances such as electric ranges, air
conditioning units, and machinery.
 SWITCHES
-this is used to control the lighting or loads

Snap Switch 2. Face Switch– commonly use

 SWITCHES
1. Single-pole switches
Any switch that opens only one wire. A single-pole snap switch is identified by its
two terminals and the words ON and OFF on the handle.
2. Double-pole switches
Opening one of the two wires to a lamp turns the lamp on and off, but both wires can
be opened if desired (and as required under some circumstances). It has four
terminals for wires, and the words ON and OFF on the handle.
SWITCHES
 SWITCHES
3. Three-way switches
Often it is convenient to be able to turn a light on or off from two different places, for
example, a hall light from upstairs or downstairs, or a garage light from either the
garage door or from inside the house. For this purpose, choose three-way switches.
4. Four-way switches
For a light that must be controlled from more than two locations, a four-way switch
is used in combination with three-way switches.
 SWITCHES

Three-way switches Four-way switches

 SWITCHES
5. Special-use switches
The lock type switch can be operated only by someone having keys to fit. Some
momentary-contact switches look like ordinary switches, but the handle is held in
one position by a spring, returning to its original position when the operator releases
the handle. Old-time switches had two pushbuttons instead of a handle. The surface
type is used mostly in surface wiring, such as in some garages and farm buildings.
6. Dimmer switches
To control the brightness of the lights in part of the home, such as the dining room
or family room, use special dimming switches, usually called dimmers. They are
available for either incandescent or fluorescent lighting; buy the right kind because
they are not interchangeable. Remove the ordinary switch and replace it with a
dimmer.
 SWITCH CONFIGURATION
1. Series Wiring
 SWITCH CONFIGURATION
2. Parallel Wiring
 ASSIGNMENT
Identify the recommended numbers of outlets and lights for each parts of residential
electrical systems.
- Living Room and Bedroom
- Dining Room, dinette, breakfast room
- Kitchen, kitchenette, pantry
- Kitchen work surface
- Laundry Areas and Bathrooms
- Halls, stairways, and closets
- Exterior entances
 DESIGN PROJECT
Determine the power requirements of your dream residential farmhouse as you
identify the appliances and lighting systems of the house.
Create a design electrical layout for your dream residential systems. Provide
CAD/Sketchup design for the structures.
Provide cost analysis for electrical systems.
Submit your written report of your design project with brief introduction, objectives,
and methods until June 27, 2024.
This is a group design project with four members each.
 ABEN80: AB Electrification and Control Systems

RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Prepared by: Daniel G. SIerra
COURSE OUTLINE
● How to Prepare Schedule of Load
● Sample of Power Layout
● Sample of Lighting Layout
● Sample of Riser Diagram
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
Schedule of Load
- this is a table showing the following information:
1. Description of Load
2. Number of Outlets
3. Number of Switches
4. Voltage
5. Ampere
6. Circuit Breaker Rating
7. Number and Size of Wire & Conduit
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
Relevance of Schedule of Load
1. Sizing of Conductors (Wire)
2. Sizing of Overload Protection (Circuit Breaker)
3. Sizing of Conduits
4. For Electrical Material Take-off List or Bill of Materials
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
Example:
Voltage : 220V (Philippine standard)
House Area : 25 square meter

Possible Appliances:
Refrigerator: 750 VA
ACU: 500 VA
Electric Range : 1000 VA

Lighting System
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
Computation for Outlets:
Voltage : 220V (Philippine standard)

We need special outlets for Electric Range and Refrigerator,

Refrigerator (Ampere Rating) = 750 VA/220V = 3.40 A
ACU = 500 VA/220 V = 2.27 A
Electric Range = 1000 VA/220 V = 4.55 A

According to NEC, duplex convenience outlets (CO) should be installed 2m from

each other along wall length. Therefore; for 5m x 5m area, we need:
# of outlets = Perimeter / 2m = 2 (5+5) /2 = 10 outlets @ 720 VA per outlet
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
Computation for Lighting:
We will use a general lighting luminaire for 5m x 5m x 2.85m house. Illuminance
(E) is 150 lux at the bench level. The specification calls for luminaires having
one 1050 mm 40 W fluorescent natural tube with an initial output of 3200
lumens with white metal base and prismatic plastic diffuser. Determine the
number of luminaires required for this installation when the MF is 0.7. The
reflection coefficients are: (Ceiling= 0.70, Wall= 0.3, Floor=0.2)
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
From the room dimension we can calculate the room cavity ratio assuming the
working table height is 0.85 m.

hRC = 2.85m-0.85m = 2m (luminaire is mounted at the ceiling)

RCR= 5hRC (L+W)/LW = 5(2m)(5m + 5m)/(5m)(5m)
RCR = 4
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
We are given with the reflection factors as follows:
Ceiling= 0.70, Wall= 0.3, Floor=0.2

Using our table, we will get the coefficient of utilization (CU);

HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
CU = 26%. Since we already have the MF of 0.70. Now, calculating the required
number of lighting (N);
N = (lumen required*area)/(lamp lumen*CU*MF)
N = (150*25)/(3200*0.26*0.70)
N= 6.43 = 7 luminaires

Since 7 luminaires are large number to be installed in the ceiling, it is suggested

to use 2x40W fluorescent lamps with prismatic diffuser. Hence, the number of
luminaire required will be,
7/2 = 3.5 = 4 luminaires

Since NEC requires 100 watt maximum for each lighting outlet. Therefore, we
require 4 lighting outlets @ 100 VA each outlet.
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
Summary of Loads
Refrigerator – 3.40 A
ACU – 2.27 A
Electric Range – 4.55 A
Convenience Outlets – 32.73A (should be divided into 5 circuits)
Lighting Outlets – 1.82 A (can be divided into 2 circuits)
To choose the wire & conduit, using the
ampacity table;

For a Refrigerator with 3.40 A, use 2 pcs

of AWG 14 THWN as hot wires for 1 Phase
connection and 1 pc AWG 16 THWN for
ground.
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
To choose conduit, use 1/2” PVC conduit as shown in the table.
Now, we can plot the values to our Schedule of Load
HOW TO PREPARE SCHEDULE OF LOAD
We will do the same to the rest of the loads and outlets.

Then, get the total ampere rating, determine the size of the wire & conduit, as
well as the circuit breaker or generator, if needed.
LAYOUTS
 POWER LAYOUT
This shows the outlet diagram of our
electrical design.

Sample Power Layout:

LIGHTING LAYOUT
This shows the fixture & luminaire
diagram of our electrical design.

Sample Lighting Layout: