Module – 4 : Design of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The drive trains are classified into four types as Series Hybrid, Parallel Hybrid, Series–
Parallel Hybrid, and Complex Hybrid Drive Trains.

Series Hybrid Electric Drive Train Design

The configuration of a series hybrid drive train is shown above. The vehicle is propelled by a
traction motor. The traction motor is powered by a battery pack and/or an engine/generator
unit. The powers of both power sources are merged together in a power electronics-based and
controllable electrical coupling device. The modes of operation depend on power demands of
the driver and operational status of the drivetrain system.
Note : Battery Pack (BP) is also termed as Peak Power Source (PPS)

Operating patterns of Series Hybrid Electric Drive Train

In practice, the engine should be controlled in such a way that it always operates in its optimal
operation region, where fuel consumption and emissions of the engine are minimized. The
control objectives are to
a) Meet the power demand of the driver,
b) Operate each component with optimal efficiency,
c) Recapture braking energy as much as possible, and
d) Maintain the SoC of the PPS
The several operating modes of drivetrain according to the driving conditions and wishes of
the driver are as follows:

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 1. Hybrid traction mode: When a large amount of power is demanded, both the
engine/generator and peaking power source (PPS) supply their power to the electric
motor drive. This operation mode can be expressed as
Pdemand = Pe/g + Ppps
where
Pdemand is the power demanded by the driver,
Pe/g = Engine/generator power
Ppps = Peak Power Source (PPS) power.
2. PPS-alone traction mode: In this operating mode, the PPS alone supplies its power to
meet the power demand:
Pdemand = Ppps
3. Engine/Generator-alone traction mode: In this operating mode, engine/generator
alone supplies its power to meet the power demand :
Pdemand = Pe/g
4. PPS charge from engine/generator: When the energy in the PPS decreases and
regenerative braking charging is insufficient, then PPS is charged from
engine/generator. This operation mode can be expressed as
Pdemand = Pe/g + Ppps
The PPS power is given a negative sign when it is being charged.
5. Regenerative braking mode: When a vehicle brakes, the traction motor can be used as
a generator, converting part of the kinetic energy of the vehicle mass into electric
energy to charge the PPS.

Control strategies of Series Hybrid Electric Drive Train

The control strategy is a control rule that is preset in the vehicle controller and governs the
operation of each component in EV/HEVs. The vehicle controller receives operation commands
from the driver and feedback from drivetrain and all the components, and it then makes
decisions to use the proper operational modes based on following control strategies:
a) Maximum SoC of PPS
b) Engine turn-on and turn-off (Engine on/off) or thermostat control strategies.
a) Maximum SoC of PPS : The main objective of this control strategy is to meet the
power demand of the driver and, at the same time, maintain the SoC of the PPS at a high
level. The engine/generator is the primary power source, and the PPS is the secondary
source. The Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for various power demands at the points A, B,
C and D is shown below.

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At Point A :
Traction Power Demanded Pdemanded > Pe/g. ∴ PPPS = Pdemanded – Pe/g

At Point B :
Pdemanded < Pe/g.
If the SoC of the PPS is below its top line (70%), the engine/generator is operated with a
full load to supply power to traction motor to propel the vehicle and also to PPS.
If the SoC of the PPS reaches its top line, then engine/generator supply power to
traction mode alone and the PPS is set at idle.

At Point C :
Commanded braking power Pcom > Pbraking (Braking power required)
In this case, a hybrid braking mode is used and, in which the electric motor produces its
maximum braking power, and the mechanical braking system produces the remaining
braking power.

At Point D :
Pcom > Pbraking
In this case, only regenerative braking is used.

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The flowchart of the Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy is shown below :

b) Engine On–Off or Thermostat Control Strategy : It is used to maintain SoC of the

PPS at a high level. In some long time driving conditions with a low load on a highway at
constant speed, the PPS can easily be charged to its full level, and the engine/generator is
forced to operate at a power output smaller than its optimum.
When the SoC of the PPS reaches its preset top line, the engine/generator is turned off,
and the vehicle is propelled only by the PPS. On the other hand, when the SOC of the PPS
reaches its bottom line, the engine/generator is turned on. The PPS obtains its charging
from the engine/generator. In this way, the engine can be always operated within its
optimal eficiency region. This Thermostat Control Strategy control strategy is shown below.

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 Design Principles of a Series (Electrical Coupling) Hybrid Drivetrain
A good design of the drivetrain system ensures the vehicle performance in achieving desired,
acceleration, gradeability, high speed, and high operating efficiency. The Series Hybrid
drivetrain design involves the following:
a) Electrical coupling device
b) Design of power rating of traction motor
c) Design of power rating of Engine / Generator
d) Design of PPS
a) Electrical coupling device : It is the sole (only one) linkage point for combining the
three sources of power together: engine/generator, PPS, and traction motor as shown
below:

The open circuit voltage (zero current) of the generator must be higher than the PPS voltage
for delivering its power to the traction motor and/or the PPS. In regenerative braking, the
generated bus voltage by the traction motor must be higher than the PPS voltage. Therefore,
the regenerative braking capability at a low speed is limited in this configuration. In order to
overcome this
drawback, a
bidirectional DC/DC
converter is used to
enhance the
efficiency of drive
train as shown i. figure. Its advantages are as follows:
a) Changes in the voltage of PPS do not affect the DC bus voltage

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 b) The energy in the PPS can be fully used
c) The voltage of the DC bus can be maintained by controlling the engine throttle and/or
the magnetic field of the generator
d) A low PPS voltage can be used, which may lead to a small and light PPS pack and less
cost
e) The charging current of PPS can be regulated during regenerative braking and charging
from the engine/generator.
The basic functions of converter are provided in below mentioned table.

A bidirectional DC/DC converter connected between the low voltage of the PPS and the high
voltage of the DC bus, boosting for PPS discharging (traction) and bucking for PPS charging
from the engine/generator or from regenerative braking is shown below:

In the PPS discharging mode, that is, boosting the PPS voltage to the DC bus level, switch
S1 is always on, S2 and S3 are always off, and S4 is turned on and off periodically.

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 In the PPS charging mode with the DC bus voltage higher than the PPS voltage in
regenerative braking or engine/generator charging mode, that is, bucking the DC bus voltage to
PPS level, switches S1, S2, and S4 are turned off, and S3 is turned on and off periodically.
In the PPS charging mode with the DC bus voltage lower than the PPS voltage
(regenerative braking at low speed), that is, boosting the DC bus voltage to the PPS level,
switches S1 and S4 are kept off, S3 on, and S2 is turned on and off periodically. In the on period
of S2, the inductor Ld is charged by the DC bus through S3 and S2. In the off period of S2, both
the DC bus and the inductor charge the PPS through S3 and D1.
b) Power Rating Design of Traction Motor :
The power rating of the electric motor drive (Pt) in series HEVs is determined by considering
the vehicle acceleration performance requirement, motor characteristics, and transmission
characteristics using the following equation

Where
M = Total vehicle mass in kg
ta = Acceleration time in s
Vb = Vehicle base speed in m/s
Vf = Final speed of the vehicle in m/s
g = Gravity acceleration in 9.80m/s2
fr = Tire rolling resistance coefficient
ρa = Air density in 1.202 kg/m3
Af = Front area of the vehicle in m2
CD = Aerodynamic drag coefficient
The first term in Equation (1) represents the power used to accelerate the vehicle mass, and
the second and third terms represent the average power for overcoming the tire rolling
resistance and aerodynamic drag.

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b) Power Rating Design of Traction Motor :
The power rating of the electric motor drive (Pt) in series HEVs is determined by considering
the vehicle acceleration performance requirement, motor characteristics, and transmission
characteristics using the following equation

Where
M = Total vehicle mass in kg
δ = Vehicle rotational inertia factor
ta = Acceleration time in s
Vb = Vehicle base speed in m/s
Vf = Final speed of the vehicle in m/s
g = Gravity acceleration in 9.80m/s2
fr = Tire rolling resistance coefficient
ρa = Air density in 1.202 kg/m3
Af = Front area of the vehicle in m2
CD = Aerodynamic drag coefficient

The tractive effort and the tractive power versus vehicle speed with a two-gear transmission is
shown above.

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 During acceleration, starting from a low gear, the tractive effort follows the sequence a–
b–d–e–f. At point f, the electric motor reaches its maximum speed, and the transmission must
be shifted to high gear for further acceleration. The tractive effort follows the sequence c–d–e–
f–g.
It is observed from the characteristics, for a given final speed during acceleration, the
vehicle with a two-gear transmission will have a short acceleration at low speed in low gear,
than that in a higher gear.
The motor power rating to meet the acceleration performance specifications of hill
climbing applications like off-road military vehicles, cross-country operations is expressed as

where
α is the ground slope angle or gradeability,
V is the vehicle speed in m/s, specified
Therefore, in the calculation of motor power required for gradeability, additional resistance
power should be added as shown below.

c) Power Rating Design of Engine / Generator :

The engine/generator is used to supply steady-state power to prevent the PPS from being
discharged completely. In the design of the engine/generator following two driving conditions
should be considered.
1) Driving for a long time at constant speed, such as highway driving and off-road driving
on a soft road

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 2) Driving with a frequent stop–go pattern, such as driving in cities.
At a constant speed and on a flat road, the power output from engine/ generator and/or the
PPS) in kW is expressed as

where

ηt = Efficiency of transmission
ηm = Efficiency of traction motor
When the vehicle is driving in a stop-and-go pattern in urban areas, the power that the
engine/generator produces should be equal to or slightly greater than the average load power
to maintain balanced PPS energy storage, and the average load power is expressed as

where
δ = vehicle rotational inertia factor
dV/dt = Acceleration of the vehicle
The first term in the above equation is average power that is consumed to overcome the tire rolling
resistance and aerodynamic drag. The second term is the average power consumed in acceleration
and deceleration.
If the vehicle can recover all the kinetic energy of the vehicle, the average power
consumed in acceleration and deceleration is zero. Otherwise, it will be greater than zero, as
shown below.

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d) Design of PPS : The PPS must store sufficient energy to deliver sufficient power to
the traction motor at any time. The power and energy capacity of PPS is calculated as follows :
i. Power Capacity of PPS : To fully utilize the traction motor power capacity, the total
power of the engine/generator and PPS should be greater than, or at least equal to, the
rated maximum power of the electric motor. The power capacity of the PPS is expressed
as

where
Pm,max = is the maximum rated power of the motor,
ηm = Efficiency of the motor
Pe/g is the power of the engine/generator system at its designed operating point.
ii. Energy Capacity of PPS :
Energy variation (ΔE) in the PPS depends on driving conditions and control strategy. It
is expressed as

where
Ppps = Power of the PPS
+ Ppps = Charging power
- Ppps = Discharging power
The energy capacity of the PPS is determined by the following equation

where
ΔEmax = Maximum amount of energy changes in the whole driving cycle
SOCtop & SOCbott = Maximum and minimum level of State of Charge
Energy variations in FTP75 urban drive cycle with Max. SOC control strategy is shown below.

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 Design of Parallel (Mechanically Coupled) Hybrid Electric Drivetrain
The parallel or mechanically coupled hybrid drivetrain allow both the engine and the traction
motor to apply their mechanical power in parallel directly to the drive wheels. Its major
advantages over series configuration are as follows:
a) No necessity of a generator
b) Requires a smaller traction motor
c) Only part of the engine power going through multi-power conversion
d) Overall efficiency can be higher
Its drawback is that, the parallel hybrid drivetrain may be more complex.
The parallel drivetrains with torque coupling operates with the electrically peaking
principle. That is, the engine supplies its power to meet the base load and the electric motor
supplies the power to meet the peak load requirement.
Parallel Hybrid Drivetrain Configuration and its design objectives:

The drivetrain structure of a parallel (torque coupling) hybrid vehicle is shown above. The
vehicle controller is the highest-level controller. It receives the operation command from the
driver through the accelerator and brake pedals, and other operating variables of the vehicle
and its components, which includes vehicle speed, engine speed and throttle position, SOC of
the PPS, and so on. By processing all signals received, based on the embedded drivetrain
control algorithm, the vehicle controller generates control commands and sends the commands
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to the corresponding component controllers. The component controllers control the
corresponding components to carry out the commands coming from the vehicle controller.
Since the torque coupler is uncontrollable, the power flow in the drivetrain can only be
regulated by controlling the power sources, that is, the engine, traction motor, clutch, and
mechanical brake.
The design objectives of parallel drivetrains are as follows:
a) Satisfying the performance requirements (gradeability, acceleration, and maximum
cruising speed)
b) Achieving high overall efficiency whenever possible
c) Maintaining the SOC-of-PPS at reasonable levels
d) Recovering as much brake energy as possible.
Control Strategies of Parallel Hybrid Drive Train :
The operation modes in a parallel torque-coupling hybrid drivetrain are as follows:
a) Engine-alone traction mode
b) Electric-alone traction mode
c) Hybrid traction (engine plus motor) mode
d) Regenerative braking mode
e) PPS charging from the engine mode.
The overall control scheme is shown below.

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The control strategy in vehicle controller plays a central role in the operation of the drivetrain.
The vehicle controller should fulfill various operation modes, according to the data collected
from components and the driver’s command, and should send the correct control command to
each controller.
a) Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy : In this control strategy, the engine is used as the
primary power source as much as possible and PPS is charged whenever the engine has
excess power over that required for propulsion, without exceeding PPS-SOC full charge
limit as shown below.

The operation modes of the drivetrain are explained as follows.

i. Motor-alone propelling mode: When the vehicle speed is less than a preset value Veb,
the electric motor alone propels the vehicle and the engine is shut down or idles with
the clutch open.

Pe = 0, Pm = PL, Ppps-d = Pm /ηm

Pe = Engine power
Ppps-d = PPS discharge power
ii. Hybrid propelling mode: When the propelling power (at A) is greater than the power
that the engine can produce, both the engine and the electric motor must deliver their
power to the drive wheels at the same time.

P m = P L - P e, Ppps-d = Pm /ηm
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 .

iii. PPS charge mode: When the demanded propelling power (at B) is less than the power
that the engine can produce, and the SOC of the PPS is below its top line, the engine is
operated on its optimum operating line (point b), producing its power Pe. In this case,
the electric motor is controlled by its controller to function as a generator, powered by
the remaining power of the engine. The input power to the electric motor and PPS
charge power are
Pm = (Pe − PL)ηt,e,m, Ppps-c = Pm. ηm,
where
ηt,e,m is the transmission efficiency from the engine to the electric motor
iv. Engine-alone propelling mode: When the demanded propelling power is less than the
power that the engine can produce, and the SOC of the PPS has reached its top line this
operating mode is used.
Pe = PL, Pm = 0, PPPS = 0
v. Regenerative-alone brake mode: When the demanded braking power is less than the
maximum regenerative braking power (at C) that the electric system can supply the
electric motor is controlled to function as a generator. In this case, the engine is shut
down or set idling. The electric power output from the motor and PPS charging power is
Pmb = PL ηm, Ppps-c = Pmb.
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 vi. Hybrid braking mode: When the demanded braking power is greater than the
maximum regenerative braking power that the electric system can supply (point), the
mechanical brake must be applied. The motor output power, PPS charging power, and
mechanical braking power (Pmf)are

Pmb = Pmb,max ηm, Ppps-c = Pmb, Pmf = PL − Pmb.

This Max SOC control strategy minimizes the part of the engine’s energy which cycles
through the electric motor and the PPS. This may reduce the engine’s energy transmission
losses. However, when the PPS is fully charged and the vehicle load is small, the engine is
throttled down to meet the small load power. In this case, the engine suffers low operating
efficiency.
b) Engine On–Off (Thermostat) Control Strategy :

In this control strategy, the operation of the engine is controlled by the SOC of the PPS, as
shown above. This control strategy uses the electric motor as the primary power source. The
engine either operates in its optimal region or stops. Thus, the average operating efficiency of
the engine is optimized. The electric motor must have sufficient power to meet the vehicle’s
peak power during the engine’s off periods.
c) Constrained Engine On–Off Control Strategy: The principle of this control strategy is
to add the engine on-and-off operation in the Max. SOC of-PPS control strategy. The control will
be exactly the Max. SOC-of-PPS, when the vehicle speed is less than Veb, and when the
demanded traction power less than the engine’s power at optimal efficiency, the engine can be
operated with optimal throttle, partial throttle, or turned off, depending on the SOC of the PPS.

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Parametric Design of a Parallel Hybrid Electric Drivetrain:
Parameters of a parallel (torque coupling) hybrid drivetrain such as engine power, electric motor
power, gear ratios of the transmission, and power and energy capacity of the PPS plays an important
key role on vehicle performance and operational efficiency.
a) Engine Power Design: The engine should be able to supply sufficient power to support
vehicle operation at normal constant speeds on both a flat and a mild-grade road without
the help of the PPS. The variation of load powers of a 1500-kg passenger car, along with
vehicle speed, on a flat road and a road with a 5% grade is shown below.

The engine power is expressed as follows:

where
i = grade ≅ sinα
In a drive cycle, the average load power of a vehicle is calculated by

The average power varies with the degree of regenerative braking. In a parallel drivetrain, the
engine is mechanically coupled to the drive wheels. Hence, engine rotating speed varies with
vehicle speed.
b) Transmission Design : Multigear transmissions effectively increase the tractive effort of
drive wheels from the engine torque and it results in reduction of acceleration time and
enhanced gradeability at a given motor power rating. But, multigear transmission adds

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 complexity to the drivetrain control system. The operating efficiency of the engine is higher
in the highest gear compared to lower gears. The variation of engine power with vehicle
speed for US06 driving cycle is shown below:

c) Electric Motor Drive Power Design : In parallel hybrid drive train as we have two power
sources, the estimation of the motor power capacity is based on the specified acceleration
performance and, thereafter remaining part of final design is carried out considering the
engine power through iterative simulations. The variation of tractive effort with vehicle
speed of motor driven vehicle is shown below.

For a specified acceleration time, ta, from zero speed to a final high speed, Vf, the motor
power rating is expressed as

where
ηtm = Transmission efficiency of motor
δtm = Rotational inertia associated with motor
The average remaining power of the engine, used to accelerate the vehicle is expressed as

where
Pe and Pr are engine power and resistance power, respectively.
ti and ta are time corresponding to initial and final time interval of acceleration
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 The engine power transmitted to the drive wheels is associated with the gear number and
gear ratios of the transmission. The multigear transmission effectively increases the
remaining power at the drive wheels, thereby reducing the motor power required for
acceleration.
d) Design of PPS : It involves the design of power and energy capacity of the PPS. The
terminal power of the PPS must be greater than the input electric power of the electric
motor, that is,
Pm
PPPS 
m
During the acceleration period, the energies drawn from the PPS (EPPS), and the engine (Ee)
are calculated using the following equations:

The variation of energies drawn from PPS and engine in a period of full acceleration along
with the vehicle speed for a passenger car is shown below.

The energy capacity of the PPS must meet the requirement while driving in a stop and-
go pattern in typical drive cycles and energy changes in the PPS (Evar) is obtained by

The energy capacity of PPS is calculated using the following equation

where
Edis-max = Allowed maximum energy discharging from the PPS
SOCt and SOCb = Top and bottom lines of the SOC of the PPS
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