STAT-208

Environmental Statistics
Introduction Part
Lecture: 01 Basic Environment

What is Environment?
Environment can be defined as a sum total of all the living and non-living elements and their
effects that influence human life. While all living or biotic elements are animals, plants,
forests, fisheries, and birds, non-living or abiotic elements include water, land, sunlight,
rocks, and air.
Components of Environment:
The environment consists of four segments as under:
1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the
earth:
(a) It sustains life on the earth.
(b) It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
(c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
(d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and
radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultra-violate waves below
about 300 nm. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. Besides, argon, carbon
dioxide, and trace gases.
2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers, streams, reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
(i) Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,
(ii) About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.
(iii) Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water
fit to be used for human consumption and other uses.
3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals
occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g., minerals, organic matter, air and water.
4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with
environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

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Element of Environment:
Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural
elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements
may be explained as under:
(1) Physical elements: Physical elements are as space, landforms, water bodies, climate
soils, rocks and minerals. They determine the variable character of the human habitat, its
opportunities as well as limitations.
(2) Biological elements: Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and
men constitute the biosphere.
(3) Cultural elements: Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements are
essentially manmade features, which make cultural milieu.
Importance of Environmental Study:
Environmental study is based upon a comprehensive view of various environmental systems.
It aims to make the citizens competent to do scientific work and to find out practical solutions
to current environmental problems. The citizens acquire the ability to analyse the
environmental parameters like the aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric systems and their
interactions with the biosphere and anthrosphere.
Importance
▪ World population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in developing
countries.
▪ The natural resources endowment in the earth is limited.
▪ The methods and techniques of exploiting natural resources are advanced.
▪ The resources are over-exploited and there is no foresight of leaving the resources
to the future generations.
▪ The unplanned exploitation of natural resources lead to pollution of all types and
at all levels.
▪ The pollution and degraded environment seriously affect the health of all living
things on earth, including man.
▪ The people should take a combined responsibility for the deteriorating
environment and begin to take appropriate actions to space the earth.
▪ Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction.
The urban area, coupled with industries, is major sources of pollution.
▪ The number and area extinct under protected area should be increased so that the
wild life is protected at least in these sites.
▪ The study enables the people to understand the complexities of the environment
and need for the people to adapt appropriate activities and pursue sustainable
development, which are harmonious with the environment.
▪ The study motivates students to get involved in community action, and to
participate in various environmental and management projects.
▪ It is a high time to reorient educational systems and curricula towards these needs.

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 ▪ Environmental studies take a multidisciplinary approach to the study of human
interactions with the natural environment. It integrates different approaches of the
humanities, social sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences and applies
these approaches to investigate environmental concerns.
▪ Environmental study is a key instrument for bringing about the changes in the
knowledge, values, behaviours and lifestyles required to achieve sustainability and
stability within and among countries.
Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially
a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world
and human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as it seeks practical
answers to making human civilization sustainable on the earth's finite resources.
What is Environmental Statistics?
Environmental Statistics is the application of statistical methods to environmental science. It
covers procedures for dealing with questions concerning both the natural environment in its
undisturbed state and the interaction of humanity with environment.

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 Lecture: 02 Ecology and Ecosystem

What is Ecology?
Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with each other and their environment.
What is Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a large community of living organisms in a particular area. The living and
physical components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
Ecosystems are of any size, but usually they are in particular places.
Structure of an Ecosystem:
An ecosystem consists of 2 components:
(1) Abiotic components:
The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the
abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour
and inter-relationship of organisms. Abiotic factors are light, temperature, water, nutrients,
topography, etc.
Abiotic components are mainly of three types:
(A) Inorganic Substances: Inorganic substances like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water,
carbon-di-oxide, calcium, phosphorus and their inorganic compounds. These are available as
free form or dissolved in water and maybe absorbed on the soil particles.
(B) Organic Compounds: These are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids etc. This
material is present in dead organic matter. These are broken into the simple compounds by
decomposers in ecosystem for recycling of matter.
(C) Climatic Factors: These are factors present in the environment such as temperature,
humidity, light, wind, rainfall, and atmospheric gaseous etc.

(2) Biotic components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi)
that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.
(A) Producers: The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar
energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic
compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photo-synthesis. As
the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs.
The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own
growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.

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(B) Consumers: The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food.
There-fore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs.
The consumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores: These are the animals
which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores. Examples are rabbit, deer,
goat, cattle etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores: The
animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats,
foxes, snakes etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers: These are the large carnivores which
feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores: These are the
largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other
animal. Examples are lions and tigers.
(C) Decomposers or Reducers: Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They break down
the dead organic materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and
re-lease to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-
products of their metabolisms.

Food Chain and Characteristics of Food Chain:

This sequential interlinking of organisms involving the transfer of food energy from the
producers, through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is called
the food chain.
The biotic components of the ecosystem are linked to each other through the food chain. In a
typical food chain, producers are at the bottom and their role is to provide food for the rest of
the community utilizing solar energy. Other organisms belong to the consumers and finally,
decomposers are present at the bottom to recycle the organic content. In this manner, a
nutritive interaction of relationship exists between the living organisms of an ecosystem. It is
always straight and always follows a progressive straight line. The flow of energy is also
unidirectional, from the sun to the producer and then a different series of consumers. In a
typical food chain, there are always 4 or 5 trophic level in the food chain. The distinct
sequential steps in the straight food chains are referred as different trophic levels. For
example, green plants stand at the first trophic level; the herbivorous are the second trophic
level; and flesh eaters represent the third trophic level. The position of plant is at the bottom
but the position of other organisms varies to different trophic levels in different food chains.

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The typical representative food chains are given in the Figure – 01.

Figure – 01: An Overview of Relationship Between Different Organism in Ecosystem

Types of Food Chain:

There are two different types of food chain.
(i) Grazing Food Chain: In the grazing food chain, solar energy is entrapped by the plants
and then biomass, in turn eaten by the herbivorous, and these are subsequently been
consumed by a variety of carnivorous. These are longer food chain and these food chains end
at the decomposer level.
Here are two typical examples of this type of food chain to understand this type of food
chain.
(1) Food Chain in a Pond: In a pond, floated or rooted plants and algae are responsible for
performing photosynthesis to prepare food for other member of ecosystem. They represent
producers in the food chain (Figure 02). Unicellular algae are consumed by protozoan, water
flies, snail, mosquito larvae and tadpoles. These small organisms represent primary
consumers. These organisms are eaten by hydra, dragonfly larvae, giant insects and small
fishes. These are secondary consumers. Large fishes and frog fed on these organisms and
represent tertiary consumers. Frog and fishes are eaten by snakes, birds and these are
quaternary consumers. Death of all these organisms become the food for bacteria and fungus
to produce simple inorganic materials for reuse by the producers.

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 Figure – 02: Food Chain in a Pond

(2) Food Chain on Land: A typical land food chain is given in Figure 03. In land food chain,
grass and tree are the producers. Grass is eaten by rabbit and other herbivorous. They
represents the primary consumers. Rabbit is eaten by cats (secondary consumers), which in-
turn eaten by wolves (tertiary consumers). Both cat and wolves will be consumed by tigers
and other big carnivorous (quaternary consumers). Death of all these organisms become the
food for bacteria and fungus to produce simple inorganic materials for reuse by the
producers.

Figure – 03: Food Chain on Land

(ii) Detritus Food Chain: Unlike grazing food chain, detritus food chain starts with the dead
organic matter either from fallen leaves or dead animal bodies. This food chain doesn’t
depend on solar energy. Common example of detritus food chain is marsh land where
mangrove leaves fall into the warm, shallow water (Figure 04). The detritus eating animals
ex. Bacteria, fungi and protozoan act upon the dead matter of dead leaves to convert them
into simple inorganic substances. The detritivores are subsequently eaten by insect larvae,
grass shrimp, copepods, crabs, nematodes, bivalve molluscs, amphipods, mysids etc. In the
last step, the detritus consumers are finally eaten by fishes.

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Distinction between Two Food Chains: The distinction between these two food chains is
the source of energy for the first level consumers. In the grazing food chain, the primary
source of energy is living plant biomass while in the detritus food chain, the source of energy
is dead organic matter or detritus. The food chains are linked. The initial energy source for
detritus food chain is the waste materials and dead organic matter from the grazing food
chain.
Food Web: A food chain represents only one part of the food or energy flow through an
ecosystem and implies a simple, isolated relationship, which seldom occurs in the
ecosystems.
An ecosystem may consist of several interrelated food chains. More typically, the same food
resource is part of more than one chain, especially when that resource is at the lower trophic
levels.
A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in
an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of the food.
If any of the intermediate food chains are removed, the succeeding links of the chain will be
affected largely. The food web provides more than one alternative for food to most of the
organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival.
For example, grasses may serve food for rabbits or grasshoppers or goats or cows. Similarly,
a herbivore may be the food source for many carnivorous species.
Also, food availability and preferences of food of the organisms may shift seasonally e.g., we
eat watermelon in summer and peaches in the winter. Thus, there are interconnected networks
of feeding relationships that take the form of food webs.

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 Lecture: 03 Biodiversity
What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity is defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are a part; this include diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
Biodiversity is considered to exist at three levels: genetics, species and ecosystems.
(a) Genetic Diversity:
▪ Genetic diversity is the sum total of genetic information, contained in the genes of
individuals of plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit the earth.
▪ It is needed by any species in order to maintain reproductive vitality, resistance to
disease and the ability to adapt to changing conditions.
▪ It enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection.
▪ The amount of genetic variation is the basis of speciation.
▪ Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability.
▪ Such genetic variability has made it possible to produce new breed of crops plants and
domestic animals, and in the world allowed species to adapt to changing conditions.
(b) Species Diversity:
▪ It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth.
▪ A group of organisms genetically so similar, that they can interbreed and produce
fertile off-springs is called a species.
▪ The species diversity is usually measured in terms of the total number of species
within discrete geographical boundaries.
▪ Species are distinct units of diversity each playing a specific role in the ecosystem.
▪ In nature, both the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals
per species vary, leading to greater diversity.
(c) Ecosystem Diversity:
It is defined by the species that occupy a particular locality and the interactions between
them. It represents the collective response of species to different environmental conditions.
Biological communities such as deserts, grasslands, wetlands, and forest support the
continuity of proper ecosystem functioning by providing ecological beneficial services to
people.
Causes of Biodiversity Loss:
Loss of biodiversity occurs when either a particular species is destroyed or the habitat
essential for its survival is damaged. The later is more common because habitat destruction is
inevitable fallout of development.
The extinction of species takes place when they are exploited for economic gain or hunted as
sport or for food. Extinction of species may also occur due to environmental reasons like
ecological substitutions, biological factors and pathological causes which can be caused
either by nature or man.

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 ✓ Natural Causes:
▪ Floods
▪ Earthquakes
▪ Landslides
▪ Rivalry among species
▪ Lack of pollination and diseases

✓ Manmade Causes:
▪ Habitat destruction
▪ Uncontrolled commercial exploitation
▪ Hunting and Poaching
▪ Conversion of rich biodiversity site for human settlement and industrial development
▪ Extension of agriculture
▪ Pollution
▪ Filling up of wetlands
▪ Destruction of coastal areas
Measurement of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is measured by two major components:
i. Species Richness
ii. Species Evenness
(i) Species Richness:
It is the measure of number of species found in a community.
a) Alpha Diversity:
It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, and is usually expressed by the
number of species in that ecosystem.
b) Beta Diversity:
It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually measured as the change in
amount of species between the ecosystems.
Calculation of Beta Diversity:
Beta Diversity = (s1-c) + (s2-c)
Where,
s1 = Total number of species in the first environment
s2 = Total number of species in the second environment
c = The number of species that the two environments have in common
Example:
Two environments have a total of 12 species: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L
In environment 1 there are 10 species: A-J

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In environment 2 there are 7 species: F-L
Both environments have F-J; they have 5 species in common.
So, Beta Diversity = (10-5) + (7-5) = 7
That is, there are seven species which are either only in environment one or only in
environment two.
c) Gamma Diversity:
It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region.
(ii) Species Evenness:
It measures the proportion of species at a given site, e.g., low evenness indicates that a few
species dominate the site.
Importance of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons. Biodiversity is also considered by

many to have intrinsic value—that is, each species has a value and a right to exist, whether or
not it is known to have value to humans. The biodiversity book by the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation describes 5 core values that humans place
on biodiversity:

• Economic—biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption and

production. Many livelihoods, such as those of farmers, fishers and timber workers,
are dependent on biodiversity.
• Ecological life support—biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply
oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater treatment
and many ecosystem services.
• Recreation—many recreational pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as
birdwatching, hiking, camping and fishing. Our tourism industry also depends
on biodiversity.
• Cultural—the Australian culture is closely connected to biodiversity through the
expression of identity, through spirituality and through aesthetic appreciation.
Indigenous Australians have strong connections and obligations to biodiversity arising
from spiritual beliefs about animals and plants.
• Scientific—biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that help us
to understand the natural world and its origins.

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 Lecture: 04 Sustainable Development Goals

What is Sustainable Development?

✓ Sustainable Development is the development which will allow all future generations
to have a potential average quality of life, that is, at least as high, which is being
enjoyed by the current generation.
✓ According to the commission, sustainable development refers to the development, that
meets the need for the present, without compromising the ability of future
generations, to meet their own needs.
✓ The basic aim of sustainable development is to ensure that present generation should
leave stock of ‘quality of life’ for the next generation, which is no less than what we
have inherited.
What is Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?
The Sustainable Development Goals, also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by the
United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and
ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
What is the intention behind the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?
The SDGs are an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which
aims at fostering a more sustainable future.

This agenda intends to counteract global problems, such as poverty, inequality, climate,
environmental degradation, and justice.

It is built on the assumptions that:

• Economic prosperity, social progress and environmental protection go hand in hand

and must be brought together. Thus, all the SDGs are interconnected and have to be
jointly pursued.
• A collective effort involving various actors (governments, corporations and the civil
society) is needed to transform our global society. The SDGs are seen as a means
to federate the efforts of these different actors around a common aspiration. The 17th
SDG is crucial in this regard: It explicitly stresses the need for novel multi-
stakeholder and cross-sectorial partnerships. Without this, the ambition of solving the
world’s grand challenges will be impossible to achieve.

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals to transform our world:

1) No Poverty
2) Zero Hunger
3) Good Health and Well-being
4) Quality Education
5) Gender Equality
6) Clean Water and Sanitation
7) Affordable and Clean Energy

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8) Decent Work and Economic Growth
9) Infrastructure, Industry and Innovation
10) Reduced Inequalities
11) Sustainable Cities and Communities
12) Sustainable Consumption and Production
13) Climate Action
14) Life below Water
15) Life on Land
16) Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
17) Partnerships for the Goods

Goal: 01 No Poverty

Targets and Indicators:

1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as
people living on less than $1.25 a day

(1) Proportion of population below the international poverty line, by sex, age,
employment status and geographical location (urban/rural)

1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages
living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions

(1) Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by sex and age
(2) Proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its
dimensions according to national definitions

1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all,
including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable

(1) Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems, by sex,

distinguishing children, unemployed persons, older persons, persons with
disabilities, pregnant women, new-borns, work-injury victims and the poor
and the vulnerable
1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have
equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and
control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate
new technology and financial services, including microfinance

(1) Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services

(2) Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land, with
legally recognized documentation and who perceive their rights to land as
secure, by sex and by type of tenure
1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce
their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic,
social and environmental shocks and disasters

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 (1) Number of deaths, missing persons and persons affected by disaster per
100,000 people
(2) Direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product
(GDP)
(3) Number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies
(4) Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk
reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
1.a Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including through
enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for
developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and
policies to end poverty in all its dimensions

(1) Proportion of resources allocated by the government directly to poverty reduction

programmes
(2) Proportion of total government spending on essential services (education, health
and social protection)
1.b Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based
on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment
in poverty eradication actions

(1) Proportion of government recurrent and capital spending to sectors that

disproportionately benefit women, the poor and vulnerable groups

Goal: 02 Zero Hunger

Targets and Indicators:

2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in
vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round
(1) Prevalence of undernourishment
(2) Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the
Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally
agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the
nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons
(1) Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of
the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children
under 5 years of age
(2) Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from
the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of
age, by type (wasting and overweight)

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 (3) Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status
(percentage)
2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers,
in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including
through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge,
financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment
(1) Volume of production per labour unit by classes of farming/pastoral/forestry
enterprise size
(2) Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status
2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural
practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that
strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and
other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
(1) Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture
2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and
domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and
diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and
promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of
genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed
(1) Number of (a) plant and (b) animal genetic resources for food and agriculture
secured in either medium- or long-term conservation facilities
(2) Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk, not-at-risk or at unknown
level of risk of extinction
2.a Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural
infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and
plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in
developing countries, in particular least developed countries
(1) The agriculture orientation index for government expenditures
(2) Total official flows (official development assistance plus other official flows) to
the agriculture sector
2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets,
including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all
export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha
Development Round
(1) Agricultural export subsidies
2.c Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their
derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in
order to help limit extreme food price volatility

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 (1) Indicator of food price anomalies

Goal: 03 Good Health and Well-Being

Targets and Indicators:

3.1 By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.
(1) Maternal mortality ratio
(2) Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths of new-borns and children under 5 years of age, with all
countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and
under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births.
(1) Under-five mortality rate
(2) Neonatal mortality rate
3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical
diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases.
(1) Number of new HIV infections per 1,000 uninfected population, by sex, age and
key populations
(2) Tuberculosis incidence per 1,000 population
(3) Malaria incidence per 1,000 population
(4) Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000 population
(5) Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases
3.4 By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases
through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being.
(1) Mortality rate attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic
respiratory disease
(2) Suicide mortality rate
3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug
abuse and harmful use of alcohol.
(1) Coverage of treatment interventions (pharmacological, psychosocial and
rehabilitation and aftercare services) for substance use disorders
(2) Harmful use of alcohol, defined according to the national context as alcohol per
capita consumption (aged 15 years and older) within a calendar year in litres of pure
alcohol

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3.6 By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents.
(1) Death rate due to road traffic injuries
3.7 By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services,
including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive
health into national strategies and programmes.
(1) Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15-49 years) who have their need
for family planning satisfied with modern methods
(2) Adolescent birth rate (aged 10-14 years; aged 15-19 years) per 1,000 women in
that age group
3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality
essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential
medicines and vaccines for all.
(1) Coverage of essential health services (defined as the average coverage of essential
services based on tracer interventions that include reproductive, maternal, new-born
and child health, infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases and service capacity
and access, among the general and the most disadvantaged population)
(2) Proportion of population with large household expenditures on health as a share of
total household expenditure or income
3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous
chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination.
(1) Mortality rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution
(2) Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene
(exposure to unsafe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All (WASH) services)
(3) Mortality rate attributed to unintentional poisoning
3.a Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention
on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate.
(1) Age-standardized prevalence of current tobacco use among persons aged 15 years
and older
3.b Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable
and noncommunicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to
affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the
TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use
to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to
medicines for all.
(1) Proportion of the target population covered by all vaccines included in their
national programme

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 (2) Total net official development assistance to medical research and basic health
sectors
(3) Proportion of health facilities that have a core set of relevant essential medicines
available and affordable on a sustainable basis
3.c Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and
retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed
countries and small island developing States.
(1) Health worker density and distribution
3.d Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early
warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks.
(1) International Health Regulations (IHR) capacity and health emergency
preparedness
(2) Percentage of bloodstream infections due to selected antimicrobial-resistant
organisms

Goal: 04 Quality Education

Targets and Indicators:

4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and
secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes
(1) Proportion of children and young people: (a) in grades 2/3; (b) at the end of
primary; and (c) at the end of lower secondary achieving at least a minimum
proficiency level in (i) reading and (ii) mathematics, by sex
(2) Completion rate (primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary
education)
4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood
development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education
(1) Proportion of children aged 24–59 months who are developmentally on track in
health, learning and psychosocial well-being, by sex
(2) Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary entry
age), by sex
4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical,
vocational and tertiary education, including university
(1) Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and
training in the previous 12 months, by sex

18
4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills,
including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship
(1) Proportion of youth and adults with information and communications technology
(ICT) skills, by type of skill
4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of
education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities,
indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations
(1) Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others
such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become
available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated
4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and
women, achieve literacy and numeracy
(1) Percentage of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of
proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex
4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote
sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable
development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture
of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of
culture’s contribution to sustainable development
(1) Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable
development, including gender equality and human rights, are mainstreamed at all
levels in: (a) national education policies, (b) curricula, (c) teacher education and
(d) student assessment
4.a Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and
provide safe, nonviolent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all
(1) Proportion of schools offering basic services, by type of service
4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to
developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States
and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and
information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific
programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries
(1) Volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships by sector and
type of study
4.c By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through
international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least
developed countries and small island developing states
(1) Proportion of teachers with the minimum required qualifications, by education
level

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Goal: 05 Gender Equality

Targets and Indicators:

5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
(1) Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor
equality and non-discrimination on the basis of sex
5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private
spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation
(1) Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to
physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in
the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age
(2) Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual
violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age
and place of occurrence
5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female
genital mutilation
(1) Proportion of women aged 20-24 years who were married or in a union before age
15 and before age 18
(2) Proportion of girls and women aged 15-49 years who have undergone female
genital mutilation/cutting, by age
5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public
services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared
responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate
(1) Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and
location
5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at
all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life
(1) Proportion of seats held by women in (a) national parliaments and (b) local
governments
(2) Proportion of women in managerial positions
5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as
agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on
Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents
of their review conferences
(1) Proportion of women aged 15-49 years who make their own informed decisions
regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care

20
 (2) Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee women aged 15-49
years access to sexual and reproductive health care, information and education
5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to
ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance
and natural resources, in accordance with national laws
(1) (a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over
agricultural land, by sex; and (b) share of women among owners or rights-bearers of
agricultural land, by type of tenure
(2) Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law)
guarantees women’s equal rights to land ownership and/or control
5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications
technology, to promote the empowerment of women
(1) Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex
5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of
gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels
(1) Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for
gender equality and women’s empowerment

Goal: 06 Clean Water and Sanitation

Targets and Indicators:

6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for
all
(1) Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services
6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end
open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in
vulnerable situations
(1) Proportion of population using safely managed sanitation services, including a
hand-washing facility with soap and water
6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated
wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
(1) Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated
(2) Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality

21
6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure
sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially
reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
(1) Change in water-use efficiency over time
(2) Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available
freshwater resources
6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including
through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
(1) Degree of integrated water resources management implementation (0-100)
(2) Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water
cooperation
6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests,
wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
(1) Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time
6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing
countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse
technologies
(1) Amount of water- and sanitation-related official development assistance that is
part of a government-coordinated spending plan
6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and
sanitation management
(1) Proportion of local administrative units with established and operational policies
and procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation
management

Goal: 07 Affordable and Clean Energy

Targets and Indicators:

7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services
(1) Proportion of population with access to electricity
(2) Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology
7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix
(1) Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption

22
7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency
(1) Energy intensity measured in terms of primary energy and GDP
7.a By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research
and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner
fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy
technology
(1) International financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy
research and development and renewable energy production, including in hybrid
systems
7.b By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and
sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed
countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in
accordance with their respective programmes of support
(1) Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing countries (in watts
per capita)

Goal: 08 Decent Work and Economic Growth

Targets and Indicators:

8.1 Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in
particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed
countries
(1) Annual growth rate of real GDP per capita
8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological
upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-
intensive sectors
(1) Annual growth rate of real GDP per employed person
8.3 Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job
creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and
growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial
services
(1) Proportion of informal employment in non-agriculture employment, by sex
8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and
production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in
accordance with the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and
production, with developed countries taking the lead
(1) Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
(2) Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and
domestic material consumption per GDP

23
8.5 By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and
men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of
equal value
(1) Average hourly earnings of female and male employees, by occupation, age and
persons with disabilities
(2) Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
8.6 By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or
training
(1) Proportion of youth (aged 15-24 years) not in education, employment or training
8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery
and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child
labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its
forms
(1) Proportion and number of children aged 5-17 years engaged in child labour, by
sex and age
8.8 Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers,
including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious
employment
(1) Fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 workers, by sex and migrant
status
(2) Level of national compliance with labour rights (freedom of association and
collective bargaining) based on International Labour Organization (ILO) textual
sources and national legislation, by sex and migrant status
8.9 By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs
and promotes local culture and products
(1) Tourism direct GDP as a proportion of total GDP and in growth rate
8.10 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand
access to banking, insurance and financial services for all
(1) Number of commercial bank branches and automated teller machines (ATMs) per
100,000 adults
(2) Proportion of adults (15 years and older) with an account at a bank or other
financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider
8.a Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed
countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related
Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries
(1) Aid for Trade commitments and disbursements

24
8.b By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and
implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization
(1) Existence of a developed and operationalized national strategy for youth
employment, as a distinct strategy or as part of a national employment strategy

Goal: 09 Infrastructure, Industry and Innovation

Targets and Indicators:

9.1 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and
transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a
focus on affordable and equitable access for all
(1) Proportion of the rural population who live within 2 km of an all-season road
(2) Passenger and freight volumes, by mode of transport
9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise
industry’s share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national
circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries
(1) Manufacturing value added as a proportion of GDP and per capita
(2) Manufacturing employment as a proportion of total employment
9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in
developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration
into value chains and markets
(1) Proportion of small-scale industries in total industry value added
(2) Proportion of small-scale industries with a loan or line of credit
9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with
increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound
technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with
their respective capabilities
(1) CO2 emission per unit of value added
9.5 Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in
all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation
and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million
people and public and private research and development spending
(1) Research and development expenditure as a proportion of GDP
(2) Researchers (in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitant

25
9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries
through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least
developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States
(1) Total official international support (official development assistance plus other
official flows) to infrastructure
9.b Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing
countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial
diversification and value addition to commodities
(1) Proportion of medium and high-tech industry value added in total value added
9.c Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to
provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020
(1) Proportion of population covered by a mobile network, by technology

Goal: 10 Reduced Inequalities

Targets and Indicators:

10.1 By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of
the population at a rate higher than the national average
(1) Growth rates of household expenditure or income per capita among the bottom 40
per cent of the population and the total population
10.2 By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all,
irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status
(1) Proportion of people living below 50 per cent of median income, by age, sex and
persons with disabilities
10.3 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating
discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies
and action in this regard
(1) Proportion of the population reporting having personally felt discriminated against
or harassed within the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination
prohibited under international human rights law
10.4 Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively
achieve greater equality
(1) Labour share of GDP
(2) Redistributive impact of fiscal policy

26
10.5 Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and
strengthen the implementation of such regulations
(1) Financial Soundness Indicators
10.6 Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-making
in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective,
credible, accountable and legitimate institutions
(1) Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international
organizations
10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people,
including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies
(1) Recruitment cost borne by employee as a proportion of yearly income earned in
country of destination
(2) Number of countries with migration policies that facilitate orderly, safe, regular
and responsible migration and mobility of people
(3) Number of people who died or disappeared in the process of migration towards an
international destination
(4) Proportion of the population who are refugees, by country of origin
10.a Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in
particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade Organization
agreements
(1) Proportion of tariff lines applied to imports from least developed countries and
developing countries with zero-tariff
10.b Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct
investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries,
African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in
accordance with their national plans and programmes
(1) Total resource flows for development, by recipient and donor countries and type
of flow (e.g., official development assistance, foreign direct investment and other
flows)
10.c By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and
eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent
(1) Remittance costs as a proportion of the amount remitted

27
Goal: 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities

Targets and Indicators:

11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic
services and upgrade slums
(1) Proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate
housing
11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems
for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to
the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and
older persons
(1) Proportion of population that has convenient access to public transport, by sex,
age and persons with disabilities
11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory,
integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries
(1) Ratio of land consumption rate to population growth rate
(2) Proportion of cities with a direct participation structure of civil society in urban
planning and management that operate regularly and democratically
11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage
(1) Total per capita expenditure on the preservation, protection and conservation of all
cultural and natural heritage, by source of funding (public, private), type of heritage
(cultural, natural) and level of government (national, regional, and local/municipal)
11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected
and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic
product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the
poor and people in vulnerable situations
(1) Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to
disasters per 100,000 population
(2) Direct economic loss in relation to global GDP, damage to critical infrastructure
and number of disruptions to basic services, attributed to disasters
11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by
paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management
(1) Proportion of urban solid waste regularly collected and with adequate final
discharge out of total urban solid waste generated, by cities
(2) Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter (e.g. PM2.5 and PM10) in cities
(population weighted)

28
11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public
spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities
(1) Average share of the built-up area of cities that is open space for public use for all,
by sex, age and persons with disabilities
(2) Proportion of persons victim of physical or sexual harassment, by sex, age,
disability status and place of occurrence, in the previous 12 months
11.a Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban
and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning
(1) Number of countries that have national urban policies or regional development
plans that (a) respond to population dynamics; (b) ensure balanced territorial
development; and (c) increase local fiscal space
11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting
and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency,
mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and
implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030,
holistic disaster risk management at all levels
(1) Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction
strategies in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030
(2) Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk
reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
11.c Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance,
in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials

Goal: 12 Responsible Consumption and Production

Targets and Indicators:

12.1 Implement the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and

production, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into
account the development and capabilities of developing countries

(1) Number of countries developing, adopting or implementing policy instruments

aimed at supporting the shift to sustainable consumption and production

12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources

(1) Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
(2) Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and
domestic material consumption per GDP

29
12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce
food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses

(1) (a) Food loss index and (b) food waste index

12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes
throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and
significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse
impacts on human health and the environment

(1) Number of parties to international multilateral environmental agreements on

hazardous waste, and other chemicals that meet their commitments and obligations in
transmitting information as required by each relevant agreement
(2) (a) Hazardous waste generated per capita; and (b) proportion of hazardous waste
treated, by type of treatment

12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling
and reuse

(1) National recycling rate, tons of material recycled

12.6 Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt

sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle

(1) Number of companies publishing sustainability reports

12.7 Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national
policies and priorities

(1) Degree of sustainable public procurement policies and action plan implementation

12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness
for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature

(1) Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable
development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c)
teacher education; and (d) student assessment

12.a Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to
move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production

(1) Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing countries (in watts

per capita)

12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for
sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products

(1) Implementation of standard accounting tools to monitor the economic and

environmental aspects of tourism sustainability

30
12.c Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption by
removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by
restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect
their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of
developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a
manner that protects the poor and the affected communities

(1) Amount of fossil-fuel subsidies (production and consumption) per unit of GDP

Goal: 13 Climate Action

Targets and Indicators:

13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural
disasters in all countries

(1) Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to
disasters per 100,000 population
(2) Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction
strategies in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030
(3) Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk
reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies

13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning

(1) Number of countries with nationally determined contributions, long-term

strategies, national adaptation plans and adaptation communications, as reported to
the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(2) Total greenhouse gas emissions per year

13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate
change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning

(1) Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable
development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c)
teacher education; and (d) student assessment
(2) Number of countries that have communicated the strengthening of institutional,
systemic and individual capacity-building to implement adaptation, mitigation and
technology transfer, and development actions

13.a Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100
billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the

31
context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully
operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible

(1) Amounts provided and mobilized in United States dollars per year in relation to
the continued existing collective mobilization goal of the $100 billion commitment
through to 2025

13.B Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning
and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including
focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities

(1) Number of least developed countries and small island developing States with
nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans
and adaptation communications, as reported to the secretariat of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change

Goal: 14 Life Below Water

Targets and Indicators:

14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular
from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution

(1) (a) Index of coastal eutrophication; and (b) plastic debris density

14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid
significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for
their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans

(1) Number of countries using ecosystem-based approaches to managing marine areas

14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced
scientific cooperation at all levels

(1) Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling
stations

14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based
management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to
levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological
characteristics

(1) Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels

14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with
national and international law and based on the best available scientific information

32
 (1) Coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areas

14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity
and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated
fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and
effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries
should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation

(1) Degree of implementation of international instruments aiming to combat illegal,

unreported and unregulated fishing

14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least
developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through
sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism

(1) Sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP in small island developing States,

least developed countries and all countries

14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine
technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria
and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and
to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing
countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries

(1) Proportion of total research budget allocated to research in the field of marine
technology

14.b Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets

(1) Degree of application of a legal/regulatory/policy/institutional framework which

recognizes and protects access rights for small‐scale fisheries

14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as reflected in UNCLOS, which provides the legal framework
for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in
paragraph 158 of The Future We Want

(1) Number of countries making progress in ratifying, accepting and implementing

through legal, policy and institutional frameworks, ocean-related instruments that
implement international law, as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans and their
resources

33
Goal: 15 Life on Land

Targets and Indicators:

15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and
inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains
and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements

(1) Forest area as a proportion of total land area

(2) Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are
covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type

15.2 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests,
halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and
reforestation globally

(1) Progress towards sustainable forest management

15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected
by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world

(1) Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area

15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity,
in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable
development

(1) Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity

(2) Mountain Green Cover Index

15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the
loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species

(1) Red List Index

15.6 Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed

(1) Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy
frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits

15.7 Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and
fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products

(1) Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked

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15.8 By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the
impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the
priority species

(1) Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately

resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species

15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning,
development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts

(1)
(a) Number of countries that have established national targets in accordance with or
similar to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–
2020 in their national biodiversity strategy and action plans and the progress reported
towards these targets; and
(b) integration of biodiversity into national accounting and reporting systems, defined
as implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting

15.a Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and
sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems

(1) (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of

biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-
relevant economic instruments

15.b Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable
forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such
management, including for conservation and reforestation

(1)
(a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity; and
(b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic
instruments

15.c Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected
species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable
livelihood opportunities

(1) Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked

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Goal: 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions

Targets and Indicators:

16.1 Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere

(1) Number of victims of intentional homicide per 100,000 population, by sex and age
(2) Conflict-related deaths per 100,000 population, by sex, age and cause
(3) Proportion of population subjected to (a) physical violence, (b) psychological
violence and (c) sexual violence in the previous 12 months
(4) Proportion of population that feel safe walking alone around the area they live

16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of
children

(1) Proportion of children aged 1–17 years who experienced any physical punishment
and/or psychological aggression by caregivers in the past month
(2) Number of victims of human trafficking per 100,000 population, by sex, age and
form of exploitation
(3) Proportion of young women and men aged 18–29 years who experienced sexual
violence by age 18

16.3 Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access
to justice for all

(1) Proportion of victims of violence in the previous 12 months who reported their
victimization to competent authorities or other officially recognized conflict
resolution mechanisms
(2) Unsentenced detainees as a proportion of overall prison population
(3) Proportion of the population who have experienced a dispute in the past two years
and who accessed a formal or informal dispute resolution mechanism, by type of
mechanism

16.4 By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery
and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime

(1) Total value of inward and outward illicit financial flows (in current United States
dollars)
(2) Proportion of seized, found or surrendered arms whose illicit origin or context has
been traced or established by a competent authority in line with international
instruments

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16.5 Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms

(1) Proportion of persons who had at least one contact with a public official and who
paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials,
during the previous 12 months
(2) Proportion of businesses that had at least one contact with a public official and
that paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials
during the previous 12 months

16.6 Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels

(1) Primary government expenditures as a proportion of original approved budget, by

sector (or by budget codes or similar)
(2) Proportion of population satisfied with their last experience of public services

16.7 Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all

levels

(1) Proportions of positions in national and local institutions, including (a) the
legislatures; (b) the public service; and (c) the judiciary, compared to national
distributions, by sex, age, persons with disabilities and population groups
(2) Proportion of population who believe decision-making is inclusive and responsive,
by sex, age, disability and population group

16.8 Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of
global governance

(1) Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international

organizations

16.9 By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration

(1) Proportion of children under 5 years of age whose births have been registered with
a civil authority, by age

16.10 Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance
with national legislation and international agreements

(1) Number of verified cases of killing, kidnapping, enforced disappearance, arbitrary

detention and torture of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists and
human rights advocates in the previous 12 months
(2) Number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/or
policy guarantees for public access to information

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16.A Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation,
for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence
and combat terrorism and crime

(1) Existence of independent national human rights institutions in compliance with the
Paris Principles

16.B Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable development

(1) Proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or

harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination
prohibited under international human rights law

Goal: 17 Partnerships for the Goals

Targets and Indicators:

Finance

17.1 Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to

developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection

(1) Total government revenue as a proportion of GDP, by source

(2) Proportion of domestic budget funded by domestic taxes

17.2 Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance

commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target
of 0.7 per cent of ODA/GNI to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI
to least developed countries ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to
provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries

(1) Net official development assistance, total and to least developed countries, as a
proportion of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Development Assistance Committee donors’ gross national income (GNI)

17.3 Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources

(1) Foreign direct investment, official development assistance and South-South

cooperation as a proportion of gross national income
(2) Volume of remittances (in United States dollars) as a proportion of total GDP

17.4 Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through

coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring, as
appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt
distress

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 (1) Debt service as a proportion of exports of goods and services

17.5 Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries

(1) Number of countries that adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for
developing countries, including the least developed countries

Technology

17.6 Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation
on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on
mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing
mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology
facilitation mechanism

(1) Fixed Internet broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, by speed

17.7 Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally

sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional
and preferential terms, as mutually agreed

(1) Total amount of funding for developing countries to promote the development,
transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies

17.8 Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation
capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of
enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology

(1) Proportion of individuals using the Internet

Capacity building

17.9 Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-building
in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the sustainable
development goals, including through North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation

(1) Dollar value of financial and technical assistance (including through North-South,
South-South and triangular cooperation) committed to developing countries

Trade

17.10 Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral

trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion of
negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda

(1) Worldwide weighted tariff-average

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17.11 Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to
doubling the least developed countries’ share of global exports by 2020

(1) Developing countries’ and least developed countries’ share of global exports

17.12 Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting
basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization decisions,
including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from least
developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access

(1) Weighted average tariffs faced by developing countries, least developed countries
and small island developing States

Systemic issues

Policy and institutional coherence

17.13 Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and
policy coherence

(1) Macroeconomic Dashboard

17.14 Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development

(1) Number of countries with mechanisms in place to enhance policy coherence of

sustainable development

17.15 Respect each country’s policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies
for poverty eradication and sustainable development

(1) Extent of use of country-owned results frameworks and planning tools by

providers of development cooperation

Multi-stakeholder partnerships

17.16 Enhance the global partnership for sustainable development, complemented by multi-
stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology and
financial resources, to support the achievement of the sustainable development goals in all
countries, in particular developing countries

(1) Number of countries reporting progress in multi-stakeholder development

effectiveness monitoring frameworks that support the achievement of the sustainable
development goals

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17.17 Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships,
building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships

(1) Amount in United States dollars committed to public-private partnerships for

infrastructure

Data, monitoring and accountability

17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least
developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the
availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age,
race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics
relevant in national contexts

(1) Statistical capacity indicator for Sustainable Development Goal monitoring

(2) Number of countries that have national statistical legislation that complies with the
Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics
(3) Number of countries with a national statistical plan that is fully funded and under
implementation, by source of funding

17.19 By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on

sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support statistical
capacity-building in developing countries

(1) Dollar value of all resources made available to strengthen statistical capacity in
developing countries
(2) Proportion of countries that (a) have conducted at least one population and
housing census in the last 10 years; and (b) have achieved 100 per cent birth
registration and 80 per cent death registration

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 Lecture: 05 Green House and Green House Effect

What is Greenhouse Effect?

The greenhouse effect is a good thing. It warms the planet to its comfortable average of 59
degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius) and keeps life on earth, well, liv-able. Without it the
world would be a frozen, uninhabitable place, more like Mars. The problem is, mankind’s
voracious burning of fossil fuels for energy is artificially amping up the natural greenhouse
effect. The result? An increase in global warming that is altering the planet’s climate systems
in countless ways. Here’s a look at what the greenhouse effect is, what causes it, and how we
can temper its contributions to our changing climate.
What is the Greenhouse Effect?
Identified by scientists as far back as 1896, the greenhouse effect is the natural warming of
the earth that results when gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun that would
otherwise escape into space.
What causes the Greenhouse Effect?
Sunlight makes the earth habitable. While 30 percent of the solar energy that reaches our
world is reflected back to space, approximately 70 percent passes through the atmosphere to
the earth’s surface, where it is absorbed by the land, oceans, and atmosphere, and heats the
planet. This heat is then radiated back up in the form of invisible infrared light. While some
of this infrared light continues on into space, the vast majority—indeed, some 90 percent—
gets absorbed by atmospheric gases, known as greenhouse gases, and redirected back toward
the earth, causing further warming.
The higher concentrations of greenhouse gases—and carbon dioxide in particular—is causing
extra heat to be trapped and global temperatures to rise.
What are Greenhouse Gases?
Earth’s greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and warm the planet. The main gases
responsible for the greenhouse effect include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
water vapor (which all occur naturally), and fluorinated gases (which are synthetic).

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Five Major Greenhouse Gases:

The most significant gases that cause global warming via the greenhouse effect are the
following:

• Carbon Dioxide

Accounting for about 76 percent of global human-caused emissions, carbon dioxide (CO 2)
sticks around for quite a while. Once it’s emitted into the atmosphere, 40 percent still remains
after 100 years, 20 percent after 1,000 years, and 10 percent as long as 10,000 years later.

• Methane

Although methane (CH 4) persists in the atmosphere for far less time than carbon dioxide
(about a decade), it is much more potent in terms of the greenhouse effect. In fact, pound for
pound, its global warming impact is 25 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-
year period. Globally it accounts for approximately 16 percent of human-generated
greenhouse gas emissions.

• Nitrous Oxide

Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is a powerful greenhouse gas: It has a GWP 300 times that of carbon
dioxide on a 100-year time scale, and it remains in the atmosphere, on average, a little more
than a century. It accounts for about 6 percent of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions
worldwide.

• Fluorinated Gases

Emitted from a variety of manufacturing and industrial processes, fluorinated gases are man-
made. There are four main categories: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3).

Although fluorinated gases are emitted in smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
(they account for just 2 percent of man-made global greenhouse gas emissions), they trap
43
substantially more heat. Indeed, the GWP for these gases can be in the thousands to tens of
thousands, and they have long atmospheric lifetimes, in some cases lasting tens of thousands
of years.

• Water Vapor

The most abundant greenhouse gas overall, water vapor differs from other greenhouse gases
in that changes in its atmospheric concentrations are linked not to human activities directly,
but rather to the warming that results from the other greenhouse gases we emit. Warmer air
holds more water. And since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, more water absorbs more heat,
inducing even greater warming and perpetuating a positive feedback loop. (It’s worth noting,
however, that the net impact of this feedback loop is still uncertain, as increased water vapor
also increases cloud cover that reflects the sun’s energy away from the earth.)

Where do Greenhouse Gases come from?

Population size, economic activity, lifestyle, energy use, land use patterns, technology, and
climate policy: According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), these
are the broad forcings that drive nearly all human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. Here’s a
closer look at greenhouse gas emissions by source.

• Electricity and Heat Production:

The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas to produce electricity and heat accounts for one-
quarter of worldwide human-driven emissions, making it the largest single source. In the
United States it’s the second-largest (behind transportation), responsible for about 27.5
percent of U.S. emissions in 2017, with carbon dioxide the primary gas released (along with
small amounts of methane and nitrous oxide), mainly from coal combustion.

• Agriculture and Land Use Changes:

About another quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions stem from agriculture and other
land-use activities (such as deforestation). In the United States, agricultural activities—
primarily the raising of livestock and crops for food—accounted for 8.4 percent of
greenhouse gas emissions in 2017. Of those, the vast majority were methane (which is
produced as manure decomposes and as beef and dairy cows belch and pass gas) and nitrous
oxide (often released with the use of nitrogen-heavy fertilizers). Trees, plants, and soil absorb
carbon dioxide from the air. The plants and trees do it via photosynthesis (a process by which
they turn carbon dioxide into glucose); the soil houses microbes that carbon binds to. So non-
agricultural land-use changes such as deforestation, reforestation (replanting in existing
forested areas), and afforestation (creating new forested areas) can either increase the amount
of carbon in the atmosphere (as in the case of deforestation) or decrease it via absorption,
removing more carbon dioxide from the air than they emit. (When trees or plants are cut
down, they no longer absorb carbon dioxide, and when they are burned or decompose, they
release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.) In the United States, land-use activities
currently represent a net carbon sink, absorbing more carbon dioxide from the air than they
emit.

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 • Industry:

About one-fifth of global human-driven emissions come from the industrial sector, which
includes the manufacturing of goods and raw materials (like cement and steel), food
processing, and construction. In 2017, industry accounted for 22.4 percent of U.S. man-made
emissions, of which the majority was carbon dioxide, though methane, nitrous oxide, and
fluorinated gases were also released.

• Transportation:

The burning of petroleum-based fuels, namely gasoline and diesel, to power the world’s
transportation systems accounts for 14 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. In the
United States, with Americans buying larger cars and taking more flights and with low gas
prices encouraging drivers to use their cars more, transportation is the largest contributor of
greenhouse gases. (It accounted for 28.7 percent of U.S. emissions in 2017.) Carbon dioxide
is the primary gas emitted, though fuel combustion also releases small amounts of methane
and nitrous oxide, and vehicle air conditioning and refrigerated transport release fluorinated
gases too.

Nationwide, cars and trucks are responsible for more than 80 percent of transportation-related
carbon emissions.

• Buildings:

Operating buildings around the world generates 6.4 percent of global greenhouse gases. In
the United States, homes and businesses accounted for about 11 percent of warming
emissions. These emissions, made up mostly of carbon dioxide and methane, stem primarily
from burning natural gas and oil for heating and cooking, though other sources include
managing waste and wastewater and leaking refrigerants from air-conditioning and
refrigeration systems.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Country:

Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, more than 2,000 billion tons of carbon dioxide
have been released into the atmosphere by human activities, according to the Global Carbon
Project. North America and Europe are responsible for approximately half of that total, while
the emerging economies of China and India have contributed another 14 percent. For the
remainder, 150-plus countries share responsibility.

An analysis of carbon dioxide emissions by country today shows that China now leads the
pack, responsible for 27 percent of all emissions. Next comes the United States (15 percent),
the European Union’s 28 member states including the United Kingdom (10 percent), and
India (7 percent) next. Together, these global powers account for almost 60 percent of all
emissions.

The Consequences of the Greenhouse Effect

Between preindustrial times and now, the earth’s average temperature has increased 1.8
degrees Fahrenheit (1.0 degrees Celsius), with approximately two-thirds of that warming
occurring in the last handful of decades alone. If warming trends continue at the current rate,

45
it’s estimated global warming will reach 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius) above
preindustrial levels between 2030 and 2052.

Fuel-ed by man-made greenhouse gas emissions, global warming is altering the earth’s
climate systems in many ways. It is:

• Causing more frequent and/or intense extreme weather events, including heat
waves, hurricanes, droughts, and floods.
• Exacerbating precipitation extremes, making wet regions wetter and dry regions drier.
• Raising sea levels due to melting glaciers and sea ice and an increase in ocean
temperatures (warmer water expands, which can contribute to sea level rise).
• Altering ecosystems and natural habitat, shifting the geographic ranges, seasonal
activities, migration patterns, and abundance of land, freshwater, and marine species.

The Greenhouse Effect Solution:

In other words, humans are the problem. But we may also be the solution. According to the
IPCC, we must decrease greenhouse gas pollution by 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030
and reach net zero emissions by 2050. To allow global warming to exceed 1.5 degrees
Celsius (which the IPCC has identified as the threshold for avoiding climate change’s worst
impacts) would mean more intense drought, extreme heat, flooding, and poverty, the decline
of species (including a mass die-off of the world’s coral reefs), and the worsening of food
shortages and wildfires.

Reducing our greenhouse gas emissions will require significant effort at the international,
national, and local levels. First and foremost, we must slash fossil fuel production,
consumption, and pollution by ramping up our use of clean, renewable energy and energy-
efficient technologies and by investing in fuel-efficient and electric vehicles.

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 Lecture: 06 Ozone Layer & Climate Change

What is an Ozone Layer?

The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere. It has the
potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun
that can damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent, millions of people would
develop skin diseases and may have weakened immune systems.
Ozone Layer Depletion:
“Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous bromine or
chlorine from industries or other human activities.”
What is Ozone Layer Depletion?
Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere. This
happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with ozone
and destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is
destroyed more quickly than it is created.
Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet light, which
then contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such compounds are known as Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODS).
The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon
tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone
depleting substances that contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromo
fluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is only when the
chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not react with ozone.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The
main causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:
• Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are released
by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet
radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
• Unregulated Rocket Launches
Researchers say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more depletion of
the ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the
ozone layer by the year 2050.

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 • Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO 2 , NO, N 2 O are highly responsible for the
depletion of the ozone layer.
• Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-spots
and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.
The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
• Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
“Ozone-depleting substances are the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons, halons, carbon
tetrachloride, hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone
layer.”
Following is the list of some main ozone-depleting substances and the sources from
where they are released:
Ozone Depleting Substances Sources
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents,
dry-cleaning agents, etc.
Halons Fire-extinguishers
Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents
Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols
Hydrofluorocarbons Fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the major
effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.
• Effects on Human Health
Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the
depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such
as skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.
• Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
• Effects on the Environment
Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants.
The forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.

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 • Effects on Marine Life
Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in
the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain
are also affected.
Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion
The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programmers have been
launched by the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps should be
taken at the individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:
• Avoid Using ODS
Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g., avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators
and air conditioners, replacing the halon-based fire extinguishers, etc.
• Minimise the Use of Vehicles
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as
ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.
• Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way
into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural
products to protect the environment.
• Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is
adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of
nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use is minimized at the individual
level as well.
What is Climate Change?
The planet’s climate has constantly been changing over geological time, with significant
fluctuations of global average temperatures.
However, this current period of warming is occurring more rapidly than any past events. It
has become clear that humanity has caused most of the last century’s warming by releasing
heat-trapping gases—commonly referred to as greenhouse gases—to power our modern lives.
We are doing this through burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land-use and other activities
that drive climate change. Greenhouse gases are at the highest levels they have ever been
over the last 800,000 years. This rapid rise is a problem because it’s changing our climate at a
rate that is too fast for living things to adapt to.
Climate change involves not only rising temperatures, but also extreme weather events, rising
sea levels, shifting wildlife populations and habitats, and a range of other impacts.

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What causes Climate Change?
There is an overwhelming scientific consensus that global warming is mostly man-made:
climate scientists have come to this conclusion almost unanimously.
One of the biggest drivers by far is our burning of fossil fuels – coal, gas and oil – which has
increased the concentration of greenhouse gases – such as carbon dioxide – in our
atmosphere. This, coupled with other activities like clearing land for agriculture, is causing
the average temperature of our planet to increase. In fact, scientists are as certain of the link
between greenhouse gases and global warming as they are of the link between smoking and
lung cancer.
In 1992, 165 nations signed an international treaty, the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC). They have held meetings annually ever since (called
“Conference of the Parties” or COP), with the aim of developing goals and methods to reduce
climate change as well as adapt to its already visible effects. Today, 197 countries are bound
by the UNFCCC.
What are the effects of Climate Change?
The Wilmington community, they are mostly low income, so the heat waves are very
detrimental because they cannot afford air-conditioning. And because they are still close to
the refineries and to oil extraction, they have to shut their windows.
The effects of climate change are already being felt now, but they will get worse. Global
warming has reached approximately 1°C above pre-industrial levels. Every half degree (or
even less) of global warming counts.
The oceans will continue to warm and acidify, and global mean sea level will continue to rise.
All of this will have, and is already starting to have, a devastating impact on human life.
Who is impacted the most by Climate Change?
You say you love your children above all else, and yet you are stealing their future in front of
their very eyes.
Climate change is and will continue to harm all of us unless governments take action.
However, its effects are likely to be much more pronounced for certain groups – for example,
those communities dependent on agricultural or coastal livelihoods – as well as those who are
generally already vulnerable, disadvantaged and subject to discrimination.
These are some of the ways climate change can and is exacerbating inequalities:
• Between developed and developing nations
• Between different ethnicities and classes
• Between genders
• Between generations
• Between communities
Why is Climate Change a human right issue?
The dramatic impacts of climate change have exposed with devastating clarity, how integral a
healthy environment is to the enjoyment of all our other rights.

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Human rights are intimately linked with climate change because of its devastating effect on
not just the environment but our own wellbeing. In addition to threatening our very existence,
climate change is having harmful impacts on our rights to life, health, food, water, housing
and livelihoods.
The longer governments wait to take meaningful action, the harder the problem becomes to
solve, and the greater the risk that emissions will be reduced through means that increase
inequality rather than reduce it.
These are some of the ways climate change is impacting and will impact our human
rights:
Right to life – We all have the right to life, and to live in freedom and safety. But climate
change threatens the safety of billions of people on this planet. The most obvious example is
through extreme weather-related events, such as storms, floods and wildfires. In 2019,
cyclones in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe killed more than 1,000 people, while
Typhoon Haiyan claimed at least 6,300 lives in the Philippines in 2013. Heat stress is among
the most-deadly impacts. The summer heatwave in Europe in 2003 resulted in the deaths of
35,000 people. However, there are many other less visible ways that climate change threatens
lives. The World Health Organization predicts that climate change will cause 250,000 deaths
per year between 2030 and 2050, due to malaria, malnutrition, diarrhoea and heat stress.
Right to health – We all have the right to enjoy the highest attainable standard of physical
and mental health. According to the IPCC, the major health impacts of climate change will
include greater risk of injury, disease and death due to more intense heatwaves and fires;
increased risk of under-nutrition as a result of diminished food production in poor regions;
and increased risks of food- and water-borne diseases, and vector-borne diseases. Children
exposed to traumatic events such as natural disasters, exacerbated by climate change, can
suffer from post-traumatic stress disorders. The health impacts of climate change demand an
urgent response, with unmitigated warming threatening to undermine health systems and core
global health objectives.
Right to housing – We all have a right to an adequate standard of living for ourselves and
our families, including adequate housing. However, climate change threatens our right to
housing in a variety of ways. Extreme weather events like floods and wildfires are already
destroying people’s homes, leaving them displaced. Drought, erosion and flooding can also
over time change the environment whilst sea-level rises threaten the homes of millions of
people around the world in low-lying territories. Drought, erosion and flooding can also over
time change the environment whilst sea-level rises threaten the homes of millions of people
around the world in low-lying territories.
Rights to water and to sanitation – We all have the right to safe water for personal and
domestic use and to sanitation that ensures we stay healthy. But a combination of factors such
as melting snow and ice, reduced rainfall, higher temperatures and rising sea levels show that
climate change is affecting and will continue to affect the quality and quantity of water
resources. Already more than one billion people do not have access to clean water, and
climate change will make this worse. Extreme weather events such as cyclones and floods
affect water and sanitation infrastructure, leaving behind contaminated water and thus

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contributing to the spread of water-borne diseases. Sewage systems, especially in urban areas,
will also be affected.
Who is responsible for stopping Climate Change?
After placing plaintiffs in a position of climate danger, defendants have continued to act with
deliberate indifference to the known danger they helped create and enhance. A destabilized
climate system poses unusually serious risks of harm to plaintiff’s lives and their bodily
integrity and dignity.
• States
States have the obligation to mitigate the harmful effects of climate change by taking the
most ambitious measures possible to prevent or reduce greenhouse emissions within the
shortest possible time-frame. While all countries must take all reasonable steps to reduce
emissions to the full extent of their abilities, wealthy states must lead the way, by
decarbonizing their economies more quickly than developing countries.
States must also take all necessary steps to help everyone within their jurisdiction to adapt to
the foreseeable and unavoidable effects of climate change, thus minimizing the impact of
climate change on their human rights. This is true irrespective of whether the state is
responsible for those effects, because states have an obligation to protect people from harms
caused by third parties.
States must take steps to tackle climate change as fast and as humanely as possible. In their
efforts to address climate change, they must not resort to measures that directly or indirectly
violate human rights. For example, conservation areas or renewable energy projects must not
be created on the lands of Indigenous peoples without consulting them and getting their
consent.
Wealthy states must provide sufficient financing and support to developing countries to allow
them to meet ambitious emission reduction targets and implement effective climate change
adaptation measures. States most responsible for the climate crisis must also provide
compensation and other forms of remedies for the losses and damages people have already
suffered due to the climate crisis.
All states must take steps to tackle climate change as fast and as humanely as possible. In
their efforts to address climate change, they must not resort to measures that directly or
indirectly violate human rights. For example, conservation areas or renewable energy projects
must not be created on the lands of Indigenous peoples without consulting them and getting
their consent. The transition to a zero-carbon economy must be just and lead to a more equal
society, rather than putting most of the costs and burdens on those least able to carry them.
In all measures, states should respect the right to information and participation for all affected
people, as well as their right to access effective remedies for human rights abuses.
However, the current pledges made by governments to mitigate climate change are
completely inadequate, as they would lead to a catastrophic 2.7°C increase in average global
temperatures over pre-industrial levels by 2100. People, including children, in many countries
around the world are using human rights arguments to take their governments to court for
their failure to establish sufficient climate change mitigation targets and measures. In several

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cases, including Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, courts have already ruled in their
favour.
• Corporations
Businesses also have a responsibility to respect human rights. To meet this responsibility,
companies must assess the potential effects of their activities on human rights and put in
place measures to prevent negative impacts. They must make such findings and any
prevention measures public. Companies must also take measures to remedy human rights
abuses they cause or to which they contribute, either by themselves or in cooperation with
other actors. Such responsibilities extend to human rights harms resulting from climate
change.
Corporations, and particularly fossil fuel companies, must also immediately put measures in
place to minimize greenhouse emissions – including by shifting their portfolio towards
renewable energy produced in a manner compatible with human rights– and make relevant
information about their emissions and mitigation efforts public. These efforts must extend to
all the major subsidiaries, affiliates and entities in their supply chain.
Fossil fuel companies have been historically among the most responsible for climate change
and this continues today. Research shows that just 100 fossil fuel-producing companies are
responsible for 71% of global greenhouse gas emissions since 1988. There is growing
evidence that major fossil fuel companies have known for decades about the harmful effects
of burning fossil fuels and have attempted to suppress that information and block efforts to
tackle climate change.
The global agro-industrial food system and the large-scale plantations on which it depends,
are often associated with high greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation and land degradation,
as well as forced evictions of Indigenous Peoples, attacks on environmental activists and
other human rights violations.
Private financial institutions, such as banks, asset managers and insurance companies, also
play a key role in driving the climate crisis, especially when they fund fossil fuel companies
and businesses linked to deforestation without any climate-related conditions.
Why do we need to stop Climate Change?
• Because we all deserve equal protection.
We are all born with fundamental human rights, yet these rights are under grave threat from
climate change. While climate change threatens all of our lives in some way or other, people
who experience discrimination are among those likely to be the worst affected. We are all
equally deserving of protection from this universal threat.
• Because there is nothing to lose from acting, and everything to gain.
Fighting the climate crisis gives us a chance to put the wellbeing of people first by ensuring a
right to a healthy environment. This will give us an opportunity to enhance human rights, for
example by enabling more people to access cleaner and cheaper energy resources and create
job opportunities in new sectors.

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 • Because we have the knowledge, power and ability to stop climate change.
Many people are already working on creative, inspiring and innovative solutions to address
climate change. From citizens to companies to cities, there are people all over the world
actively working on policies and campaigns and solutions that will protect people and the
planet. Indigenous peoples and minority communities have for centuries developed
sustainable ways of living with the environments that they call home. We can learn from
them and, with their consent, benefit from their know-how to inform our own efforts to find a
different way of interacting with our planet.
Our Demands:
Amnesty is calling for governments to:
• Do everything they can to help stop the global temperature rising by more than 1.5°C.
• Collectively reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to absolute zero before or by
2050. Richer countries should do this faster. By 2030, global emissions must be half
as much as they were in 2010.
• Stop using and producing fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) as quickly as possible.
• Make sure that climate action is done in a way that does not violate anyone’s human
rights, and reduces rather than increases inequality
• Make sure everyone, in particular those affected by climate change or the transition to
a fossil-free economy, is properly informed about what is happening and is able to
participate in decisions about their futures.
• Work together to fairly share the burden of climate change – richer countries must
provide financial and technical support to people in developing countries who have
suffered and will continue to suffer losses and damages caused by the climate crisis.
• Safeguard the rights of those displaced or at risk of displacement due to climate
change.

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 Lecture: 07 Environmental Pollution
What is Environmental Pollution?
Environmental pollution is the contamination of the physical & biological components of the
earth/atmospheric system to such an extent that normal environmental process are adversely
effected.
Components of Environment:
• Atmosphere (Air)
• Hydrosphere (Water)
• Lithosphere (Soil)
• Biosphere (living components of the environment)
Sources of Environmental Pollution:
• Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and animals. These fuels are found in the
Earth's crust and contain carbon and hydrogen, which can be burned for energy. Coal, oil, and
natural gas are examples of fossil fuels.
• Non-Fossil Fuels
Some well-known alternative fuels include bio-diesel, bio-alcohol (methanol, ethanol,
butane), refuse-derived fuel, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen,
non-fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, propane and other biomass sources.
Types of Pollution:
• Air Pollution
• Water Pollution
• Soil Pollution
• Noise Pollution
What is Pollutants?
Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause adverse effect on the natural quality of
any component of the environment.
Classifications of Pollutants:
From an ecological perspective, pollutants can be classified as degradable, slowly
degradable and non-degradable.
• Degradable Pollutants
These pollutants can be broken down rapidly by natural process e.g., domestic waste, garbage
and sewage etc.

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 • Slowly Degradable Pollutants
These pollutants remain in the environment for a long period of time, in unchanged condition,
may for more than few decades e.g., pesticides, aerosols etc.
• Non-Degradable Pollutants
These pollutants never get degrade by any process, e.g., toxic elements like lead, mercury,
nuclear waste etc.
Characteristics of Pollutants:
• Pollutants don’t recognise boundary i.e., they are transboundary.
• Many of them cannot be degraded by living organisms and therefore, stay in the
ecosphere for many years.
• They destroy biota and habitat.

❖ Air Pollution
➢ Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical,
physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
➢ Sources of Air Pollution
▪ Burning Fossil Fuels- carbon dioxide , carbon sulphur dioxide
▪ Emissions from Automobiles- CO, unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide
▪ Industries- CO, SO3, NO, Hydrocarbons
▪ Agricultural Activities- Ammonia, Hydrogen sulfide, Toxic Organic compounds,
pesticides
▪ Natural Causes- Sulfur & Chlorine gases from volcanic activity
▪ Wars- different types of weapons & booms
➢ Effects of Air Pollution:
▪ Acid rain
▪ Chlorosis and Defoliation of leaves
▪ The photochemical smog destroys plant vegetation
➢ Control of Air Pollution:
▪ Avoid burning leaves, trash, and other materials
▪ Reduce the number of trips you take in your car
▪ Reduce or eliminate fireplace and wood stove use

❖ Water Pollution
➢ It includes water contamination by pollutants such as bacterial, chemical and particular
that reduces the purity of the water.
➢ Sources of Water Pollution
▪ Industrial effluents- industrial wastes, textiles, sugar and fertilizers factories, oil
refineries etc. all produced chemical pollution
▪ Agricultural source- Use of chemical fertilizer
▪ Mineral oils- Oil from oil spills and washings of automobiles

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 ▪ Domestic sewage- household’s wastes, washing, clothes and cleaning bathrooms and
latrines and water-based paints.
➢ Effects of Water Pollution
▪ Effect of Organic Pollution on Water Quality
▪ Death of aquatic (water) animals
▪ Diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid
▪ Destruction of ecosystems
➢ Control of Water Pollution
▪ Prevent river water to get polluted by stopping throw-out waste and chemical
pollutant into the river
▪ Avoid boats that use harmful fuels
▪ Keep the pond water clean and safe
▪ Controlling throw-out waste oil from ship & boat

❖ Soil Pollution
➢ Soil pollution is defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants)
in soil, in high enough concentrations to pose a risk to human health and/or the
ecosystem.
➢ Sources of Soil Pollution
▪ Chemicals present in industrial waste
▪ Pesticides and insecticides that are sprayed on crops
▪ Acid rain
➢ Effects of Soil Pollution
▪ Larger loss of soil and nutrients
▪ Clogging of drains
▪ Public health problems
▪ Pollution of drinking water sources
➢ Control of Soil Pollution
▪ Use of pesticides should be minimized
▪ Reduce toxic materials
▪ Recycle waste materials

❖ Noise Pollution
➢ Noise pollution is unwanted sound dumped into the atmosphere without regard to the
adverse effects it may have.
➢ Sources of Noise Pollution
▪ Motors, horns, heavy and light machinery, work and movement, blaring radios,
supersonic aero planes have become disturbing and irritant. These all causes of noise
pollution.
➢ Effects of Noise Pollution
▪ Noise-induced hearing loss
▪ Tinnitus, hypertension, vasoconstriction
▪ Cardiovascular adverse effects

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 ➢ Control of Noise Pollution
▪ Shut the door when using noisy machines
▪ Lower the volume
▪ Stay away from noisy area
▪ Control noise level near sensitive areas

❖ Pollution in Bangladesh
✓ According to the World Bank, 26 percent of all deaths each year are due to
environmental pollution-related illnesses. But the situation in the world averages only
16 percent.
✓ An unauthorized brick kiln named SK Bricks in Tangail's Mirpur Upozila has lost
about 30 acres of paddy due to toxic gas.
✓ Recently Bangladesh has become the first in Noise Pollution
✓ For Shitakundo Fire Tragedy, there is a probability to become acid rain inside the areas
of Chittagong

❖ Decomposition & Treatment of Environment Pollutants

✓ The wastes, which have explosiveness, toxicity, infectious, and possibility to cause
damage to other people's health and environments, are provided the special
management municipal wastes or the special management industry wastes.
✓ Renewable energy
✓ Actual /Appropriate use of fossil fuel
✓ Solar energy
✓ Using Air mill/Wind mill
✓ All the treatment processes from collection to disposal is done under strict
management
✓ Develop the new degradation and treatment method for biological and chemical
weapons

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