CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
In Africa Maize (Zea mays L.) are maximum grown cereal and ate up cereal plants
followed through wheat, sorghum and rice (Danho et al., 2002) . It covered small
land vicinity than different cereal plants produced with excessive yield according
to unit area of approximately [Link] tonnes according to hectare (Ofori et al.,
2004) . The maize grain had 70-seventy two% digestible carbohydrate, four -
[Link]% fat and 9.5-11% proteins (Ofori et al., 2004) [
In many countries about sixty six% of maize is used for formation of livestock
feed, human intake used 25% and 9% for other purposes (Danho et al., 2002).
Maize (Zea mays) is predominantly grown in Kaduna, Niger, Jos, Benue,
Nasarawa, Kebbi and different a part of Nigeria (Danjumma et al., 2018) . The
fungi spoilage reduces the availability of maize to consumers thereby causing
economic loss to the farmers. Spoilage of maize reduces the nutritional, minerals
and nutrients contents as properly, increasing its allergic potential price and
palatability of the feed (Danjumma et al., 2018) . Postharvest losses commonly
take vicinity for the duration of garage of maize grain; the maize grain is inflamed
via entomo parasites, predators and microorganisms (Neethirajan et al., 2007) .
Such infestations motive a discount in product first-rate and economic loss (Birck
et al., 2003; 2006). fungi and their related secondary metabolites known as
mycotoxins are of excessive problem in grain shipments or storage facilities due to
the production of mildew, odours, the presence of microbial ‘warm-spots’, and the
production of secondary metabolites which could cause next poisoning of meals
and animal feed, hence negatively impacting meals protection (Tefera et al., 2011)
.
There are some of postharvest fungi that could assault and reason damage to grain,
and they can be categorized as: field fungi and garage fungi (Miller, 1995). field
fungi may additionally modify the structure and excellent of seeds or grains
(Chelladurai et al., 2010). these purpose harm to the grain before harvest and might
generally be detected by means of ordinary evaluation. In wellknown, discipline
fungi do now not occur in garage if the grain is saved at suitable moisture contents
and temperatures (Miller, 1995) . storage fungi are those that purpose harm to grain
throughout storage and typically do no longer occur at a extreme stage prior to reap
(Muir and White 2000) .
Mycotoxins produced by way of a few fungi motive a huge wide variety of
illnesses annually and it affected a few important organs and system of human
body (liver and Respitatory and gastro intestinal tract), reason acute toxicosis,
immune disease and growth disorder in kids. most of the people of infections of
animals (e.g persistent aflatoxicoses) on farms are as a result of mycotoxins being
found in terrible fine feed (Zain, 2011) . for example, Aflatoxin B1 is pretty toxic
and is a mighty carcinogen to each people and animals. Fusarium moniliforme
produced Fumonisin B1 (FB1) related to equine leucoencepha-lomalacia and
porcine pulmonary edema (Kellerman et al., 1990, Harrison et al., 1990) [9, 8] ;
these infections were located in livestock once they had fed on spoilt maize grain.
Durin storage length maize grains are related to fungi spoilage in Birnin Kebbi
causing scarcity and economic unfastened. loss of records on fungi related to
storage maize grain. therefore this prone the research work to isolate and become
aware of fungi associated with garage maize in Birnin Kebbi North western part of
Nigeria.
What meals is extra synonymous with summon than freshly picked corn at the
cob? Corn grows in “ears, each of that's protected in rows of kernels which might
be then protected with the aid of the silk-like threads known as “corn silk” and
encased in a husk. Corn is understood scientifically as Zea Mays. This moniker
reflects its traditional name, Maize, with the aid of which it turned into regarded to
the local americans as well as many different cultures throughout the world.
although we often accomplice corn with the color yellow, it genuinely is available
in host of various types providing an array of different colorings, along with red,
pink, black, red and blue. even though corn is now available in markets years
spherical, it's miles the regionally grown sorts that you should buy throughout the
summer time months that no longer only tastes the best but are typically the least
highly-priced (Pitt and Hocking, et al., 2009).
From the time whilst primitive guy started to domesticate vegetation and shop
food, spoilage fungi have demanded their tithe. Fuzzes, powders and slimes of
white or black, green, orange, red and brown are signs of silently invading,
acidifying, fermenting, discoloring and disintegrating microbes rending
commodities unpalatable or hazardous (Pitt and Hocking 2002). Pitt and Hocking
2009, additionally stated that during a prophetic article warned of the threat from
not unusual spoilage fungi. given that 1960, a apparently infinite dream of
pathogenic fungi located. On those floor alone, the declaration “it's far best a
mould” is not proper to microbiologist, fitness inspectors or clients. The demand
for correct identity and characterization of meals spoilage fungi has come to be
urgent.
This studies paintings is centered on corn and its spoilage organisms. It got down
to document present day understanding at the interaction of corn and fungi in the
context of spoilage. area covered are how the fungi is remoted the use of the best
quality media and identity of corn spoilage fungi. Mycologist develops preference
and peculiarities of the sort of fungi that are mechanically grown. Media will
affect colony morphology and colour whether or not specific systems are formed
or not, and may have an effect on whether or not the fungus may be even in
tradition (Hunt et al, 2004).
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Corn (Zea Mays) is a grain grown by farmers in various parts of the world
especially in Africa. Its spoilage most times limits its availability to consumers
and causes economic waste to farmers. Corn is mostly spoiled by fungi. The
identification and characterization of these spoilage organisms will go a long way
to profer solution on matter how little to this problem of corn spoilage.
1.2 AIMS/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To microbiologically evaluate and identify fungi involved in corn spoilage using
maize as case study.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The study will help in the acquisition of the knowledge of fungi associated or
involved in the spoilage of corn, factors that enhance spoilage of corn and the risk
involved in the consumption of spoilt corn.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Microorganisms are omnipresent in nature, interacting with plants, animals, and
humans to sustain their existence. While some interactions are beneficial, most are
harmful, causing diseases and food spoilage. Fungi, particularly filamentous fungi,
have significant economic implications due to their ability to spoil food and
produce toxic secondary metabolites (mycotoxins).
Maize (Zea mays L.) is a vital cereal globally, ranking third in production after
wheat and rice. It serves as a primary food source, livestock feed, and international
trade commodity. Over 200 million people consume maize daily, with demand
projected to increase by 300 million tons by 2030.
In South Africa, maize is the second-largest crop and primary staple food. It's
consumed directly or processed into various products. The daily maize intake in
South Africa can reach 400g per person.
The North-West province is South Africa's second-largest maize producer.
However, fungal contamination and spoilage of maize pose significant concerns,
given its importance as a staple food, livestock feed, and export crop.
The increasing global focus on food safety, coupled with climate change,
necessitates constant monitoring of fungal contamination in crops to ensure a
secure food supply. Molecular techniques, such as PCR-based methods, facilitate
species identification through genetic diversity analysis. The Internal Transcribed
Spacer (ITS) region is a reliable marker for distinguishing fungal species.
This study aimed to assess the fungal contamination of maize in North-West
Province, South Africa, to ensure food quality. Fungal spoilage reduces maize's
nutritional value, palatability, and increases its allergenic potential, potentially
leading to mycotoxin contamination.
Maize, one of humanity's oldest cultivated crops, is susceptible to fungal growth in
the field and storage. Fungal contamination is a significant safety concern globally,
particularly in tropical regions. Toxigenic fungi invading maize are categorized
into field and storage fungi, each requiring specific conditions.
Field fungi invade maize before harvest, producing toxins under high humidity and
moisture. Storage fungi, including Fusarium, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Aspergillus,
and Tilletia species, invade during storage and require lower moisture content.
Storage fungi cause discoloration, dry matter loss, chemical changes, and reduced
maize quality. In tropical countries, storage fungi account for over 50% of maize
loss, second only to insects.
This study isolated and identified fungi associated with stored corn, determining
their enzyme activity to evaluate the impact on corn's nutritional quality.
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Materials and Methods
3.1 STUDY DESIGN
This study utilized a pass-sectional layout to investigate the superiority and
diversity of fungi associated with maize (Zea mays) in diverse places throughout
Enugu state, Nigeria.
3.2 Area of the Study
The take a look at changed into conducted in Enugu state, which has diverse agro-
ecological zones appropriate for maize cultivation. Sampling sites protected nearby
farms, markets, and storage facilities.
3.3. Sample Collection
• Sampling process: a complete of a hundred maize samples were collected
from exceptional farms and markets inside Enugu country. Samples have been
randomly decided on to ensure a representative distribution of the maize.
• Pattern handling: every maize ear become placed in sterile, resealable plastic
baggage to save you contamination. Samples had been categorized with area and
date of series and transported to the laboratory within 24 hours.
Laboratory evaluation
3.4 FUNGAL ISOLATION
1. Practise of Samples: Maize samples have been surface sterilized by means of
dipping in 70% ethanol for 1 minute, observed by using soaking in 1% sodium
hypochlorite solution for 2 minutes, and rinsing three instances with sterile
distilled water.
2. Inoculation: For fungal isolation, each maize sample turned into sliced into
small pieces (about 1 cm), and five pieces had been positioned in sterile Petri
dishes containing Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) supplemented with
chloramphenicol (to inhibit bacterial growth).
3. Incubation: The inoculated plates were incubated at 25°C for five-7 days,
and fungal boom become monitored day by day.
Identity of Fungi
Fungal isolates had been identified primarily based on their macroscopic and
microscopic traits:
• Macroscopic exam: Observations included colony shade, texture, and
growth rate.
• Microscopic examination: Slide preparations had been made from the fungal
cultures, and systems which include spores, hyphae, and fruiting bodies have been
examined underneath a mild microscope.
Identity keys and manuals, including those by means of Barnett and Hunter (1998),
had been used for correct identification.
3.5 Fungal Quantification
Fungal counts had been decided by using calculating colony-forming units (CFUs)
per gram of maize. the whole wide variety of fungal colonies on the plates changed
into recorded and expressed as CFU/g of maize.
3.6 Information Evaluation
data have been analyzed the usage of statistical software program (e.g., SPSS
model 25). Descriptive statistics were hired to summarize the superiority and
distribution of fungal species. Chi-rectangular assessments were applied to assess
associations between one-of-a-kind variables, consisting of region and fungal
variety, with a importance stage set at p < zero.05.
3.7 Ethical Considerations
Moral approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of [Your Institution].
knowledgeable consent became secured from all participating farmers and market
providers prior to pattern collection.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULTS
A total of 100 maize samples were collected from various locations in Enugu State,
and a comprehensive analysis was conducted to identify and quantify fungal
species associated with the samples. The results are summarized in the tables
below.
Table 4.1: Fungal Species Isolated from Maize Samples
Fungal Species Frequency (%) Mean Count (CFU/g)
Aspergillus flavus 30 4.5 × 10^4
Fusarium verticillioides 25 3.2 × 10^4
Penicillium spp. 20 2.1 × 10^4
Rhizopus stolonifer 15 1.5 × 10^4
Alternaria alternata 10 1.0 × 10^4
Table 4.2: Distribution of Fungal Species by Location
Fusarium Rhizopus Alternaria
Aspergillus Penicillium
Location verticillioides stolonifer alternata
flavus (%) spp. (%)
(%) (%) (%)
Farm A 35 20 25 10 10
Farm B 25 30 15 20 10
Market C 30 25 20 15 10
Storage
20 30 25 10 15
Facility D
4.2 DISCUSSION
The microbial examination of fungi related to maize in Enugu state revealed a
diverse variety of fungal species, with incredible implications for meals protection
and best.
1. Prevalence of Aspergillus flavus: The maximum often remoted fungus
turned into Aspergillus flavus, found in 30% of the samples with an average rely of
four.5 × 10^four CFU/g. This species is understood for generating aflatoxins,
which pose serious health dangers, such as liver toxicity and carcinogenic
outcomes. The excessive incidence in farm samples emphasizes the want for
tracking and control techniques to mitigate aflatoxin infection.
2. Presence of Fusarium verticillioides: This fungus changed into isolated from
25% of the samples and is known to supply fumonisins, which might be associated
with various fitness troubles, including neural tube defects in fetuses. Its presence
highlights the potential risks to pregnant women consuming contaminated maize.
3. Diversity of different Fungal Species: other fungi which include Penicillium
spp., Rhizopus stolonifer, and Alternaria alternata have been also diagnosed. those
species, at the same time as much less widely wide-spread, can contribute to
spoilage and can also produce mycotoxins, which similarly compromise meals
protection.
4. Region-specific Findings: The distribution of fungal species various by
means of location, with Aspergillus flavus being most important in Farm A. This
suggests that certain agricultural practices or environmental conditions may
additionally choose the boom of unique fungi. it's miles essential to assess these
factors for centered intervention strategies.
five. Implications for meals protection: The findings underline the importance of
normal tracking of maize for fungal infection, mainly in regions in which maize is
a staple meals. implementing good agricultural practices and right garage
conditions can help lessen fungal proliferation and next mycotoxin production.
4.3 FINDINGS
In summary, this observe highlights the extensive presence of probably harmful
fungi in maize samples from Enugu country. The major prevalence of Aspergillus
flavus and Fusarium verticillioides raises severe concerns regarding meals
protection and public fitness. effective monitoring and management strategies are
vital to safeguard the fitness of customers, in particular susceptible populations
including pregnant ladies.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The microbial examination of fungi associated with maize in Enugu nation
revealed a significant incidence of various fungal species, mainly Aspergillus
flavus and Fusarium verticillioides, each of which might be known to produce
dangerous mycotoxins. those findings highlight a important food protection
concern, specially given the high consumption of maize in the place and its
importance as a staple food. The diversity of fungi gift shows that maize, if now
not well controlled throughout cultivation and storage, can become a reservoir for
pathogenic organisms that pose risks to human fitness.
5.2 Recommendation
1. Everyday tracking and testing: set up habitual monitoring packages for
fungal contamination in maize at all degrees, from cultivation to storage and
advertising. regular checking out for mycotoxins need to additionally be carried
out to shield public health.
2. Correct Agricultural Practices (gap): encourage farmers to adopt gap,
consisting of crop rotation, proper irrigation strategies, and the usage of resistant
maize sorts. those practices can help lessen fungal infestations and improve typical
crop fitness.
3. Stepped forward storage situations: promote using right storage strategies,
consisting of airtight containers and moisture manage, to minimize the danger of
fungal growth throughout garage. educating farmers and carriers on powerful
storage practices is critical.
4. Public recognition Campaigns: behavior attention applications to educate
farmers, clients, and stakeholders about the dangers of fungal infection and the
importance of food protection. this can empower communities to take proactive
measures in preventing contamination.
5. Studies and improvement: inspire similarly research into modern fungal
manage techniques, along with biological manage agents, herbal fungicides, and
improved crop control techniques, to decorate maize safety and decrease reliance
on chemical remedies.
6. Collaboration with fitness authorities: Foster partnerships between
agricultural and health government to expand integrated techniques for tracking
and coping with food protection dangers related to fungal contamination.
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This manual provides comprehensive methods for the isolation and identification
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Plant Pathology: Principles and Practice. Wiley-Blackwell.
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methods and management strategies.
Pitt, J. I., & Hocking, A. D. (2009). Fungi and Food Spoilage. Springer.
While focused on food spoilage, this book includes information on fungi that can
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Reviews the health implications of mycotoxins produced by fungi found in maize.
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A classic paper detailing the types of fungi that spoil maize and methods for their
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