Physical, Chemical and Rheological test

used to evaluate the quality of wheat flour

Dr. S. S. Shukla
Department of Food Science and Technology
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur - 482 004 (M.P.)
1
 Introduction :
• Wheat is traded across the globe on the basis of several
Physico-chemical characteristics, grain hardness being the
most important.
• Wheat quality is dependent upon soil composition and
environmental factors including temperature, rainfall,
humidity etc.
• Variation in quality parameters like Physico-chemical,
rheological and functional characteristics of wheat
varieties suitable for chapatti making is due to the
differences in soil, environmental conditions and
agronomic practices
• Physical appearance and morphology of wheat
grain is influenced by grain moisture content.
• Estimation of total protein content is the basic
parameter in characterization of wheat flour.
• Full characterization of wheat flour requires
measurement of sedimentation value in
addition to knowhow about the protein and
gluten content of wheat flour.
• The sedimentation value (SDS) indicates
correlation between gluten content, gluten
quality, baking quality and loaf volume.
• Dough rheological characterization is imperative
for both the milling and baking industry. It
predicts flour dough characteristics during
processing and the quality of end products.
• Viscosity and elasticity of the dough are important
rheological parameters of flour. These are crucial
to bakery industry for predicting end use of flour.
• The quality of wheat flours can be defined for
several parameters including protein, moisture,
gluten, sedimentation, enzyme activity and
rheological properties, none of which serves as
adequate by itself.
• Rheology also plays an important role in quality
control, in ingredient and preservative
specifications to be used in elaborated products.
• The rheological properties of a material are
directly related to its processing and consumer
quality.
• The physicochemical tests like gluten content,
ash content, flour color and falling numbers
evaluate important characteristics for the pastry
industry.
• Physico-chemical and functional properties of
wheat flour are influenced either by genotype or
by other non-genetic factors.
Physical Characteristics
1. Grain size
a. The grain length and grain thickness significantly gets affected due to the
differences in wheat varieties while grain width did not differ
significantly among the wheat varieties.
b. The grain size is not only associated with flour yield but it also well
correlates with agronomic yield of wheat varieties
c. Length, width and thickness of wheat grain is measured.
2. Thousand kernel weight
a. In this weight of 1000 grains are taken and noted down as Wheat varieties
differed significantly on basis of thousand kernel weight.
3. Test weight
a. Test weight is the weight of a predetermined volume of grain and confers
rough signal of size and shape of wheat grain and the results were
reported in kg/hL.
b. Flour yield is higher for wheat varieties with high test weight. It is a
rough indicator of flour yield during roller milling and important
technique in all wheat grading systems.
4. Flour Color Analysis
Method
a. A sample of flour is placed on the glass bowl of the Hunter Color Lab
Instrument.
b. The glass bowl is inserted into the Hunter Color Lab attachment.
c. Measurements are taken and recorded.
Results
a. Flour color is determined by measuring the whiteness of a flour sample
with the Minolta Chroma Meter.
b. Flour color results are reported in terms of 3-dimensional color values
based on the following rating scale:
100 white
L* value whiteness
0 black
positive values +60 red color
a* value
negative values –60 green color
positive values +60 yellow color
b* value
negative values –60 blue color
5. Single Kernel Characterization System
Method
a. A sample of wheat kernels (12–16 grams) is prepared by removing broken
kernels, weed seeds, and other foreign material.
b. The sample is poured into the access hopper of the Single Kernel
Characterization System instrument.
c. The SKCS instrument analyzes 300 kernels individually and records the
results on a computer graph.
Results
a. Wheat kernel characteristics are analyzed for: kernel weight by load cell,
kernel diameter and moisture content by electrical current, and kernel
hardness by pressure force.
Chemical Characteristics
1. Moisture
Method
a. A small sample of flour or ground wheat (2–3 grams) is weighed and
placed in a moisture dish.
b. The sample is heated at 130oC in an air oven for 1 hour.
c. The sample is cooled to room temperature and the residue is weighed.
Result
a. Moisture content is determined by heating a flour or ground wheat sample
in an air oven and comparing the weight of the sample before and after
heating.
b. The amount of weight loss is the moisture content.
c. Moisture content results are expressed as %.
2. Crude Protein
Method
a. Place 1g sample in digestion flask. Add 0.7g HgO or 0.65g metallic Hg, 15g
powdered K2SO4 or anhydrous Na2SO4, and 25 ml H2SO4.
b. Place flask in inclined position and heat gently until frothing ceases. If necessary,
add small amount of paraffin to reduce frothing. Boil until solution becomes
clear.
c. Cool to 25°C and add 200ml distilled water. Then add 25 ml of sulfide or
thiosulfate solution and mix to precipitate Hg. Also add few Zn granules to avoid
bumping, tilt flask and add NaOH without agitation.
d. Immediately connect flask to distilling bulb on condenser and with tip of
condenser immersed in standard acid and 5-7 drops indicator in receiver. Rotate
flask to mix contents, then heat until all NH3 had distilled.
e. Remove receiver, wash tip of condenser and titrate excess standard acid in
distillate with standard NaOH solution. Correct for blank determination on
reagent.
Calculation
% Nitrogen (N) = [(ml standard acid normality acid) – (ml standard NaOH
normality NaOH)] × 1.4007/g sample
Multiple % N by 5.7 to get % protein.
3. Total Ash
Total ash is the inorganic residual remaining on incineration in a muffle furnace.
This reflects the quantity of mineral matter present in the flour. Acid insoluble
ash reflects added mineral matter in milled products such as dirt, sand, etc.
Method
a. A sample of flour or ground wheat (3–5 grams) is weighed and placed in an ash
cup.
b. The sample is heated at 585°C in an ash oven until its weight is stable.
c. The residue is cooled to room temperature and then weighed.
Result
a. Ash content results for wheat or flour ash are expressed as a percentage of the
initial sample weight; for example, wheat ash of 1.58% or flour ash of 0.52%.
Wheat or flour ash is usually expressed on a common moisture basis of 14%.
4. Fat Content
Presence of lipids is indispensable for proper gluten development of flour. Fat is
important due to the fact that wheat oil has less shelf stability and quickly it
becomes rancid.
Method
• The sample (5g) is weighed accurately, placed in thimble and plugged with
cotton and the extractor-containing thimble was placed over a pre-weighed
extraction flask (A).
• Fat content was determined by extracting the sample with solvent petroleum
ether (AR grade 60-80°C) for 8hr using Soxhlet’s extraction procedure.
• After extraction the excess of solvent was distilled off and the residual
solvent was removed by heating at 80ºC in oven for 4-6 hr and the flask was
weighted (B).
Calculation

Crude Fat = Wt. of Flask (B) – Wt. of Flask(A) *100 / Wt. of Sample
5. Diastatic Activity and Maltose Value
• The diastatic activity is the test, which reveals the extent to which the
diastatic enzyme alpha-and beta-amylases produce sugars while acting on
starch present in the flour.
• Normally, wheats have sufficient beta-amylase activity but lack in alpha-
amylase activity. However, amylase activity increased thousand folds during
wet harvest or germination.
• The diastatic activity is expressed as mg maltose produced/10 g of flour in
one hour at 30°C. The optimum level is between 2.5 to 3.5 (150 to 350
mg/10.0 g flour).
• It has been reported that the flours with maltose figure of less than 1.5% or
150 mg maltose/10g may tend to be deficient in gassing power. On the other
hand, when the maltose figure is over 2.5% (250 mg per 10 g. flour), there is
a danger of excess gas production so certain amount of diastatic activity in
flour is most essential for bread making.
• For cookie and biscuit making, high diastatic activity is not desirable and the
flour unfit for bread-making purposes due to low diastatic activity can easily
be used for cookie/biscuit making.
6. Damaged Starch
Damaged starch is one, which has been physically damaged during the
milling process. Starch damage also influences water absorption capacity and
dough handling of flour. Damaged starch is readily susceptible to action by
amylolytic enzymes as compared undamaged starch resulting in the
formation of dextrin. Desired level of damaged starch in bread flour should
be 7-9%. Higher damaged starch is not advisable.
Method
a. Bring Alfa amylase solution to 30°C. Weigh 1.0g of flour into 100ml
stopped conical flask and add 45 ml of reagent 4. Keep it in water bath at
30°C for exactly 15 minutes.
b. At the end of 15 minutes, add 3.0ml of sulphuric acid solution and 2.0ml
of sodium tungstate solution. Mix thoroughly, let it stand for 2 minutes and
filter through whatman No. 4 filter paper, discarding first 8-10 drops of
filtrate.
c. Immediately pipette 5.0ml of filtrate into 25×200mm Pyrex test tube
having 10ml of pot ferric acids solution. Immerse test tubes into
vigorously boiling water for 20 minutes.
d. Cool test tubes contents under running tap water and pour at once into 100
or 125ml conical flask. Rinse the test tube with 25 ml of acetic acid salt
solution. Add 1 ml of soluble starch-KI solution. Mix thoroughly and
titrate with [Link] sodium thiosulfate to complete disappearance of blue
color. Run a blank without sample.
Calculation
a. Subtract mg maltose equivalent found from Blank-sample.
b. Result of calculations multiplied by 0.092 equals % damaged starch.
% Damaged starch = mg maltose equivalent (B-S) × 0.082. from table.
B = ml of thiosulphate used for Blank
S = ml of thiosulphate used for sample.
Functional Characteristics
1. Wet gluten
Method
a. 10-gram sample of flour or ground wheat is weighed and placed into the
glutomatic washing chamber on top of the polyester screen.
b. The sample is mixed and washed with a 2% salt solution for 5 minutes.
c. The wet gluten is removed from the washing chamber, placed in the centrifuge
holder, and centrifuged.
d. The residue retained on top of the screen and through the screen is weighed.
Result
a. During centrifugation, the gluten is forced through a sieve. The percentage of
gluten remaining on the sieve is defined as the Gluten Index, which is an
indication of gluten strength. A high gluten index indicates strong gluten.

Perten Gluten Analyzer

2. SDS Sedimentation Test
The wheat flour is treated with lactic acid and sodium dodecyl sulphate
(SDS) solution. SDS neutralizes the charge of proteins and lactic acid makes
the protein strands swell in the solution. Depending upon the quantity and
composition of gluten proteins the flour gives some value of sediment. The
volume of sediment formed when flour is suspended in water containing
lactic acid and SDS is referred to as SDS-sedimentation volume.
Method
a. The sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) sedimentation volume of flour
samples is estimated according to the method of Axford (1978).
b. Flour (5g, 14% moisture basis) is added to water (50ml) in a cylinder, a
stop clock is started and the material dispersed by rapid shaking for 15s.
The contents are re-shaken for 15s at 2min and 4min.
c. Immediately following the last shake, SDS-lactic acid reagent (50ml) is
added, and mixed by inverting the cylinder four times before re-starting
the clock from zero time.
d. The SDS-lactic acid reagent is prepared by dissolving SDS (20g) in
distilled water (1L) and then adding a stock diluted lactic acid solution
(20ml; 1 part lactic acid plus 8 parts distilled water by volume).
e. Inversion (four times) is repeated at 2, 4 and 6min before finally starting
the clock once again from zero time. The contents of the cylinder are
allowed to settle for 40min before reading the sedimentation volume.
3. Falling Number
Method
a. 7-gram sample of ground wheat or flour is weighed and combined with
25 ml of distilled water in a glass falling number tube with a stirrer and
shaken to form a slurry.
b. As the slurry is heated in a boiling water bath at 100oC and stirred
constantly, the starch gelatinizes and forms a thick paste.
c. The time it takes the stirrer to drop through the paste is recorded as the
falling number value.
Results
a. The falling number instrument analyzes viscosity by measuring the
resistance of a flour and water paste to a falling stirrer.
b. Falling number results are recorded as an index of enzyme activity in a
wheat or flour sample and the results are expressed in time as seconds.
c. A high falling number (for example, above 300 seconds) indicates
minimum enzyme activity and sound quality wheat or flour.
d. A low falling number (for example, below 250 seconds) indicates
substantial enzyme activity and sprout-damaged wheat or flour.
4. Alkaline Water Retention Capacity
• The alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) is the amount of alkaline
water retained by flour at 14% moisture under controlled centrifugation
condition.
• The test is actually the weight of the 0.1 N sodium bicarbonate held by a
flour sample following centrifugation.
• The gain in weight is expressed as percent alkaline water retention capacity
of flour.
Method
a. Flour (1 g) is slurried with 0.1 N sodium bicarbonate (5ml). It is then
shaken, allowed to hydrate for 20 min, and centrifuged under specified
and constant time and centrifugal force conditions.
b. The supernatant is decanted, the weight of the wet flour is determined,
and AWRC is calculated.
c. This parameter is important when the water relationships in a product are
critical to product quality.
d. One specific application of this test is as a flour specification to predict
cookie spread. As AWRC increases, cookie spread decreases.
Rheological Characteristics
• Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter. Flow relates to
liquids and deformation relates to solids.
• Dough rheology is a complex system, which involves a number of properties.
The properties of dough have great influence on dough handling and
processing of dough in a plant.
• The instruments used to determine dough rheological properties can broadly
be classified into three categories:
i. Recording dough Mixers: These instruments measure the power needed
to mix dough and measure the resistance of dough to mixing blades. The
important instruments in this category are farinograph and mixograph.
ii. Load extension meters: This type of instrument measures extensibility
and resistance to extension of dough. The extensograph and alveograph
belong to this category.
[Link]: this category of instruments measures viscosity of a
suspension under standard condition of heating and cooling. Example of
instrument in this category is viscoamylograph.
Recording dough Mixers
Mixograph
• The mixograph determines dough and gluten
properties of a flour by measuring the resistance
of a dough against the mixing action of pins.
• Mixograph results include water absorption,
peak time, and mixing tolerance.
• The mixograph curve indicates gluten strength,
optimum dough development time, mixing
tolerance (tolerance to over-mixing), and other
dough characteristics.
• The amount of water added (absorption) affects
the position of the curve on the graph paper. Less
water increases dough consistency and moves
the curve upward.

Method
• A sample of 35 grams of flour on a 14%
moisture basis is weighed and placed in a
mixograph bowl.
• Water is added to the flour from a burette and
the bowl is inserted into the mixograph.
• The flour and water are mixed together to form
a dough.
• As the dough is mixed, the mixograph records a
curve on graph paper.
The Mixograph Test measures and records the
resistance of a dough to mixing with pins.

• Peak Time is the dough development time,

beginning the moment the mixer and the
recorder are started and continuing until the
dough reaches maximum consistency. This
indicates optimum mixing time and is
expressed in minutes.
• Mixing Tolerance is the resistance of the
dough to breakdown during continued mixing
and affects the shape of the curve. This
indicates tolerance to over mixing and is
expressed as a numerical score based on
comparison to a control.

Weak gluten flour has a shorter peak time and less

mixing tolerance than strong gluten flour.
Farinograph
• The Farinograph Test results are used as
parameters in formulation to estimate the amount
of water required to make a dough, to evaluate the
effects of ingredients on mixing properties, to
evaluate flour blending requirements, and to
check flour uniformity.
• The results are also used to predict processing
effects, including mixing requirements for dough
development, tolerance to over mixing, and dough
consistency during production.
Method
• A flour sample of 50 or 300 grams on a 14%
moisture basis is weighed and placed into the
corresponding farinograph mixing bowl.
• Water from a burette is added to the flour and
mixed to form a dough.
• As the dough is mixed, the farinograph records a
curve on graph paper.
• The amount of water added (absorption) affects
the position of the curve on the graph paper. Less
water increases dough consistency and moves
the curve upward.
The Farinograph Test measures and records the resistance of a dough to
mixing with paddles.
Absorption is the amount of water required to center the farinograph
curve on the 500-Brabender Unit (BU) line. This relates to the
amount of water needed for a flour to be optimally processed into
end products. Absorption is expressed as a percentage.
Peak Time indicates dough development time, beginning the
moment water is added until the dough reaches maximum
consistency. This gives an indication of optimum mixing time under
standardized conditions. Peak time is expressed in minutes.
Arrival Time is the time when the top of the curve touches the 500-
BU line. This indicates the rate of flour hydration (the rate at which
the water is taken up by the flour). Arrival time is expressed in
minutes.
Departure Time is the time when the top of the curve leaves the 500-
BU line This indicates the time when the dough is beginning to
break down and is an indication of dough consistency during
processing. Departure time is expressed in minutes.
Stability Time is the difference in time between arrival time and
departure time. This indicates the time the dough maintains
maximum consistency and is a good indication of dough strength.
Stability time is expressed in minutes.
Mixing Tolerance Index (MTI) is the difference in BU value at the
top of the curve at peak time and the value at the top of the curve 5
minutes after the peak. This indicates the degree of softening during
mixing. Mixing tolerance index is expressed in minutes.
Weak gluten flour has a lower water absorption and shorter stability
time than strong gluten flour.
Load extension meters
Extensigraph
• The extensigraph determines the resistance and extensibility
of a dough by measuring the force required to stretch the
dough with a hook until it breaks.
• Extensigraph results include resistance to extension,
extensibility, and area under the curve.
• Resistance to extension is a measure of dough strength. A
higher resistance to extension requires more force to stretch
the dough.
• Extensibility indicates the amount of elasticity in the dough
and its ability to stretch without breaking.

Method
A 300-gram flour sample on a 14% moisture basis is combined with a salt solution and mixed in
the farinograph to form a dough. After the dough is rested for 5 minutes, it is mixed to maximum
consistency (peak time).
• A 150-gram sample of prepared dough is placed on the extensigraph rounder and shaped
into a ball.
• The ball of dough is removed from the rounder and shaped into a cylinder.
• The dough cylinder is placed into the extensigraph dough cradle, secured with pins, and
rested for 45 minutes in a controlled environment.
• A hook is drawn through the dough, stretching it downwards until it breaks.
• The extensigraph records a curve on graph paper as the test is run.
• The same dough is shaped and stretched two more times, at 90 minutes and at 135 minutes.
The Extensigraph Test measures and records the
resistance of a dough to stretching.

Resistance to Extension is the R value and is

indicated by the maximum height of the curve. It is
expressed in centimeters (cc), Brabender units
(BU), or Extensigraph units (EU).
Extensibility is the E value and is indicated by the
length of the curve. It is expressed in millimeters
(mm) or centimeters (cm).
R/E Ratio indicates the balance between dough
strength (resistance to extension) and the extent to
which the dough can be stretched before breaking
(extensibility).
Area Under the Curve is a combination of
resistance and extensibility. It is expressed in
square centimeters (cm2 ).

Weak gluten flour has a lower resistance to extension

(R value) than strong gluten flour.
Alveograph
The alveograph determines the gluten strength of a dough by
measuring the force required to blow and break a bubble of
dough. The results include P Value, L Value, and W Value.
• A stronger dough requires more force to blow and break
the bubble (higher P value).
• A bigger bubble means the dough can stretch to a very
thin membrane before breaking.
• A bigger bubble indicates the dough has higher
extensibility, that is, its ability to stretch before breaking
(L value).
• A bigger bubble requires more force and will have a
greater area under the curve (W value).

Method

• A sample of 250 grams of flour is mixed with a salt solution to form a dough.
• Five 4.5 cm circular dough patties are formed and then rested in the alveograph in a
temperature-regulated compartment at 25°C for approximately 20 minutes.
• Each dough patty is tested individually. The alveograph blows air into a dough patty,
which expands into a bubble that eventually breaks.
• The pressure inside the bubble is recorded as a curve on graph paper.
The Alveograph Test measures and records the
force required to blow and break a bubble of
dough.

P Value is the force required to blow the

bubble of dough. It is indicated by the
maximum height of the curve and is expressed
in millimeters (mm).
L Value is the extensibility of the dough before
the bubble breaks. It is indicated by the length
of the curve and is expressed in millimeters
(mm).
P/L Ratio is the balance between dough
strength and extensibility.
W Value is the area under the curve. It is a
combination of dough strength (P value) and
extensibility (L value) and is expressed in
joules.

Weak gluten flour has lower P values than strong

gluten flour.
Viscometer
Amylograph
This instrument described measures amylase activity
by physical measurement of paste viscosity. The
instrument consists of heating system and a bowl of
500 ml capacity. It has thermometer which is very
sensitive and has mechanism for temperature rise at the
rate of 1.5° C/min. Bowl has sensing element to
monitor temperature. As the temperature rises, starch
granules swell and viscosity begins to increase rapidly.
The maximum paste consistency obtained during the
gelatinization is used as a criterion of amylase activity
of flour.
Method
• A sample of 65 grams of flour is combined with 450 ml of distilled water and
mixed to make a slurry.
• The slurry is stirred while being heated in the amylograph, beginning at 30°C
and increasing at a constant rate of 1.5°C per minute until the slurry reaches
95°C.
• The amylograph records the resistance to stirring as a viscosity curve on
graph paper.
The Amylograph Test measures and
records the resistance of a heated slurry (a
flour and water paste) to the stirring action
of pins.

Peak Viscosity is the maximum resistance

of a heated flour and water slurry to mixing
with pins.

It is expressed in Brabender Units (BU).

Sprouted wheat flour has a lower peak
viscosity than sound flour.
 FSSAI Standard for Wheat
Wheat shall be the dried mature grains of Triticum aestivum Linn. or Triticum
vulgare vill, triticum drum Desf., triticum sphaerococcum perc., Triticum
dicoccum schubl., Triticum Compactum Host. It shall be sweet, clean and
wholesome. It shall also conform to the following standards namely:—
FSSAI Standard for Atta
 Paushtik Atta

Protein rich (Paushtik) atta means the product obtained by mixing wheat atta
with groundnut flour "or soya flour", or a combination of both". flour up to an
extent of 10.0 per cent. It shall be free from insect or fungus infestation, odor
and rancid taste. It shall not contain added flavoring and coloring agents or any
other extraneous matter.
It shall conform to the following standards:—
FSSAI Standard for Refined Wheat Flour
(Maida)
 Paushtik Maida
Protein rich (paushtik) maida means the product obtained by mixing maida
(refined wheat flour) with groundnut flour "or soya flour; or a combination of
both" up to an extent of 10.0 per cent soya flour which is a solvent extracted
flour used in such mix shall be free from insect or fungus infestation, odor and
rancid taste. It shall not contain added flavor and coloring agents or any other
extraneous matter.
It shall conform to the following standards:
 Fortified Maida

Fortified maida means the product obtained by adding one or more of the
following materials to maida, namely:—
a) Calcium carbonate (prepared chalk popularly known as creta
preparata).
b) Iron,
c) Thiamine,
d) Riboflavin, and
e) Niacin

The calcium carbonate powder, if added for fortification, shall be in such

amount that 100 parts by weight of fortified maida shall contain not less than
0.30 and not more than 0.35 parts by weight of calcium carbonate.

It shall be free from Rodent hair and excreta.

Technology of Commercial Production of
Bread, Biscuit, Cake and Noodles

Dr. S. S. Shukla
Department of Food Science and Technology
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur - 482 004 (M.P.)
1
 Introduction

• Bakery products are the readymade food items made up of various ingredients
available anytime when demanded.
• Products like breads, biscuits, cakes, pastries, flat-bread, tortilla, bun, croissant,
patties, etc., due to their pleasant taste and health-benefits are rapidly gaining
popularity.
• Being a traditional activity bakery industry holds an important place in food
processing sector.
• History of bakery is parallel to the history of human civilization.
• Over a period of time human developed expertise in preparing wholesome food
not just for consumption but also to gain energy for physical and mental
activities.
• Bread could have been one of the first foods processed by human as it has been in
around for thousands of years.
• Rustic breads consisted of crushed grain, soaked in water, kneaded and
letting it fermenting with natural yeasts to be baked.
• In world of processed food industry, bakery has been the largest section and
in that bread and biscuits comprises of around 82% of the entire bakery
business employing a large number of people with over a million of
organized small scale bakeries and more than 2000 organized or semi
organized bakeries all across the country.
• The business of biscuit manufacturing is so magnanimous in India that it is
third-largest after the United States and China. Bakery segment can simply
be classified into three chief products: bread, biscuits and cakes.
• According to the latest report, it is believed that Indian cake industry would
reach the market capital of around US$882 million by year 2024, with the
CAGR of 12.5% during the forecast period 2019-2024.
• As in a report entitled “Indian Bakery Market: Industry Trends, Share, Size,
Growth, Opportunity and Forecast 2019-2024”, by IMARC, Indian bakery
market touched a huge value of US$ 7.22 Billion in 2018 and is expected to
reach US$12 billion by 2024 with CAGR of 9.3% during 2019-2024.
• Indian consumers have been switching their taste preference and liking also
with the entry of some new brands in the market manufacturing bakery
products.
• Demand for premium cookies and some baked product is on the gradual
rise due to the mushrooming of new bakery cafe chains like Barista, Cafe
Coffee Day and Monginis etc.
• Bakery industry today offers immense opportunities for bakers, decorators,
trainers, process managers, distributors and many more related professions.
Opportunities, in abundance, exist in Bakery Cafes and Restaurants, those
who cater fast-foods.
• Production of bakery products means the systematic conversion of raw
materials, i.e. wheat flour, sugar, water, 'ghee', etc., baking the necessary
steps, such as mixing, fermenting, molding, baking etc., into various bakery
products like breads, buns, biscuits, and cakes.
• Let us learn something about the ingredients.
 Basic Ingredients of Bakery Products
Let us learn something more about the ingredients
Flour
• The flour of wheat is one of the most important ingredients used in bakery
products.
• Flour provides the structure in baked goods.
• Wheat flour contains proteins that interact with each other when mixed with
water, forming gluten. It is this elastic gluten framework which stretches to
contain the expanding leavening gases during rising.
Bread flour is a hard wheat flour with about 12 percent protein. It is used for
yeast raised bread because the dough it produces has more gluten than dough
made with other flours. Sufficient gluten produces a light loaf with good
volume. Slices hold together, rather than crumble.
Cake flour is a soft wheat flour that is 7.5 percent protein. The lower gluten
content causes products to have a tender, more crumbly texture that is desirable
in cake.
All purpose flour is blended during milling to achieve a protein content of 10.5
percent. This medium protein flour can be used for all baking purposes. If using
all purpose flour in place of cake flour in a recipe, substitute 1 cup minus 2
tablespoons all purpose flour for 1 cup cake flour.
Yeast
• Yeast is a living organism that is dormant and just waiting to be brought back to
life again.
• When provided with food, moisture, oxygen, and a warm environment, yeast
begins to grow and ferment.
• This fermentation process produces carbon dioxide bubbles, which make bread
dough expand and rise.
• Outdated yeast may not become fully active, resulting in flat bread loaves and
shrunken rolls.
• Yeast is available both in the fresh as well as the dried form.
Active (Fresh) Yeast - Developed in the 1980s, instant yeast has smaller granules
than active dry yeast. It absorbs liquid rapidly, dissolves quicker, and works faster
than active dry yeast. One can simply combine instant yeast with part of the flour in
the mixer bowl and add very warm liquid (120 to 130 degrees) to activate the yeast.
Two brands of instant yeast, Red Star® and SAF®, are sold in many supermarkets
and are also available from online sellers.
Dry Yeast - It is the traditional form of dry yeast, is available in all grocery stores. It
must be rehydrated before being combined with the other ingredients in a bread
recipe. The yeast is mixed with warm water (105 to 110 degrees) and usually a little
bit of food in the form of granulated sugar, and then set aside to let it activate, grow,
and foam.
Sugars
• Sugar provides both flavor and structure, besides adding sweetness to baked
goods also makes it tender, enhances their texture and crumb.
• It also attracts and retains moisture, helping baked items maintain their flavor and
prolonging freshness. When heated above the melting point, sugar caramelizes,
developing a delicious flavor and tantalizing aroma.
• The main function of sugar is to provide basis for yeast, which in turn produces
CO2 gas that raises the dough fabric.
Castor Sugar : is a finer form of granulated sugar and is suitable for creaming in
baking.
Icing Sugar: It is a very finely powdered white sugar which is used for icing, glazes,
dusting cakes after baking and for almond paste.
Brown Sugar : These are the un-refined raw sugars, some having names that refer to
country of origin, e.g. Barbados, Demerara, etc. All brown sugars confer color and
some flavor. These sugars are ideal for rich cakes.
Golden Syrup: This amber colored syrup is a by-product of sugar refining. It is used
by the baker for ginger cakes and biscuits.
Honey: It is a thick natural syrup obtained by bees from the nectar of flowers. It is
used in fresh ginger breads, nuggets etc.
Liquid Glucose/Corn syrup: It is made by boiling starch in water so that it is
gelatinized. It is used in cakes and biscuits and in sugar boiling.
Chemical Raising Agents
• It is also called as Leavening agents
• Substance causing expansion of doughs and batters by the release of gases within
such mixtures, producing baked products with porous structure are called
Raising/leavening agents

Baking Soda – It produces gas for leavening when combined with an acidic
ingredient such as vinegar, lemon juice, or molasses. The volume of quick breads,
cookies, cakes, and some candies depends largely on the amount of baking soda
added to the batter or dough. Reducing the amount of baking soda without replacing
it with another leavening agent will reduce the volume and lightness of the finished
product.
Baking Powder – It is a mixture of sodium bi-carbonate, cream of tatar (tartaric acid)
and a separator, usually rice or potato or com starch. Under the combined effect of
air, moisture and warmth, carbon dioxide is produced from sodium bicarbonate
which again causes fermentation. The acid present neutralizes the left over soda so
that no after taste is left in the product.
Ammonium bicarbonate - It contains the constituents of carbon dioxide gas, which is
liberated from the ammonium carbonate by decomposition due to heat and moisture
in the baking process. If used in baked products, it improves their quality and
texture, bring about more uniform symmetry and increase volume.
Fats
There are two basic types of fats used in baking—solid fats and liquid fats. Butter
and shortening are examples of solid fats, while vegetable oil is a liquid fat.
Fats play several key roles in baking.
• They influence flavor and color, add moisture to baked goods, and help keep
them fresh.
• Fat improves the nutritional value of bread. It lubricates the effect on gluten
strands, and improves the ability of making the slices of the bread. It
increases weight also.
• Fats are also an important element in determining the texture of baked goods.
• They make cakes, cookies, and biscuits tender by keeping the proteins in the
flour from developing into gluten.
• When creamed with sugar, solid fats trap air that lightens the batter or dough,
adds structure, and gives baked goods a tender crumb.
• During baking, solid and liquid fats release moisture in the form of steam,
which helps baked goods rise, set, and crisp.
• Different fats react differently when exposed to heat. For example, cookies
made with butter, which melts at a lower temperature, will tend to spread
more, while cookies made with shortening, which melts at a higher
temperature than butter, will hold their shape better.
• Reducing the amount of fat in a recipe will make the baked goods tougher,
less flavorful, and drier. Substituting one fat for another in a recipe can yield
significantly different results.
Salt
• Salt is used to enhance the flavors and sweetness of other ingredients in food.
• It balances and intensifies the flavor of other ingredients in the dough or batter.
• Salt has a distinct flavor all its own, and too much salt can upset the delicate
flavor balance in the recipe and overpower the taste of the other ingredients.
• Omitting or reducing the amount of salt in yeast dough can cause the dough to
rise too quickly, adversely affecting the shape and flavor of bread.
Liquids
• Liquids are necessary in baked goods for hydrating protein, starch and leavening
agents.
• It binds together the insoluble proteins of flour, which form gluten. Any water,
which is fit for drinking, can be used for bread making, but not the hard water.
• Liquids contribute moistness to the texture and improve the mouth feel of baked
products.
• When water vaporizes in a batter or dough, the steam expands the air cells,
increasing the final volume of the product.
• Milk contributes water and valuable nutrients to baked goods. It helps browning
to occur and adds flavor.
• Juice may be used as the liquid in a recipe. Because fruit juices are acidic, they
are probably best used in baked products that have baking soda as an ingredient.
Spices
• Spices, such as cinnamon, ginger, and nutmeg, contribute a lot of flavor to
baked goods.
• Because they are strong and can easily overpower the flavors of other
ingredients, spices need to be used with restraint, especially cloves.
• The flavor of spices deteriorates over time and exposure to heat and moisture
will cause them to fade rapidly.
• Buy spices in small quantities and use within one year for the best flavor.
Extracts and Flavorings
• Although, these cannot be considered as the basic ingredients in bakery
products, they are important in producing the most desirable flavor.
• Whenever available, use pure extracts, as these are made from the essence of
the ingredient and have the best, cleanest flavor.
• Flavorings such as maple, rum, and brandy give baked goods a stronger
flavor than their liquid counterparts.
• Vanilla extract can be the primary flavor in a recipe or enhance the taste of
other ingredients and flavorings. It also really brings out the flavor of
chocolate.
• Instant espresso powder adds immense rich coffee flavor to baked goods.
 Baker’s Measurement

Formula for Soft Roll using Baker’s Percent

Some Basic Measurements of Bakery Industry
 Classification of Bakery Products

• The main bakery products are bread, buns, pizza base, biscuits, cakes, puffs,
pastries crackers, cookies, pies, doughnuts, patties, and other milk and dairy
products.
• These products can be stored for few days and do not easily get spoiled. People
living away from home can easily store these food items.

• Basically, bakery products can be divided into two categories:

1. High Moisture Bakery Products
2. Low Moisture Bakery Products

• High Moisture Bakery Products – Those bakery products which have high
moisture content i.e. moisture more than 60% comes under high moisture bakery
products. E.g. breads, burgers, cakes, pastries, doughnuts, etc.
• Low Moisture Bakery Products - Those bakery products which have
comparatively low moisture content i.e. moisture less than 10% comes under low
moisture bakery products. E.g. cookies, biscuits, rusks, puff, etc.
Bread
• Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe,
and in European-derived cultures such as those in the Americas, Australia,
and Southern Africa, in contrast to parts of South and East Asia
where rice or noodle is the staple.
• It is the most consumable wheat based bakery products. It is served in various
forms with any meal of the day, basically eaten as a snack, also used as an
ingredient in other culinary preparations, such as sandwiches, fried items
coated in bread crumbs, etc.
• Bread can be broadly classified as leavened and unleavened.
– Leavened bread is made from dough containing leavening agents. The
leavening agents include baker’s yeast (usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and
baking powders consisting of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), acids, and
inert fillers.
– Unleavened bread is made without fermentation or gas-producing agents;
therefore, the baked bread is often fit and dense, and hence it is sometimes
called fit bread.
• Bread is usually made from wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast,
allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven. It can also be made from the flour
of non-wheat cereals including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millets
and rice usually in combination with refined wheat flour.
 Technology of Commercial Production of Bread
The Baking Process
• The basic process of baking yeast bread starts with measuring and mixing the
various ingredients to make the dough and adding yeast so that it rises.
• The dough is then kneaded to develop the gluten and is again allowed to rise.
The kneading and rising steps may be repeated several times.
• Next, the dough is shaped into a loaf and baked.
• Baking cooks the dough, firms the loaf and forms a crust on it, and improves
the flavor.
• Finally, the loaf of bread may be sliced before being wrapped.

Various stages in bread making include –

1. Sieving of ingredients, 7. Bench proofing,

2. Weighing of ingredients, 8. Molding,
3. Mixing of ingredients, 9. Panning,
4. Fermenting the mixture, 10. Pan proofing,
5. Dividing, 11. Baking,
6. Rounding, 12. Cooling.
Sieving
The flour is generally sieved before using in bread primarily for following reasons:
• To aerate the flour
• To remove coarse particles and other impurities
• To make flour more homogeneous.
Weighing
The next step is weighing of different ingredients as per formulation.
• Minor ingredients have to be weighed more precisely.
• Salt, sugar, oxidizing agents and yeast are added in solution form.
• Yeast is added as a suspension, which is mixed well each time before dispensing.
Sequence of addition of ingredients also affects the dough characteristics.
Mixing
• Mixing of flour and ingredients involves i.e. hydration & blending, dough
development and dough breakdown.
• The process of mixing begins with hydration of the formula ingredients.
• The mixing, whilst the flour is hydrating, brings about development of the gluten
network in dough, which is evidenced as an ascending part of the mixing curve.
• Various stages of mixing are explained inn next slide.
Various Stages of Mixing
1. Initial hydration stage
At this stage ingredients are blended and homogenized. The dough begins to wet
and sticky.
2. Pick up stage
At this stage the hydration of ingredients is advanced and they are aggregated into
wet mass. The wet mass is uneven and wet. The gluten begins to develop in the
dough system.
3. Clean up stage
Further mixing develops the gluten network in the dough. Dough becomes
extensible and elastic. Dough forms a cohesive mass and ceases to stick to mixing
blades and walls of mixer.
4. Development stage
The dough becomes more viscoelastic in nature. It gives silky and shine character.
5. Optimum stage
This is the optimum mixing stage. Dough at this stage is elastic, silky and smooth.
Forms thin membrane of uniform thickness when stretched without breaking. It is
the right stage to process dough for bread making.
6. Break down stage
Beyond optimum stage the dough becomes increasingly soft, smooth and highly
extensive. Dough also becomes sticky and demonstrates poor machinability.
Changes During Dough Mixing
1. Formation of three-dimensional net work of protein
Mixing of bread formula ingredients brings about physicochemical changes in the
dough and its components. The dough constituents particularly gluten proteins
interact to form a three dimensional structure to the dough. As a result of this
change, the dough becomes extensible and elastic that is responsible for gas
retention and bread quality.
2. Sulphydryl-disulphide interchange reactions
Mixing brings about SH-SS interchange, which matures and develops the dough for
further processing into bread.
3. Oxygen incorporation into the dough, which helps in oxidation as well as the
formation of nuclei for the formation of gas cells.
4. Starch, lipid and protein complex formation, which is responsible for gas
retention during baking.
5. Mixing also increases the temperature of dough
The temperature of the dough has great influence on the overall quality of bread.
The temperature of the dough out of the mixer should be within the range of 25-
28°C. The dough temperature depends on the temperature of different ingredients,
friction factor of the machine, heat of hydration of ingredients and their specific
heat.
Mixing time
• The mixing time varies with the type of flour, type of mixer, speed of mixing arm, presence
of salt or shortening, additive, particle size as well as damaged starch content of flour.
• A flour of good bread quality flour should have medium to medium long dough
development and mixing time.
• If the mixing time is very short the flour can easily be over mixed, and if the mixing time is
very long it might never reach its optimum.
• On the other hand, biscuit quality flour will develop in to dough rapidly.
Fermenting the mixture
• The yeast in dough breaks down the 12 sugars to carbon dioxide and ethanol. The gas
produced during fermentation leavens the dough into foam.
• The foam structure of dough is discrete and has stability during fermentation.
• This is also called for first fermentation.
Scaling or dividing
• The dough is divided into individual pieces of predetermined uniform weight and size.
• The weight of the dough to be taken depends on the final weight of the bread required.
Generally, 12% extra dough weight is taken to compensate for the loss.
• Dividing should be done within the shortest time in order to ensure the uniform weight.
• The degassers are essentially dough pumps which feed the dough into the hopper and in the
process remove most of the gas.
• The advantages of using degassers are: (i) more uniform scaling, (ii) uniform pan flows and
(iii) uniform grain and texture of bread.
Rounding
• When the dough piece leaves the divider, it is irregular in shape with sticky cut
surfaces from which the gas can readily diffuse.
• The function of the rounder is to impart a new continuous surface skin that will retain
the gas as well as reduce the stickiness thereby increasing its handling.
• Rounder are of two types i.e. umbrella and bowl type.
Bench proofing
• When the dough piece leaves the rounder, it is rather well degassed but it lacks
extensibility and tears easily. It is rubbery and will not mold easily.
• To restore more flexible, pliable structure which will respond well to the manipulation
of molder, it is necessary to let the dough piece rest while fermentation proceeds.
• Average time at this stage ranges from 5 to 20 min.
• This stage is also known by the name of “Intermediate Proofing”
Molding
• The molder receives pieces of dough from the inter-mediate proofer and shapes them
into cylinders ready to be placed in the pans.
• Molding involves three separate steps;
a) Sheeting;
b) Curling; and
c) Scaling.
Panning
• The moulded dough pieces are immediately placed in the baking pans.
• Panning should be carried out so that the seam of the dough is placed on the bottom of
the pan. This will prevent subsequent opening of the seam during proofing and baking.
• Optimum pan temperature is 85-88°F (28 – 30°C)
Pan Proving or Proofing Process
• Proving or proofing refers to the dough resting period during fermentation after
molding has been accomplished in bread pans or tins.
• It is generally carried out at 30-35ºC and at 85% relative humidity and takes about 55-
65 minutes.
• During proofing care has to be taken that the skin of dough remains wet and flexible
so that it does not tear as it expands.
• A high humid condition is also required to minimize weight loss during proving.
• During proofing the dough increases remarkably in volume. The dough finally proofed
or fermented in baking pan for desired dough height.
• During proofing lower humidity gives rise to dry crust in the dough.
• Excessive humidity leads to condensation of moisture.
• Temperature, humidity and time influence proofing. Proof temperature depends on the
variety of factors such as flour strength, dough formulation with respect to oxidants,
dough conditioners, type of shortening, degree of fermentation and type of product
desired.
Changes During Fermentation
Dough after optimum mixing is subjected to fermentation at around 30ºC and 85%
relative humidity for a suitable length of time. Fermentation is essential for obtaining
light aerated loaf of bread. During fermentation several desired physicochemical
changes occur in the dough system, which is explained below.
1. Physical Changes
a) Increase in volume due to production of CO2 b) Increase in temperature c)
Increase in the number of yeast cells d) Loss of moisture e) Changes in the
consistency of dough. The dough becomes soft, elastic as well as extensible.
2. Chemical Changes
a) Reduction in pH: The pH of dough is reduced from 5.5 to 4.7 due to formation of
acids like acetic acid yeast activity. b) Formation of maltose sugar by diastatic
enzymes acting on starch. c) Development of dough due to the cessation of S-S
bonds and formation of new SH and SS groups, which improve the gas retention
property of dough. d) Conversion of starch into simple sugar by diastatic enzymes
which is then converted into CO2 and alcohol by the following group of enzymes
present by yeast
Starch
Diastase Maltose + Dextrin
Maltase
Maltose Dextrose
Zymase
Dextrose Carbon dioxide + alcohol
The Baking Process
• After proofing the dough is subjected to heat in a baking oven.
• Baking temperature generally varies depending up on oven and product type but it is
generally kept in the range of 220-250ºC.
• During baking the temperature of dough center reaches to about 95ºC in order to
ensure that the product structure is fully set.
• When the dough is placed in the oven, heat is transferred through dough by several
mechanisms such as convection, radiation, conduction, and condensation of steam and
evaporation of water.
• Heat transfer inside dough is said to occur through the mechanism of heat conduction
and evaporation/condensation.
• The baking time of bread may range from 25 to 30 minutes depending up on size of
bread loaf.
Cooling
• After baking, bread is cooled prior to packaging to facilitate slicing and to prevent
condensation of moisture in the wrapper.
• Bread is cooled on well ventilated Stainless steel cooling racks.
• Desirable temperature of bread during slicing is 95-105°F.
Changes During Baking

As the dough enters into baking oven it undergoes several physical and
biochemical changes. These changes are described below:
A. Physical
1. Oven-spring:
• The dough expands rapidly in first few minutes in the oven, this sudden
rise is called oven-spring.
• The gases heat and increase in volume, water, carbon dioxide and
ethanol evaporates.
• All this causes increase in internal pressure of dough and the dough rise
rapidly in the initial stage of baking.
• Yeast activity decreases as the dough warms and the yeast is inactivated
at 55ºC.
2. Crust formation:
• The dough that is exposed to oven temperature develops skin and forms
a crust as moisture evaporates from surface of dough evaporates very
rapidly.
• The crust provides the strength of the loaf.
B. Chemical
1. Yeast activity
• Yeast activity increases very rapidly initially as the dough is placed in the
oven but it is inactivated at 55°C.
2. Starch gelatinization
• Starch begins to gelatinize at about 60ºC.
• The dough contains limited water to gelatinize the starch completely.
• This limited gelatinization of dough helps in gas retention and setting of
bread texture.
3. Gluten coagulation
• Starch gelatinization is associated with absorption of water while gluten
denaturalization is associated with the removal of water. Gelatinization
sets in when the temperature is around 74°C, and continues till the end of
baking.
• In this process, gluten matrix surrounding the individual cells is
transformed into a semi-rigid film structure.
• Thus, a major change that takes place during the oven process is the
redistribution of water from the gluten phase to the starch phase.
4. Enzyme activity
• The action of amylase on starch increases with temperature
approximately doubling for every 10°C rise.
• At the same time, heat inactivation of the enzymes also commences. ß-
amylase denature at lower temperature (57 to 71°C) as compared alpha-
amylase which denatures at temperatures ranging from 65 to 95°C.
• Insufficient amylase activity can restrict loaf volume because the starch
becomes rigid soon, whereas excess amylase activity may cause collapse
of loaf.
5. Browning reaction
• The browning reaction starts at around 160°C.
• It is the result of heating reducing sugars with proteins or other nitrogen
containing substance to form colored compounds, known as melanoidins.
• This reaction also imparts color and flavor to the bread.
 Process of Making White Bread
Process Flow Chart

Raw Materials
Method of preparation

1. Weigh all the ingredients as per the recipe formula.

2. Sieve flour with salt.
3. Dissolve yeast, with sugar and 100 grams flour in 200 ml of Luke warm
water and leave it in warm place for 15 minutes to prepare a flying ferment.
4. Add flying ferment to flour and knead well with remaining water into soft
and pliable dough using oil.
5. Cover the dough with a wet cloth and leave in a warm place for first proving
for about 20 minutes.
6. Knock back the dough and divide the dough into three equal pieces.
7. Shape each pieces to a round loaf and keep it in a bread mold.
8. Keep the bread for further fermentation in a proving chamber.
9. When the bread slightly risen up punch it softly and spread to the corners of
the mold.
10. Allow to rise until double in size in a proving chamber.
11. Bake at 240 degree Celsius for 20-25 minutes.
12. Remove from oven and place on a wire rack to cool properly.
 Machinery Needed for Commercial Bread Production

Flour Sifter Spiral Mixer Planetary Mixer

Volumetric Dough Divider Dough Molder Dough Rounder

 Machinery Needed for Commercial Bread Production

Bun/Bread Proofer Baking Trolley Baking Oven

Bread/Bun Cooling Trolley Bread Slicer Bread Packing Machine

 Technology of Commercial Production of Biscuits
Classification of Biscuits
Biscuits may be classified in various ways.
1. Based on the texture and hardness.
2. Based on the method of forming dough and dough pieces e.g. fermented,
develop laminated, cut, moulded extruded, deposited, wire cut, co extruded
etc.
3. The enrichment of recipe based on fat and sugar.

Hard Dough Biscuits

• In hard doughs the gluten is partially developed and to some extent extensible
depending on the percentage of sugar and fat in the composition.
• In this category the biscuits that can be included are:
• Water biscuits
• Sweet-gluco biscuits
• Semi sweet Marie type or cabin biscuits, and
• Some of the specialty biscuits having slightly higher percentage of shortening.
 Production of Gluco Biscuit
In India Gluco biscuits are manufactured in the largest quantities and because of
lower cost it is most popular among children. A typical recipe of these biscuits is
given below.
Recipe Preparation

Wheat flour 100 parts 1. Wheat flour is passed through a sifter removes all
the dirt, stones etc.
Sugar 33 kg
2. Sugar is ground and fat is incorporated in molten
Salt 1.1kg form
3. Mixing: Ammonium bicarbonate, sugar syrup and
SMS 4.2g water are mixed thoroughly in a high-speed mixer
for a couple of minutes. Shortening and flavor are
SMP 1.5kg creamed for a few minutes. In dry mixing, maida,
Shortening 24kg salt, sugar, SMS paste, SMP and vitamins premix
are mixed. The mixing time is about 3-5 minutes.
Invert syrup 15 kg 4. Shaping and conveying to oven. The Rotary molder
is used for shaping operation. This operation
Ammonium 0.6 gm involved feed roll rubber roll and die roll and
Water 10 liter extraction belt and panning table belt.
5. Baking: The biscuits baked in an oven that has
Flavor Vanilla different temperature zone e.g. 1200 C, 3500 C and
150°C.
6. Cooling: In cooling, two cooling conveyors are
used. The cooling time is around 4 minutes.
7. Packing : The biscuits are packed in BOPP or any
other moisture proof packaging materials.
Hard Sweet And Semi-sweet Biscuit

• All these biscuits are characterized by doughs that contain a well-

developed gluten network but with increasing amounts of sugar and fat
the gluten becomes less elastic and more extensible.
• The prime requirement is a biscuit with a smooth surface, which has a
slight shine or sheen and an open even texture giving a bite that ranges
from hard to delicate.
• It is difficult to add any flavorful ingredients successfully so most have a
basically mild vanilla flavor or a caramel buttery flavor derived either
from the use of real butter or synthetic buttery flavors.
• All have some syrup and or malt extract.
• Their mild slightly sweet flavor complements warm beverages like tea
and coffee.
• These types known as Rich Tea or Morning Coffee reflect when they are
eaten rather than that they taste of either of these beverages.
• Sometimes these biscuits and chocolate coating and the low sweetness
and richness make them very suitable for these purposes.
Recipes for Typical Semi-sweet Types on The Percent Flour Basis.
Continental Semi-sweet Biscuits
• Biscuits of this typed are commonly made in France, Germany and
Switzerland.
• The recipes are slightly higher in fat level and are mixed by two-stage
process similar to short doughs.
• All ingredients except the flour are firstly mixed up to a homogeneous
'cream'.
• The dough is then rested for between 30 minutes and 90 minutes to reduce
the stickiness, before sheeting and gauging.
• The formulation sometimes includes proteinase and this requires at least 60
minutes standing time for enzyme to react with the gluten.
• The dough is not normally laminated.
• These doughs tend to be sticky which makes them more difficult to process
through gauge rolls and a good smooth surface may be achieved prior to
cutting by ensuring that at least the final gauge is very clean and the dough
pieces are often brushed with a milk wash to enhance surface appearance
after baking.
• The resultant biscuits are softer and shorter in texture than traditional British
semi-sweet types and surface is not as smooth.
Soft Dough Biscuits
• Short doughs, which are soft enough to be just pourable, are called as soft
doughs.
• Pieces are formed by extrusion in a similar way and in the same machine as
wire cut and rout biscuits but nozzles rather die holes are used to channel the
dough.
• The dough is pressed out either continuously or intermittently on the oven
band that may be raised up and then dropped if discrete deposits are requires.
• As the band drops, the dough pieces break away from the nozzle.
• The biscuits produced in this way are usually rich in fat or based on egg
whites whipped to a stable form, the dough must be very short to allow it to
break away easily as it is pulled away from the nozzle.
• The nozzles through which the dough is extruded are usually indented to give
a pattern and relief to the deposits.
• Also by rotating the nozzles, swirls, circles and other attractive shapes can be
developed.
• In the case Spritz biscuits, the nozzles are oscillated from side to side during
continuous extrusion.
• Depositing allows not very fancy shapes to be formed, but also by
synchronizing two or more depositors, different colored and flavored doughs
can be combined.
• Jams and Jelly can be added on the top of dough deposit.
 Technology of Commercial Production of Cakes
• Cake is a form of bread or bread-like food.
• In its modern forms, it is typically a sweet and enriched baked dessert.
• In its oldest forms, cakes were normally fried breads or cheesecakes,
and normally had a disk shape. Modern cakes, especially layer cakes,
normally contain a combination of flour, sugar, eggs, and butter or oil,
with some varieties also requiring liquid (typically milk or water) and
leavening agents (such as yeast or baking powder).
• Cakes are often filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry
cream), iced with butter cream or other icings, and decorated with
marzipan, piped borders or candied fruit.
• Cake is often the dessert of choice for meals at ceremonial occasions,
particularly weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays.
• There are countless cake recipes; some are bread-like, some rich and
elaborate, and many are centuries old.
• Cake making is no longer a complicated procedure; while at one time
considerable labor went into cake making (particularly the whisking of
egg foams), baking equipment and directions have been simplified that
even the most amateur cook may bake a cake.
Varieties of Cake

Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients
and cooking techniques.
• Yeast cakes : They are the oldest and are very similar to yeast breads. Such
cakes are often very traditional in form, and include such pastries as babka
and stollen.
• Cheese cakes : They are in fact custard pies, with a filling made mostly of
some form of cheese (often cream cheese, mascarpone, ricotta or the like),
and have very little flour added, although a flour-based or graham cracker
crust may be used. Cheesecakes are also very old, with evidence of honey-
sweetened cakes dating back to ancient Greece.
• Sponge cakes : These are thought to be the first of the non-yeast-based
cakes and rely primarily on trapped air in a protein matrix (generally of
beaten eggs) to provide leavening, sometimes with a bit of baking powder.
Highly decorated sponge cakes with lavish toppings are sometimes called
gateau; the French word for cake.
• Butter cakes : Including the pound cake and devil's food cake, rely on the
combination of butter, eggs, and sometimes baking powder or bicarbonate
of soda to provide both lift and a moist texture.
 Cake Recipe Method of Preparation
• Bring oven to baking temp., and condition it by baking
Ingredients Quantity cake using scrap batter and above formula.
Wheat flour 80 g • Combine all dry ingredients except shortening, and sift
Sugar 80 g well. Transfer to mixing bowl, add shortening and 60%
of water. Mix at low speed for 0.5 min., scrape down,
Shortening (fat) 35 g and mix at medium speed for 4 min. Add one-half of
Milk powder 50 g remaining water, mix at low speed for 0.5 min., scrap
down and mix at medium speed for 2 min. Add
Baking powder 02 g remaining water, mix at low speed for 0.5 min., scrap
Sodium bicarbonate 1.13g down and mix at medium speed for 2 min.
• Grease pans lightly with commercial pan grease (1st
Water 80 ml choice) or non-emulsified shortening (2nd choice). Line
bottom with parchment paper. Scale 425 g batter into
each of two pans and bake at 375°F. (1st choice) or
350°F. (2nd choice) until done.
• Cool cakes in pans for about 30 min., remove from
pans, and con- tinue cooling. Dust lightly with flour
before measuring. If vol. determination. and texture
scoring are to be delayed for more than 4 hr., dust cake
lightly with flour and wrap with polyvinyl chloride film
or equiv. material at time of depanning. Remove
wrapping and retest for volume determination and
scoring. Cakes should be graded for volume and texture
on same day.
 Technology of Commercial Production of Noodles
Instant Noodles

• Fresh noodles are an extruded product made of tapioca flour and maida. They
are long thread-like of 0.22 to 0.4 mm thickness.
• Instant noodles appear to have originated in Japan in the 1950s and, today, are
produced in over 80 countries worldwide.
• This is a eatable food item under instant food products and very popular now-a-
days as break fast food. It is one of the most conventional foods available in the
market.
• Noodles and chowmein, a ready-to-eat food item is very popular in developed
countries.
• The factors governing its demand are:
1. Increasing population of the country.
2. Rapid industrialization in the country.
3. Increase in the purchasing capacity of the people.
4. Durability of the product.
5. Change in people’s eating habits especially the younger generation.
6. It is ready-to-eat product.
7. Convenience of preparation.
Ingredients used in the manufacture Simplified flow chart of instant
of instant noodles noodle making procedure
Step by Step Process of Instant Noodles Manufacturing

1. Knead and Mix: Wheat flour and water goes into the mixing machine in the noodles manufacturing
process. Here, dough is kneaded with about 0.3 to 0.4kg water at a temperature of 20 to 30 degree Celsius.
2. Creating noodle belt: Then the dough goes into two rotating rollers wherein two noodles belt is bought
together as one belt, helping to distribute the noodles evenly. The dough is also left for a specific time to
mature.
3. Rolling: With the help of pressing rollers, the 10mm thick noodles is flattened repeatedly using four rollers
and finally becomes thin at 1mm thickness.
4. Slitter: To add to the noodles manufacturing process, these noodles is then put into the slitter, where with
the help of roller blades these instant noodles are made even thinner and wavy.
5. Steamer: Then is the pre-gelatinization process in the steamer, where the instant noodles is steamed for
one to five minutes.
6. Dipping bath: Then the steamed noodles are dipped in seasoning.
7. Feeder: Then it is cut as long as 40-70cm then moulded using a round- or square- shaped metal mold
serving
8. Dehydration process: Most of the noodles are dehydrated either by oil frying or air drying, thus giving rise
to fried or non-fried noodles. There are also the steamed noodles that are known as Raw-type instant
noodles.
9. Cooler: Following the dehydration in the noodles manufacturing process, the noodles that are at 100
degree Celsius is cooled with air.
10. Check weight and detect metal: In case any metal is detected in the noodles or if the weight is beyond the
preset range, the product is then discarded.
11. Packing: The ready instant noodles are then put into firm bags or containers as required along with the
garnish and seasonings and then sealed with aluminum foils.
Volumetric Feeder for Adding Micronutrient Premix for
Preparation of Instant Noodle
 Wheat Milling Technology

Dr [Link]
Department of Food Science and Technology
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur - 482 004 (M.P.)
1
 Introduction :
• Wheat belongs to graminae family and its genera is
triticum having different species.
• It is one of the most widely cultivated cereal crop in the
World.
• USA, anada, Austrilia and Argentina are the main wheat
exporting countries. There are about 35000 varieties of
wheat in existance throughout the world
• Wheat serves as second largest staple food after rice
in India and it’s a matter of pride to mention that our
country is a second largest producer of wheat in the
world after china.
• Over all, the country has produced 92.46 mt.
of wheat during 2012 – 13 from 29.65 mha
area with a productivity of 3.12 t/ha.
• Out of total wheat production 92% wheat is
produced by the states viz. U.P., M.P., Punjab,
Rajasthan, Haryana and Bihar.
At present M.P. ranked second in area (18%) and third in
production (18%) of total national area and production.

Area, production and productivity of wheat in M.P.

At present M.P. ranked second in area (18%)

Area, production and productivity of wheat in
and third in production (18%) of total national
M.P.
area and production.
Classification of Wheat Cultivated In India
Triticum Vulgare
Vulgare//Triticum Aestivium
Aestivium::
Used to produce flour for baking Industry and Domestic purpose
purpose.. It is good for
bread biscuit and Cake
Cake.. [Link] share is 87% of total wheat cultivation
area.
Triticum durum :
This type of wheat contains high sugar and starch . Its share is 8% of total
wheat cultivation area.
Amber duram type wheat are used for macroni and noodles etc
Red Duram type wheat are used for cattle feed
Triticum compectum
compectum::
The wheat is too soft hence it cannot be used for production of bread but goog
for cake ,pastrries,cookies etc
etc..
Triticum Dicocum
Dicocum::
Its share is 2% of total wheat cultivation area. The wheat is good for
production of Soji or Rawa
Rawa..
According to colour: White wheat,Yellow wheat and Red wheat
According to Hardness:
Hard wheat : Good for bakery products, Mill well and yield good quality flour.
Soft wheat: Contain low protein, yield flour having low water absorption
capacity and poor tolrence to mixing and fermentation
 Wheat Products
Traditional baked and pasta products from different species of wheat :

Wheat Name of the products

Chapati/roti/phulka, tandoori roti, rumali roti, naan,
kulcha, bhatura, pizza, puri, kachori, samosa, matthi,
Bread namakpara, papad, parantha, paysam, balusai, jalebi,
ghewar, sattu, noodles, laddu etc. Bread biscuit, cake,
buns and pastry.
Chapati, parantha, dhebra, bhakri, porridge (salted and
Durum sweet), rawa idli, rawa puttu, khichide aknd pasta
products like macaroni, spedhatti and vermicelli.

Culdadi ki laddu, godi huggi, sweet pan kace, madel and

Dicocum
pasta products etc
 The quality requirements of wheat for various
products like chapati, bread, biscuit and pasta are
different.
• For making good bread :wheat ([Link]) with
strong & extensible gluten and high protein is
required.
• For biscuit: The quality requirements are soft wheat,
low protein and weak & extensible gluten.
• For chapati: we need hard wheat, medium to high
protein and medium & extensible gluten.
• For pasta products,: Hard wheat ([Link]) with
strong gluten, high protein, low yellow berry
incidence and high β-carotene content are required.
 Quality Standards of Wheat
(1)Weight: (1)Thousand grain weight or Test weight : Weight of
1000 grains of wheat
(2) Hectoliter weight: Weight of 100 liters of wheat
(3)U.S. Bushel weight: weight of 2.150 cubic inches of wheat is
known as U.S. Bushel weight
(4) Hardness/Strength
(5) Colour
(6) Percentage of broken grain: Not more then 5%
(7) Percent of foreign matter: Not more then 0.5%
(8) Infested wheat : Nill
(9)Moisture: If moisture content is more then 14% it is considered
as inferior grade wheat.
 wheat quality and nutritional parameters in
Madhya Pradesh wheat cultivars
Parameter [Link] [Link]
Reference Content Reference Content
standards standards
Test Weight (kg/hl) 81.7 73.2-83.8 82.5 76.4-83.9
Protein content (%) 12.6 8.3-17.2 12.9 9.9-15.6
79 48-96 81 51-98
Grain Hardness index

Sedimentation (ml) 42 32-55 28 19-39

Extraction Rate (%) 69.8 68.6-72.3 - -
Yellow Pigment 2.61 1.85-3.68 5.48 3.48-7.65
(ppm)
Iron content (ppm) 43.6 32.1-55.1 44.5 33.1-53.3
Zinc content (ppm) 38.2 23.6-51.5 39.8 24.3-51.3
 PHYSICAL QUALITY PARAMETERS OF WHEAT IN MADHYA PRADESH

Test Weight Damaged kernel Shrivelled & Broken Foreign Matter Total Defects
Other Classes
No. of (kg/hl) (%) Kernels (%) (%) (%)
Sr. Name of
Sampl
No. District
es
Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range

74.0- 0.000- 1.482- 0.000- 1.702- 0.000-

1. Bhopal 442 78.3 1.601 5.145 0.386 7.071 0.231
81.2 7.172 8.348 2.481 12.295 2.071

75.4- 0.000- 0.536- 0.057- 0.983- 0.000-

2. Gwalior 162 78.8 0.362 4.556 0.288 5.206 0.564
81.8 2.227 7.164 1.150 8.367 1.706

75.8- 0.000- 1.402- 0.106- 1.917- 0.000-

3. Indore 108 79.1 0.383 3.898 0.505 4.786 0.155
82.2 3.557 7.363 1.703 11.291 0.857

74.5- 0.000- 0.665- 0.000- 2.485- 0.000-

4. Jabalpur 38 78.0 2.141 3.137 0.422 5.700 0.239
80.2 6.437 5.686 1.056 9.722 1.492

75.0- 0.000- 0.758- 0.000- 1.167- 0.057-

5. Sagar 78 78.4 1.220 3.300 0.325 4.830 0.717
80.5 4.835 6.072 1.050 9.578 2.474

76.3- 0.000- 0.412- 0.075- 1.049- 0.000-

6. Ujjain 442 78.9 1.385 3.516 0.440 5.335 0.323
81.6 6.008 7.123 1.994 9.915 1.140

74.0- 0.000- 0.412- 0.000- 0.983- 0.000-

Overall M.P 1049 78.6 1.230 4.372 0.391 5.966 0.330
82.2 7.172 8.348 2.481 12.295 2.474
 CHEMICAL QUALITY PARAMETERS OF WHEAT IN MADHYA PRADESH

Protein
Moisture Content Falling No.
Sr. No. of Content (as is (%)
Wet Gluten (%)
(Seconds)
Name of
No Samp basis)
District
. les
Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range

(10.4-
.1. Bhopal 442 12.4 12.5 (9.7-14.1) 26.8 (21.8-29.2) 525 (433-633)
13.6)
(11.0-
2. Gwalior 162 12.0 12.5 (10 2-13.5) 25.9 (23 1-28 1) 513 (441-573)
12.9)
(11.3-
3. Indore 108 13.0 12.2 (10.2-12.9) 27 9 (?3 4-29 5) 520 (420-558)
13.7)
(11.5-
4. Jabalpur 38 12 8 12.4 (10.7-13.8) 27.5 (24 3-30 1) 504 (378-575)
13.9)
(10.6-
5. Sagar 78 11.5 12.6 (11.4-13.6) 24.5 (22 2-27 7) 510 (474-553)
12.8)
(11.3-
6. Ujjain 442 12.7 12.8 (11.4-14.0) 27 4 (24.0-29.5) 512 (346-585)
13.7)
(10.4-
Overall MP 1049 12.4 12.5 (9.7-14.1) 26.7 (21.8-30.1) 518 (346-633)
13.9)
Structure of Wheat Kernel:
Wheat consist of three Principle parts: Bran ,Germ and Endosperm

• Bran: The bran coating consist of

approximately13% of wheat grain it contains
cellulose, vitamin –B group and minerals
perticularly calcium and Iron.
• Germ: It is a portion of grain from which wheat is
[Link] is about 2% of the grain. It is rich in
valuable vitamins hence has good nutritional
value. It also contains fat. The germ is removed
while milling because it cause flourrancidon
storage.
• Endosperm: It is about 85% of the grain. The
flour is milled from [Link]
endosperm is consist of Starch cells. It also
contains protein,oil, Sugars,minerals and
moisture etc. The outer starch cells of
endosperm are largeand coarse while inner
cells are smaller and fine. It contains very
small amount of cellulose.
Proximate composition of wheat

Moisture 12.8 gms

Carbohydrate 71.2 gms
Proteins 11.8 gms
Fat 1.5 gms
Energy 346 K cal
Calcium 41 mg.
Minerals 1.5 gms
Phosphorus 306 mg.
Fibre 1.2 gms
Iron 5.3 mg.
Essential amino acid content in wheat
:
Amino Acid Patent flour
Arginine 3.73
Histidine 1.92
Iso-leucine 3.91
Leucine 6.63
Lysine 1.97
Methionine 1.73
Phenylalanine 4.77
Threonine 2.64
Tryptophan 0.92
Valine 4.32
 Wheat Milling Process:
• MILLING PROCESS: It is the conversion process
of grain into flour and by- products. i.e. Soji.
Rawa and Bran feed etc. Processing conditions
and types of milling machines affect on the
flour quality. Hence the bakers must know
about the milling. Wheat is milled by two
methods.
• Stone Milling : In this method two stones are used to grind the wheat.
One of the stone (usually the lower) is fixed and the other on (usually the
upper) is rotating over fixed one. The clean wheat is feeded through the
funnel i.e. opening provided at the centre of upper stone. From this place.
The wheat trickles down between the two stones. The inner surface of the
stones are specially grooved to grip the wheat. Such surface crushes
wheat into pieces and pushes it to the edge of stone as the stone rotates.
The broken wheat is further crushed into smaller pieces and finally finds
its way out as fine. Milled flour. This flour is known as whole mill flour.
Which has following characteristics :
• Such flour is darker in colour as compared to the flour obtained through
roller milling. Because the bran and germ present in the wheat cannot be
separated by stone milling.
• The flour obtained through this process cannot be stored for a long time
because the heat generated by the friction of stones melts the natural oil
present in germ, which is freely absorbed by crushed endosperm. This
germ oil quickly goes rancid and spoils the flour.
• It may contain fine stone particles as the stones are rubbed at the grooves
of inner surface of the milling stones.
• The bread made from the stone milled (fresh) flour has a delicious flavor
but such bread has a small volume and irregular shape.
Roller Milling : The commercial milling of wheat
is done by this method where milling is done
successively by following steps :
• Arrival of Wheat at Factory Premises :Wheat
arrive at factory by different means like road.
Train or ship. Facilities are required for
unloading the wheat. The mode of
transportation of wheat is also important as
the transit conditions affect the physical
characteristics of wheat i.e. if wheat is
transported by ship, the moisture content of
the wheat will be high.
• Sampling and Experimental
Milling at Laboratory Level
:
• To estimate possibility of
milling maximum quantity
of flour from wheat without
affecting the quality.
• To know about blending of
wheat. Which is done after
conditioning, in order to get
uniform and better quality
flour.
• Cleaning : The wheat may contains some
impurities likes seeds other than wheat, dirt,
sand, stones, chaff and straw, metal pieces,
chunks of wood, bits of string and pieces of
clothes. It is therefore necessary to remove
such impurities before the wheat is ground.
Many indigenous methods of separation are
designed considering the advantage of
different size, shape, specific gravity and
behavior in air current of the wheat and
intermingled impurities.
 Wheat grain grading
• Season-rainfall, finish, drought, irrigation, salinity
• Choice of variety
• Weathering-HVK
• Dockage-screenings
• Contamination-bread wheat
• Frost damage
• Sprouting-Falling number
• Black point
• Insect damage
• Fusarium head blight
• Adequate soil nitrogen-protein
• PRINCIPLES OF CLEANING
• SIZE & SHAPE OF GRAIN
• DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
• MAGNETIC PROPERTY
• CLEANING MACHINES
• CLEANING MACHINES
• SIEVES
• ASPIRATOR
• DISC SEPARATOR
• WASHER /STONER
• SCOURER
• MAGNETIC SEPARATOR
Conditioning : wheat must be artificially brought into
common physical state so that the separation of the
endosperm from the bran can be performed most effectively.
The process by which the moisture content is adjusted at
desired level in wheat is called conditioning.
• OBJECTIVES :
• When the moisture content is increased. The outer layer of wheat berry
tends to be brittle while the bran becomes toughy and less brittle,
thereby improving separatibility of the endosperm from the bran.
• The endosperm is made more friable (break more easily during milling)
which reduces the power required to grind it.
• When the bran is adequately toughended the flour is less contaminated
with bran splinters. Thus, it will be whiter in colour and will yield a smaller
amount of ash upon incineration.
• The higher moisture content also minimizes the dust loss
• It also prevents from fire hazard.
PROCESS :
• Wheat strength Moisture in conditioned
wheat

• Soft wheat 14.0%

• Medium hard wheat 14.5%
• Hard wheat 16.0%
• Durum wheat 17 to 18%
• Average 14 to 16%
 Type of Water Time Rest Period
Conditioning temperature required

Cold Normal room 8 to 24 hours 1 to 3 days

temperature

Warm 460C (1150F) 1 to 1 ½ hours 24 hours

Hot 600 to 700C) 1 hours 12 hours

(140 to 1580F)
• Once the wheat is properly conditioned, the
grains are passed through an entoleter (a
scourer- aspirator). Here the discs, revolving at
high speed, hurl the wheat against finger like
pins. That cracks sound kernels, which are
rejected. From entoleter, the wheat flows to a
grinding bean or hopper from where it is feeded
in a continuous metered stream into the mill
itself. After conditioning, different types of wheat
could be blended to obtain specific grade of the
flour.
 Grinding of Wheat
• OBJECTIVES :
• To separate maximum possible endosperm
from the bran and germ because the flour is
generally milled out from endosperm portion
of the wheat.
• To reduce maximum possible endosperm to
flour fineness and thereby obtain maximum
extraction of white flour from the wheat.
 BrakRoll and Reduction Roll System:
• BREAKING : Braking is done by break rolls made
up of steel. The rolls are paired and are known as
break sets. The mill has generally 3 to 5 break
sets. They are corrugated. Rolls are usually 25cm
(10”) in diameter and 100cm (40”) in length and
are mounted diagonally or horizontally in parallel
alignment along their total length. Rolls rotate
inward against each other. Lower roll rotates at
slower speed than the upper one. Generally the
rotating ratio is 2 ½ : 1. The speed of each roller
can be adjusted separately. Clearance between
two rolls can also be adjusted.
• During the first break the miller selects the exact speed of the
rollers in relation to each other depending upon the type of wheat
and its condition, to obtain maximum flour out of wheat. Here lies
miller’s skill. During breaking, small amount of endosperm is
detached from the bran coats, small amount of bran are broken and
a little flour is made. The ground material that comes out from first
break is called break stock –I which is fed to sifter/bolter.
• In sifter, two sieves are arranged at a particular angle. It classifies
the mixture of particles into the three grades : coarse particles,
middling (containing endosperm) and fine particles.
• The coarse particles are carried to break set – II for further
breaking where as fine particles are separated as flour – B while
middling is carried to purifier.
• Purifier is similar to a sifter. Here a controlled flow of air lifts off
bran particles while at the same time bolting cloth separates and
grades coarser fractions by size and quality. Middling of higher size
can be taken out and sold as Soji or Rava.
• Four or five additional break sets with successively finer
corrugations and each followed by a sifter and purifier are usually
used to recrack the coarse stocks from the previous sifters and
reduce the wheat particles to granular middlings free from brans as
far as possible. Germ particles being plastic in nature will flattened.
It can be easily separated later on when the material passes
through smooth reduction rolls.
• REDUCTION : Purified middling are fed to reduction
roll, for further grinding. These rolls differ from break
rolls in two important aspects :
• The rollers surface are quiet smooth.
• The speed difference between two rolls is lower.
Usually 11/4 :1.
• The material which is obtained from first reduction roll
is known as reduction stock – I which is fed to sifter,
where it is devided into two parts :
• Fine particles : which is separated as flour R1
• Oversized material : which is fed to reduction roll II and
the will produce flour –R, with the help of sifter.
• This process continues 4 to 5 times, and produces
flour – R. R etc. The quality of flour will differ at each
stage. Hence the different types of flour are obtained
by the one milling process.
• R1 : Whitest among all flours B1
• R2 : Increase the bran quantity/ B2
• Becomes darken in colour
• R3 : Increase quantity of B3
• Vitamins and minerals
• R4 : Increase nutritional values B4
• R5 : Decrease baking quality B5
• R6 : Decrease keeping quality B6
The process (sifting – purifying – reducing) is repeated until the
maximum amount of the flour is separated, consisting of
atleast 72% of the wheat. The remaining 28% of the wheat is
being classified as mill feed.
 Bleaching : A flour which has just been milled is known as green
flour. It contains relatively high moisture and slightly yellowish
colour due to presence of xanthophylls and other carotenoid
pigments. The treatment to remove the natural colour of these
pigments and to make the flour white is known as bleaching.
• chemicals are used which are known as bleaching agent, viz. :
• Chlorine
• Chlorine dioxide
• Sulphur dioxide
• Acetone proxide
• Benzoy! Peroxide These three are the most
• Oxides of nitrogen modern bleaching agents
• Azodicarbonamide available in market.
Maturing : Freshly milled flour has poor water
absorption power, poor strength and poor baking
quality. It is improved by oxidation process and is
known as maturing.
• It is called artificial maturation, and the
chemicals used for this process are known as
maturing agents viz.:
• Potassium bromated
• Potassium iodate
• Potassium persulphate
• Ascorbic acid
Enrichment : When white flour is milled, a much larger
portion of natural vitamins and minerals present in bran
and germ are removed along with bran and germ. Hence,
such nutrients are added artificially to increase the
nutritional level of the flour. This is known as enrichment,
• The usual vitamins enriched are thiamine, riboflavin
and niacin while among minerals calcium and iron are often
added. This mixture may be added to flour by miller at the
flour mill or at the processing stage of bread by bakers.
• Usually wheat contains low lysine (the essential amino acid)
hence to obtain a reasonable increase in protein efficiency
in bread, atleast 0.2% lysine (on f.b.) must be added.
• Storage : Flour in a good condition should have :
• Creamy white colour.
• Reflect under bright light (rather than have dead appearance like
chalk powder).
• Pleasant smell and slightly sweetish taste.
• Tend to cling together yet should easily fall apart, when squeezed
firmly in hand.
• A miller or baker has to store flour for many reasons. While storing,
following points are to be kept in mind :
• Flour bags should be piled off the floor on skids to enable free
circulation of air all around the piles.
• The storage area should be well ventilated.
• Flour should be kept away from direct sunlight.
• Temperature of the storage area should be 190 to 240C (650 to 750F)
and the rh should be 55 to 65. Too low or too high rh are
detrimental to flour quality.
• Flour should be stored away from ingredients which may impart
odour because it picks up foreign odours.
• While storing, it may be ensured that the flour is free from insect
infestation.
 Different Grades of the Flour :
100 kg Wheat
72% of Wheat = 100% Straight Run Flour 28% of Wheat = Brand Feed
40% 55% 14% Bran 14% Short
Extra Short or Fancy Clear Flour 16% Bran 12% Short
Fancy Patent Flour
60%
Short or

Poor Second Clear Flour

First Patent Flour
70%
Short Patent Flour
80%
Medium Patent Flour
90%
Long Patent Flour
95%
Straight Run Flour
100%
 FLOUR CONSTITUENTS
Carbohydrate Quantity (%)
Constituent Quantity (%)
Starch 66 to 69
Carbohydr 72 to 75
Sugars 1.4 to 1.6
ates 11 to 12 (glucose, 0.9 to 1.2
Protein 1 to 1.2 maltose 2.3 to 2.5

Fat 0.4 to 0.5 and sucrose) 0.2 to 0.3

Other sugars
Ash Trace
Hemicellulose
(Minerals) 12 to 14
s
Vitamins
Cellulose
Moisture
Protein :
• Gluten : Gluten is formed only when water is added to flour and dough is
produced by hydration. This is principally made up of glutenin and gliadin.
However, it also contains small quantity of fat, cellulose, minerals etc. The
gluten is insoluble in water, hence it can be obtained by washing dough in
the form of wet gluten. It contains water approximately 2/3 of its weight.
On drying the wet gluten, dry gluten is obtained. On dry basis, crude
gluten contains 75 to 85% protein, 5 to 10% lipid and the remainder
consisting of starch
• Gluten forms about 90% of the total protein of flour. gluten is responsible
for the rheological properties of dough because it forms the skeleton of
the dough and ultimately format the structure of the baked products. High
structured products like bread will require stronger quality of gluten while
low structured products like cakes and cookies do not requires strong
gluten. The strength of wheat flour depends on the quantity of gluten
present, while the gas retaining properties depends upon the quality of
gluten. Gliadin in gluten confers mellowness and elasticity, while the
glutenin provides the structure. The greater the amount of gliadin. The
softer the gluten.
• Fat : Minerals : Vitamins: Vitamin –A : Vitamin-B- Complex: Vitamin –C
and D: Vitamin E: Moisture: Enzymes :
 General Specification : FLOUR SPECIFICATION:
BIS Specifications :
End use Protein Gluten
Constituents Flour for use in
(%) (%)
Bread Biscuit
Bread (strong 11 More Cake
Moisture % (Maximum) 13.0 13.0 13.0
flour) 9-10 than 8
Protein (Nx5.7)% (Min. on 11.0 9.00 9.00
Pastry 9 7.5 to 8.0
d.b.) 8.00 7.50 7.50
(medium 9 7.5 Gluten % (Min on d.b.) 0.50 0.50 0.50

hard) 10-11 7.5 Total ash% (max on d.b.) 0.05 0.05 0.05
Acid insoluble ash (Max on 0.10 0.10 0.10
Cake (Soft) -
b.d.) 60.0 55.0 55.0
Biscuits
Alcoholic acidity % 30.0 22.0 22.0
Yeast raised (Maximum)

products Water absorption %

(Maximum)
Sedimentation value %
(Maximum)
Wheat Product Quality:
• Product specific genotypes were identified on the basis of:
Chapati : >8.0 sensory score score out of 10.0
Bread : >575 ml loaf volume
Biscuit : >8.0 spread factor
Pasta : >6.5 Sensory score out of 9.0
• The varieties with >45 ppm iron (Fe) content were HI 1544,
MP 4010, MP 3288, HI 1500 and HI 8627 (d). Likewise,
varieties MP 3336, MP 4010 and MPO 1215 (d) recorded >40
ppm zinc (Zn).
• M.P. has got success in developing varieties (MP 1203)
having highest protein (13.23%) content and also having
variety (MP 1202) with highest micronutrients like iron
(42.5ppm) Zn (41.9ppm) and Manganese (51.9ppm).
• The varieties recording >70 % extraction rate were also
identified.
Promising wheat varieties in Madhya Pradesh for
various wheat products

Products Wheat Varieties

Lok 1, C 306, Sujata, GW 322, HW 2004, HI 1500, HI

1531, HI 1544, HW 2004, DL-788-2, GW 173, GW
Chapati
273, GW 322, Raj 3077, HD 2864, HD 2932, MP
1203, Raj 4238, MP 1202,MP 3336

Bread Lok 1, GW 120, GW 173, DL-788-2, GW 190, GW 496

HI 8663, HI 8498, HI 8627, HD 4672, Raj 1555 and
Pasta
MPO 1255
Lok 1, GW 173, DL 88-2, GW 366, HI 1500, HI 1531, HI
Extraction
1544, HD 2864, Hd 2932, MP 3288, GW 322, DL 788-
rate 2, HW 2004, MP 4010