COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH- I

M.A., ENGLISH
Semester – III, Paper-II

Lesson Writers
Mr. K. Sai Krishna Dr. V. Parvati Dr. R.V. Jayanth Kasyap
Associate Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor,
Gudlavalleru Engi. College, Dept. of Humanities & Dept. of English,
Gudlavalleru, Krishna Dist. Social Sciences, JNTU College Yogi vemana University,
of Engineering,Hyderabad. Kadapa.

Ms.T. Sujani [Link]

Dept. of Basic Sciences & Assistant Professor,
Humanities, Vasavi Engi. College, Dept. of Humanities & Social
College, Thadapalli Gudem, Sciences, JNTU College of
West Godavari. Engineering, Hyderabad.

Lesson Writer & Editor

Prof. K. Ratna Shiela Mani
Professor,
Dept. of English,
Acharya Nagarjuna University

Director
Dr. NAGARAJU BATTU
MBA., MHRM., LLM., [Link]. (Psy).,MA (Soc)., [Link]., [Link]., Ph.D

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

ACHARAYANAGARJUNAUNIVERSITY
NAGARJUNANAGAR – 522510
Ph:0863-2346222,2346208,
0863-2346259(Study Material)
Website: [Link]
e-mail:anucdedirector@[Link]
M.A. ENGLISH - COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH- I

First Edition 2023

No. of Copies :

©AcharyaNagarjunaUniversity

This book is exclusively prepared for the use of students of M.A.(English) Centre for Distance
Education, Acharya Nagarjuna University and this book is meant for limited
Circulation only.

Published by:
Dr. NAGARAJU BATTU,
Director
Centre for Distance Education,
Acharya Nagarjuna University

Printed at:
 FOREWORD

Since its establishment in 1976, Acharya Nagarjuna University has been forging a
head in the path of progress and dynamism, offering a variety of courses and research
contributions. I am extremely happy that by gaining ‘A’ grade from the NAAC in the year
2016, Acharya Nagarjuna University is offering educational opportunities at the UG, PG
levels apart from research degrees to students from over 443 affiliated colleges spread over
the two districts of Guntur and Prakasam.

The University has also started the Centre for Distance Education in 2003-04 with
the aim of taking higher education to the door step of all the sectors of the society. The
centre will be a great help to those who cannot join in colleges, those who cannot afford
the exorbitant fees as regular students, and even to housewives desirous of pursuing
higher studies. Acharya Nagarjuna University has started offering B.A., and [Link]
courses at the Degree level and M.A., [Link]., [Link]., M.B.A., and L.L.M., courses at the
PG level from the academic year 2003-2004onwards.

To facilitate easier understanding by students studying through the distance mode,

these self-instruction materials have been prepared by eminent and experienced teachers.
The lessons have been drafted with great care and expertise in the stipulated time by these
teachers. Constructive ideas and scholarly suggestions are welcome from students and
teachers involved respectively. Such ideas will be incorporated for the greater efficacy of
this distance mode of education. For clarification of doubts and feedback, weekly classes
and contact classes will be arranged at the UG and PG levels respectively.

It is my aim that students getting higher education through the Centre for Distance
Education should improve their qualification, have better employment opportunities and
in turn be part of country’s progress. It is my fond desire that in the years to come, the
Centre for Distance Education will go from strength to strength in the form of new courses
and by catering to larger number of people. My congratulations to all the Directors,
Academic Coordinators, Editors and Lesson-writers of the Centre who have helped in
these endeavors.

Prof. P. RajaSekhar
Vice-Chancellor
Acharya Nagarjuna University
 Semester – III
302EG21: COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH –I
Paper-II
SYLLABUS

UNIT- I

Language and Communication:

Nature & Definition of Communication- Process of Communication- Participants,
Message, Purpose/Channel, Topic, Context, Barriers in Communication.

Types of Communication- Personal or Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Organizational,

Mass Communication, Social Communication, Group Communication.

Prescribed Texts:
Leena Sen.2007. Communication skills. New Delhi: Prentice Hall Pub.
Asha [Link] Business Communication. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Pub.

UNIT-II

Verbal & Non-Verbal Communication:

Language and Communication: Sign language. Body-Language.
Language Functions: Greeting, apologizing, requesting, offering help, inviting,
agreeing/ disagreeing etc.

Prescribed Texts:
Leena Sen.2007. Communication skills. New Delhi: Prentice Hall Pub.
Part 3- Non-Verbal Communication
Board of [Link] and Spoken Communication in English. Universities Press.

UNIT – III

Language Skills:
Listening: Types of listening, Purpose of listening
Speaking: Distinguishing between problem speech sounds, stress & intonation.
Reading: Skimming, Scanning, Inferring meaning, Intensive and Extensive reading.
Writing: Letters, reports, business letters, circulars, minutes etc.

Prescribed Texts:
Communication skills: A Multi-Skill Course 2008. Bharathiaar University, Chennai,
Macmillan Publishers, chapters -I and III
Sanjay Kumar and Pushp Lata 2013. English for Effective Communication OUP.
UNIT- IV

Vocabulary in use.
Word formation, Idioms & Phrases, Denotative & Connotative meaning, Synonyms &
Antonyms, One-word Substitutes, Using words as different Parts of Speech, Contextual
meaning.

Prescribed Texts:
Hari Mohana Prasad and Uma rani 2014. Objective English. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Pub.
Publication. Chapters 14,15,19,20,24.
Krishna Mohan & Meenakshi Raman 2000. Effective English Communication. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw Hill Pub.

UNIT – V

Functional Grammar:
Basic sentence structures, Articles, Tenses, Prepositions, Concord, Number, transformation of
sentences, Active/Passive, Direct/Reported…etc.

Prescribed Texts:
Krishna Mohan & Meenakshi Raman 2000. Effective English Communication. New Delhi: Tata
McGraw Hill Pub. Chapters 14 & 18.
Board of [Link] and Spoken Communication in English. Universities Press.

SUGGESTED READINGS:

1. N.D. Turton and J.B. Healon, 1996. Dictionary of Common Errors. Glassgow: Longman
Publishers.
2. Alan Barker 2007, Improve your Communication Skills, New Delhi: Kogan Page India
Ltd.,
3. John Sealey 1987, The Oxford Guide to Effective Writing and Speaking , London: oxford
Press.
4. Krishna Mohan and Meera Benerji 1990. Developing Communication Skills, New Delhi:
McMillan.
5. Allan, Pease 2007. Body Language. London, Sheldon Press. Reprinted in India,
Competition Review, New Delhi.
 CONTENTS

[Link]. LESSON NAME PAGES

1 Definition & Nature of Communication 1.1 -1.12
2. Types of Communication and Barriers
in Communication 2.1 – 2.16
3. Language and Communication: Sign Language
and Body Language 3.1 – 3.10
4. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
Language Functions (A) 4.1 – 4.11
5. Language Functions (B) 5.1 – 5.12
6. Listening 6.1 – 6.16
7. Speaking: Problem Sounds and Word Stress 7.1 – 7.13
8. Speaking: Intonation and the Art of Public Speaking 8.1 – 8.12
9. Reading 9.1 – 9.11
10. Writing Letters and Reports 10.1 – 10.18
11. Writing Invitations, Minutes and Circulars 11.1 – 11.10
12. Word Formation, Idioms 7 Phrases, One-word
Substitutes, Spelling 12.1 – 12.26
13. Denotative & Connotative Meaning, synonyms, Antonyms 13.1 – 13.15
14. Using Words as Different Parts of Speech,
Contextual Meaning 14.1 – 14.12
15. Basic Sentence Structures and transformation of Sentences 15.1 – 15.13
16. Articles 16.1 – 16.14
17. Prepositions 17.1 – 17.17
18. Tenses, Concord, Number 18.1 – 18.19
 LESSON-1
DEFINITION AND NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are to enable the students to

 understand the definition and nature of communication
 understand the process of communication
 make them aware of different models of communication
 know the operational levels of communication

STRUCTURE
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Definition
1.3. The nature of communication
1.3.1 Communication is related to human activity
1.3.2 Communication involves two or more parties
1.3.3 Communication could be one-way or maybe two-way process
1.3.4 Success of communication depends on a proper understanding of the parties
involved
1.3.5 Conversation in organization flows in a variety of styles
1.3.6 Communication is media or channel based
1.4. Process of Communication
1.4.1. The Sender
1.4.2. The Receiver
1.4.3. Encoding Message
1.4.4. Channel / Medium / Purpose
1.4.5. Decoding
1.4.6. Feedback
1.4.7. Context
1.5. Turn-Taking System
1.6. Types of communication
1.7. The Models of communication
1.6.1. Linear Communication Model
1.7.2. Interactive Communication Model
1.7.3. Transactional Communication Model
1.7.4. Diagonal communication
1.8. Operational Levels of communication
1.9. 7 C’s and 4 S’s
1.10. Conclusion
1.11. Self-Assessment Questions
1.12. References
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Communicative English-1 1.2 Definition and Nature…

Communication is a process of exchanging ideas, views and knowledge in the

sociocultural system with each other. The term communication comes from the Latin word
‘Communis’ which means ‘to share, to commune’. Communication proficiency is a caliber to
exchange our views and aspirations in an effective manner, and a good communication can
enhance healthy relationships among the people to accomplish regular needs as well as to
achieve their goals.

The phenomenon of communication is the natural desire of a human being to express

his/her feelings and ideas to others. The basic purpose of communication is to bring changes in
the behavior of the receiver. Other purposes of communication are to inform, educate and
entertain people.

1.2. DEFINITIONS

There are several ways in which ‘communication’ has been defined.

“Communication is transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it

elicits confidence. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver”. (G.G.
Brown).

Communication is the process involving the transmission and reception of symbols

eliciting meaning in the minds of the participants by making common their life experiences.
(Baird Jr. E John).

Communication is the “the transfer of information and understanding from one person to
another person. It is a way of reaching others through facts, ideas, thoughts and values. It is a
bridge of meaning among people so that they can share what they feel and know. By using this
bridge a person can cross safely the river of misunderstanding that sometimes separates people”.
(Keith 1993: 399).

Communication can be defined as a –

 transactional process that involves an exchange of ideas, information, feelings, attitudes,
or beliefs and impressions;
 multi-level process in an organization because it involves the organizational hierarchy,
from the top to the bottom, and across the horizontal levels;
 cultural interaction with people in groups for conversing and sharing ideas in social
gatherings and not talking shop;
 disseminating process that involves passing on information to masses through the media;
 transactional process that motivates and fosters growth and mutual understanding;
 dynamic process that challenges ‘what you say’ and ‘how you say’ at that particular
moment;
 mental/psychological process talking to oneself in mind, and
 (an) interactional process with the corporate.
The goal of communication is usually to generate action, inform, create understanding, or
communicate a certain idea or point of view.
1.3 THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
Centre for Distance Education 1.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Communication occurs wherever life exists. The nature of communication is the

exchange of information between two people. It is required that there be both a sender and a
receiver for communication to take place. Communication is reciprocal. So at any time the
sender is sending a message the receiver is also sending messages. The transmission of any
meaningful message is communication. Communication contributes enormously to the success
or failure of every human activity. Communication is essentially the ability of one person to
make contact with another and to make himself understood. Communication represents the
important role inside personal existence, family member’s existence, cultural existence, company
existence and many others. The nature of communication can be understood as the combination
of the following points:

 Communication is related to human activity

 Communication involves two or more parties
 Communication could be one-way or maybe two-way process
 Success of communication depends on a proper understanding of the parties
involved
 Conversation in organization flows in a variety of styles
 Communication is media or channel based

1.4. PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication has a wider perspective in nature with its areas like cognition, perception
and process of communication. There are numerous models which have brought into the light
about the process.

Process of Communication

There are two parties involved in the communication process. Communication is nothing
but sharing information or ideas between two or more. Hence, there will always be a sender and
a receiver. The process of communication starts with the sender who gets ideas and starts
sending information through proper channel which was the first step in the process of
communication, Whereas, the receiver who receives the information communicated by the
sender, understands and sends his/her response in the form of feedback.
1.4.1. The Sender
Communicative English-1 1.4 Definition and Nature…

The Sender has information that he wants to share with someone else, usually for some
intended purpose. The Sender is responsible for "encoding" the information into a message and
then transmitting it.

Encoding the information usually entails putting thoughts into words and then
transmitting those words by speaking them, typing them into an email and sending it, and so on.
But it could also involve non-verbal communication.

1.4.2. The Receiver

The Receiver is the intended target of the message sent by the Sender. The Receiver is
responsible for "decoding" the message and interpreting it. It is important to be aware of the
Receiver's environment. For example, what are their experiences, language capabilities, and
goals?

1.4.3. Encoding message

Encoding message is the second step in the process of communication. It is the process of
framing and transforming ideas into proper message by the sender. The process of encoding
depends upon neurological processes in the brain. The brain receives and analyses the
information. The thinking part of the brain is called ‘the cerebrum.’ The cerebrum is divided
into four sections or lobes. They are the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. Here, the
broca’s area of the front lobe plays the significant role in the production of the language and
word meaning. Therefore, the process of encoding is associated with neurological process where
the sender gets and converts the ideas into words or gestures based on the relationship between
the two parties.

1.4.4. Channel/ Purpose/Medium

Most of the time, the communication occurs to develop interaction among the people in
the society. The sender must know the purpose of communication before sending it to the target
group. Channel is a medium through which the encoded message is transmitted to its intended
object i.e. receiver of the message. The medium can influence the process of encoding the
message. The encoded message travels in the f oral, aural or written forms depending upon the
purpose and occasion. It entails freedom from interruption and commotion which is called the
communication environment to communicate the message through selected medium.

1.4.5. Decoding

Decoding is the process of receiving and understanding the message from the sender. The
communication cannot be successful, unless it is decoded by the receiver effectively. Here, when
the message is sent by the sender, it reaches the brain where the interpretation and processing of
sounds take place. The process of decoding and understanding of the spoken words takes place in
the left temporal lobe in Wernicke’s area of the brain. Effective decoding takes place where the
message is decoded by the receiver with his/her cognitive skills such as good perception and
understanding.

1.4.6. Feedback
Centre for Distance Education 1.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

The final stage of communication process is Feedback. It is very much required to take
the conversation forward between the sender and receiver. As Andrew Grove says, effective
communication does not depend on how well we say things, but how well the recipient receives
and understand. And it is the last step where the intended message has been checked by the
sender. It will be a futile task, unless the receiver decodes the message correctly.

Feedback is any response to a communicated message. It takes the form of a message itself,
and may be verbal, visual, or written. Often, feedback is essential, because it is what turns one-
way communication into two-way communication. Feedback may be positive or negative:

 Positive feedback indicates that the receiver has received and understood the message.
 Negative feedback indicates that the receiver either has not received the message or has not
understood its content

Feedback is important during communication because it helps the sender to make any
necessary adjustments so that the message is correctly received. Feedback is also
important after one has delivered a message. It enables further clarification or discussion.

1.4.7. Context

Context is the situation for conversation to take place between two or more persons. It
can regulate one’s thought process and ideation to encode intended message. Communication
cannot be possible without situation or context.

Every message (oral or written), begins with context. Context is a very broad field that
consists of different aspects. One aspect is country or culture or organization. Every
organization culture/ country/ communicates information in its own way.

Another aspect of context is external stimulus. The sources of external stimulus include:
meeting, letter, memo, telephone call, fax, note, email and even a casual conversation. This
external stimulus motivates you to respond and this response may be oral or written.

An internal stimulus is another aspect of communication. Internal Stimuli include:

opinion, attitude, likes, dislikes, emotions, experience, education and confidence. These all have
multiple influence on the way we communicate our ideas.

For the process of communication to be effective, there should be a well-defined goal in

the mind of the sender. Harmony between the goals of the two communicators makes for good
and easy progression of ideas and concepts. Whatever be the initial situation, the sender
necessarily needs to adhere to the following stages:

1. Create an awareness in the mind of the receiver on the topic

2. Propose his point of view with clarity and preciseness so as to eliminate
possibilities of confusion in the mind of the receiver.
3. Enable smooth flow of discussion through observance of communication
strategies.
Communicative English-1 1.6 Definition and Nature…

4. Reinforce correct ideas in the mind of the receiver concerning the goal of
communication.
5. Achieve the goal of communication

At the time of transmission and reception of message, all our five senses play an
important role in grasping its intent. The sense that is predominantly active at a particular stage
helps in a higher degree of absorption; for example, in the course of communication, if the visual
sense at a particular moment, is highly active, we respond only to the visual cues.

1.5. TURN-TAKING SYSTEM

Ethno-methodologists have identified different organizational features in a piece of

conversation. E.A. Schegloff lists seven such aspects, out of which the first is of direct relevance
as it helps in facilitating the process of communication. The first rule states that: A turn-taking
system allocates turns to the speakers in the following manner:

1. The first speaker selects the one to talk next (by asking questions /tag questions, etc) or
2. The speaker who self-selects continues speaking for a whole turn.

The entire process of communication hinges on this rule. The sender, if he desires to control
communication, has to chalk out strategies by which the receiver is led to agree to his goal, and a
lot of strategies need to be planned, e.g. transmitting visual signs or clues that prompt a receiver
to pick up the cues and start communication or fill in the gaps or conclude. These signals form an
essential part of the entire process. Together with identification of these signals, there should also
be an accurate interpretation and response.

1.6. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can broadly be categorized under three heads: Oral, Non-Verbal, and
Written.
1. Oral
a. Words
b. Articulation
2. Non-verbal
a. Body language
b. Signs and symbols
c. Territory / zone
d. Object language
3. Written
a. Reports
b. Illustrations
c. Memos
d. Telegrams
e. Facsimiles
f. E-mails
g. Tenders
h. Others
Centre for Distance Education 1.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

1.6.1. Oral Communication

Anything emanating from the mouth is referred to as oral. Within this component would
fall words and the manner in which words are pronounced. More important than the words
themselves is paralanguage or voice articulation. The listener pays more attention to voice
modulations than he does to the actual words. It has been found that the listener pays heed to the
verbal content only 7% of the time, 38% of the time his attention focuses on voice articulation
and modulation, and 55% of the time his attention centres on body language or body sport. If all
these three components are in harmony, the listener has no problem in grasping the import of the
message. If there is some dichotomy between the two, it creates conflicts in the mind of the
listener and he believes the voice modulation and the body language more than the words, e.g.
the superior visits the house of a subordinate who is about to go out for a party. The latter can
neither quit the scene without offending his superior nor can he stay back happily. In a situation
such as this the conflict in his mind is reflected in the difference between words, which are full
of typical welcoming phrases, and the tone which lacks the same warmth.

In oral communication, words should be very carefully chosen. Words both denote and
connote a meaning. The former would almost be the literal translation of the word, something
like a dictionary meaning. The latter would be the implied meaning. Whenever there is
difference between the two, it can lead to what we refer to as a “sarcastic remark”. This is also
evidenced in tone and voice modulations, e.g. a business executive plunged in the midst of heavy
work is disturbed by a friend who drops in without an appointment. Suppose he makes a
statement of the following nature, “I am very delighted to see you” with an edge to his voice.
Through his statement it is clear that he is denoting how happy he is to meet his friend. However,
the underlying connotations too are evident: “Did you have to drop in at this moment?”. It is the
intention of the sender behind the words or the connotations that are more important. These are
also supported by the voice modulation.

1.6.2. Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is an integral part of us and helps in communicating

effectively. The way an individual positions himself, holds his hands, tilts his head, all transmit
volumes about the individual. It is evident that a receiver observes non-verbal communication
55% of the time, which is much more than listening merely to the words and the voice
articulation. Lack of emphasis in this area is due to paucity of material and lack of expertise.
However, the ‘feel’ for an understanding of body language is present in all, e.g. a novice cannot
figure out exact correlates for a particular body sport but he does gather an impression and
feeling about an individual that he believes more readily than words.

1.6.3. Written Communication

Written communication takes on a number of forms. The writer has to be extra cautious
at the time of formulating a message, if it is of a formal nature. Whatever is written is in black
and white and is used mostly for documentation of information or circulation to all concerned.
Therefore, there are very few chances of the writer trying to shift his stand. There could, as in
oral communication, be errors about the understanding of the script, but the chances are minimal.
Communicative English-1 1.8 Definition and Nature…

Written communication is the most formal of all types of communication. It is also bound
by the dictates of the organization. Many companies have their typical manner of functioning
and sending written messages. They are accustomed to a set pattern and any deviation from the
norm can create a disturbance in the normal functioning of the company. Further, with the
progression of technology, written communication has widened its horizon to encompass
electronic means of communicating message. E-mail is an excellent example of this.
Transmitting of written messages within the company or outside can be done easily and in a
short span of time.

1.7. THE MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

The purpose of a “model” is to offer a visual representation of a concept with the intent
of facilitating the understanding of it. Traditionally speaking, there are three standard models of
the communication process: Linear, Interactive, and Transactional, and each offers a slightly
different perspective on the communication process.

1.7.1. Linear Communication Model

There is a bit of a debate about the Linear Communication model and how it recognizes
(or doesn’t recognize) the concept of feedback. The linear model’s behavior is belied by its
name, where a sender encodes a message via a channel and the message is decoded by the
receiver. It is straight-line communication found typically in mass communication; television,
radio, newspapers, etc. According to this model, there is no means for immediate feedback.

Liner Communication Model

1.7.2. Interactive Communication Model

Simply put, the Interactive Model takes the Linear Model and multiplies it two times with
a quick flip of the return message. It now allows for a feedback element because after a message
is encoded and sent to the decoding receiver, the roles then reverse and the receiver encodes and
sends a response to the original sender who has now turned receiver. It sounds more confusing
than it is. Envision an exchange of text messages whereby your friend sends you a message and
you respond to it. The same thing happens during a telephone call, or even an email exchange.
A message is sent and received, and then the roles reverse. That is the Interactive Model.
Centre for Distance Education 1.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Interactive Communication Model

1.7.3. Transactional Communication Model

The Transactional Model becomes more sophisticated yet. This model depicts face-to-face
interaction, or “trans-action” as a dynamic and changeable process that is not limited to simple
definition. In the Transactional Model, receiver and sender can play the same roles
simultaneously, as sometimes happens, as messages can be sent back and forth simultaneously.
It appears chaotic and ineffective, but sometimes communication is just that. Throw in some
noise, and it would be a wonder whether any message is conveyed successfully in this
environment.

Transactional Communication Model

1.7.4. Diagonal Communication Model

In an organization, communication does not necessarily traverse along a stipulated path.

While vertical and horizontal forms for transmission of messages are important, there is yet
another mode to be taken cognizance of, that is, the diagonal. In this type of communication,
there is no direct path chalked out for information to travel. It could, at certain stages, take on
the upward path, then a lateral direction and, finally move downward, or it could even skip
certain stages.

This channel proves to be very effective as hierarchical bindings are done away with and
communication flows irrespective of position or status. It also helps in building relationships
and binding ties between the superior and the subordinate. In fact, in many countries in the
West, managers are being trained to move in the midst of the employees at work to remove the
fear of status and position. This channel could, however, give rise to gossip, grapevine and
rumor. As no one is directly responsible for the flow of information, no one is willing to take
responsibility.

1.8. OPERATIONAL LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

Whenever people communicate, they exchange two kinds of messages. Strictly, we can
say that they are operating at two levels as far as the communication is concerned. The two
levels are as follows:
Communicative English-1 1.10 Definition and Nature…

1. Content Messages: Focus on subject being discussed

2. Relational Messages: Make statements about how we feel about each other or who
we are to each other (I like you vs. I don’t like you; I’m superior vs. I’m inferior, etc.)

Relational Messages reflect the following Social Needs.

a. Control: The distribution of power between people or ability to influence the other
person or the situation
b. Affection: How much people like each other
c. Inclusion: Degree of desired involvement with others
d. Respect: How much you expect from others and self-esteem
e. Identity: How you see yourself and how you want others to see you

1.9. 7 C’S AND 4 S’S

Adhering to the 7 C’s and the 4 S’s helps the sender in transmitting his message with ease
and accuracy. Let us first take a look at the 7 C’s:

1. Credibility: If the sender can establish his credibility, the receiver has no problems in
accepting his statement. Establishing credibility is not the outcome of a one-shot
statement. It is a long-drawn out process in which the receiver through constant
interacting with the sender understands his credible nature and is willing to accept his
statements as being truthful and honest.

2. Courtesy: Once the credibility of the sender has been established, attempts should be
made at being courteous in expression. In the business world, almost everything starts
with and ends in courtesy. Much can be accomplished if tact, diplomacy and appreciation
of people are woven in the message.

3. Clarity: Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the meaning of the message. The first
stage is clarity in the mind of the sender. The next stage is the transmission of the
message in a manner which makes it simple for the receiver to comprehend. As far as
possible, simple language and easy sentence constructions, which are not difficult for the
receiver to grasp, should be used.

4. Correctness: At the time of encoding, the sender should ensure that his knowledge of the
receiver is comprehensive. The level of knowledge, educational background and status of
the decoder help the encoder in formulating his message. In case there is any discrepancy
between the usage and comprehension of terms, miscommunication can arise. If the
sender decides to back up his communication with facts and figures, there should be
accuracy in stating the same. A situation in which the listener is forced to check the
presented facts and figures should not arise. Finally the usage of terms should be
nondiscriminatory, e.g. the general concept is that women should be addressed for their
physical appearance whereas men for their mental abilities. This, however, is a stereotype
and at the time of addressing or praising members of the sexes, the attributes assigned
should be the same.
Centre for Distance Education 1.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

5. Consistency: The approach to communication should, as far as possible, be consistent.

There should not be too many ups and downs that might lead to confusion in the mind of
the receiver. If a certain stand has been taken, it should be observed without there being
situations in which the sender is left groping for the actual content or meaning. If the
sender desired to bring about a change in his understanding of the situation, he should
ensure that the shift is gradual and not hard for the receiver to comprehend.

6. Concreteness: Concrete and specific expressions are to be preferred in favour of vague

and abstract expressions. In continuation of the point on correctness, the facts and the
figures presented should be specific. Abstractions or abstract statements can cloud the
mind of the sender. Instead of stating: “There has been a tremendous escalation in the
sales figure”, suppose the sender made the following statement: “ There has been an
escalation in the sales figures by almost 50% as compared to last year.” The receiver is
more apt to listen and comprehend the factual details.

7. Conciseness: The message to be communicated should be as brief and concise as

possible. Weighty language definitely sounds impressive but people would be suitably
impressed into doing precisely nothing. As far as possible, only simple and brief
statements should be made. Excessive information can also sway the receiver into either a
wrong direction or into inaction. Quantum of information should be just right, neither too
much nor too little.

4 S’s

An understanding of the 4 S’s is equally important.

1. Shortness: It is said that Brevity is the soul of wit. The same can be said about
communication. If the message can be made brief, and verbosity done away with, then
transmission and comprehension of message is going to be faster and more effective.
Flooding messages with high sounding words does not create an impact. Many people
harbor a misconception that they can actually impress the receiver, if they carry on their
expeditious travails. Little do they realize how much they have lost as the receiver has
spent a major chunk of his time in trying to decipher the actual meaning of the message.

2. Simplicity: Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals a clarity in the
thinking process. It is normally a tendency that when an individual is himself confused
that he tries to use equally confusing strategies to lead the receiver into a maze. Reveal
clarity in the thinking process by using simple terminology and equally simple concepts.

3. Strength: The strength of a message emanates from the credibility of the sender. If the
sender himself believes in a message that he is about to transmit, there is bound to be
strength and conviction in whatever he tries to state. Half-hearted statements or
utterances that the sender himself does not believe in, adds a touch of falsehood to the
entire communication process.

4. Sincerity: A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to the receiver. If the sender
is genuine, it will be reflected in the manner in which he communicates. Suppose there is
a small element of deceit involved in the interaction or on the part of the sender. If the
Communicative English-1 1.12 Definition and Nature…

receiver is keen and observant, he would be able to sense the make-believe situation and,
business transactions, even if going full swing, would not materialize.

1.10. CONCLUSION

Communication is the interdependent process of sending, receiving, and understanding

messages. Although it is an ongoing, dynamic process that changes from one communication
setting to the next, there are certain components that are always present: people, a message,
encoding, decoding, the channel, feedback, the context, and noise. Communication functions in
several ways. It can create our sense of self, form relationships and communities, be used to
persuade, and convey and create information. Communication can take place when we interact
with another person, when we interact with a small group, and when we speak to an audience. In
all these situations, intrapersonal communication (communication with ourselves) can be
expected. Interpersonal communication is the informal exchange that occurs between two or
more people; the interaction between two people is called dyadic communication, whereas an
interaction involving three to eight people is called group communication. A final type of
communication, social communication, involves an individual, who constantly shares
information with a large group, without much feedback given on the information.

1.11. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is communication? Write a short note on the scope of communication.

2. Discuss the nature of communication in detail.
3. What are the different models of communication?
4. Explain the process of communication.
5. Write a short note on operational levels of communication.

1.12. REFERENCES

1. Asha Kaul, 2007. Effective Business Communication. Tata McGraw – Hill publishing Company
Limited
2. M. Ashraf Rizvi. 2008. Effective Technical Communication. Tata McGraw – Hill publishing
Company Limited.
3. Meenakshi Raman and Sangeeta Sharma. 2011. Technical Communication Principles and
Practice. Oxford University Press.
4. Leena Sen. 2007. Communication Skills. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt Ltd.
5. Lesley Lanir. 2010. English Teaching Professional: Learning Disability, Issue 7, pp.34-35,
Macmillan Publishers India Ltd.
K. Sai Krishna
 LESSON – 2
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION AND
BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are to enable the students to

 understand the different types of communication
 understand how different types of barriers hinder communication
 make them aware of different measures to handle barriers in communication

STRUCTURE

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Intrapersonal Communication
2.3 Interpersonal Communication
2.3.1. Types of Interpersonal Communication
2.3.2. Basic elements
2.3.3. Communication Channels
2.4. Organizational Communication
2.4.1. Communication According to Organizational Structure
[Link]. Formal Communication
[Link]. Informal Communication
2.4.2. Communication According to Direction
[Link] Downward Communication
[Link]. Upward Communication
[Link]. Horizontal Communication
2.4.3. Communication according to Way of Expression
[Link]. Oral or Verbal Communication
[Link]. Written Communication
2.5. Mass communication
2.6. Social communication
2.7. Group communication
2.8. Barriers to Communication
2.8.1. Physical Barriers
2.8.2. Cultural Barriers
2.8.3. Language Barriers
2.8.4. Perceptual Barriers
2.8.5. Interpersonal Barriers
2.8.6. Gender Barriers
2.8.7. Emotional Barriers
2.9. Conclusion
2.10. Self-Assessment Questions
2.11. References
Communicative English-1 2.2 Types of Communi…

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Communication means transferring messages from one to another through any medium.
The definitions, Nature and Process of communication were discussed in the previous lesson.
In this lesson types of communication like Intrapersonal communication, Interpersonal
communication, Social communication and Group communication are discussed. Also, the
seven important barriers in communication were explained with suitable examples and
remedies to overcome those barriers.

Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts. The
five main forms of communication, all of which will be explored in much more detail in this
lesson, are intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, mass, social, and group
communication.

2.2. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The word ‘intra’ means inside or within. In contrast to interpersonal communication,

which implies communication with the other person, intrapersonal communication implies
with the self. It refers to communication within the self, involving the process of thinking and
feeling. Intrapersonal communication is a method of communication that helps every person
to communicate with himself or herself. It helps in clarifying what is known as the self-
concept. It is basically an inward- looking exercise.

Intrapersonal communication can also be understood as self-talk. Self- talk is recognized

as the verbal side of thinking. There is indeed a positive side of self-talk. Self-talk, also
recognized as self-dialogue or inner speech, is what you say to yourself during your waking
hours.

It is necessary to create self-awareness about self-talk. Such awareness helps analyze self-
concepts and overcome negative feelings. Self-talk, properly used, can help in overcoming
emotional distress. Effective intrapersonal communication relates to the art of thinking,
planning and interpreting ideas and messages in a positive manner.

Intrapersonal communication would also relate to the voice of conscience. This voice can
play a significant role in the lives of individuals. It emphasizes the values and the ethical
dimension in organizations. It brings to the fore the rational or the logical side of the business
transaction and helps exercise the much needed restraint in communication. Through
conscious efforts, one learns to talk to oneself so as to bring out positive response.

One cannot really communicate effectively with the outside world, unless one masters the
art of communicating effectively with oneself. In that sense, intrapersonal communication is a
necessary precondition for effective interpersonal communication. Good communication
depends upon positive outlook. Self-talk prepares the ground for this.

Those who talk to themselves are not necessarily crazy or mad. They are those who make
effective use of yet another dimension of communication. Before making an important
speech or attending a crucial meeting or responding to a provocative situation, you may take
time off to talk to yourself, strengthen your resolve to exercise restraint and eschew anger or
sarcasm. To quote Abraham Lincoln, ‘When I am getting ready to reason with a man, I spend
Centre for Distance Education 2.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

one-third of my time thinking about myself and what I am going to say and two-thirds about
him and what he is going to say.’

Intrapersonal communication, used effectively, provides the right balance, orientation and
frame of judgment in communicating with the outside world.

2.3. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

When two or more people are in the same place and are aware of each other's presence,
then communication is taking place, no matter how subtle or unintentional. Without speech,
an observer may be using cues of posture, facial expression, and dress to form an impression
of the other's role, emotional state, personality and/or intentions. Although no communication
may be intended, people receive messages through such forms of non-verbal behavior.

Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information,

feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face
communication. Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the
language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through tone of voice,
facial expressions, gestures and body language.

2.3.1. Types of Interpersonal Communication

This kind of communication is subdivided into dyadic communication, Public speaking,

and small-group communication.

Dyadic communication is simply a method of communication that only involves two

people such as a telephone conversation or even a set of letters sent to and received from a
pen pal. In this communication process, the sender can immediately receive and evaluate
feedback from the receiver, so that, it allows for more specific tailoring of the message and
more personal communication than do many of the other media.

2.3.2. Basic elements

The process involves four basic elements.

Sender: Person who sends information.
Receiver: Person who receives the information sent.
Message: Content of information sent by sender.
Feedback: Response from receiver.

2.3.3. Communication Channels

Communication channels are the mediums chosen to convey the message from sender
to receiver. Communication channels can be categorized into two main categories: Direct and
Indirect channels of communication.

Direct channels are those that are obvious, and can be easily recognized by the receiver.
They are also under direct control of the sender. In this category are the verbal and non-
verbal channels of communication. Verbal communication channels are those that use words
in some manner, such as written communication or spoken communication. Non-verbal
communication channels are those that do not require words, such as certain overt facial
Communicative English-1 2.4 Types of Communi…

expressions, controllable body movements (such as that made by a traffic police to control
traffic at an intersection), color (red for danger, green means go etc), sound (sirens, alarms
etc.).

Indirect channels are those channels that are usually recognized subliminally or
subconsciously by the receiver, and not under direct control of the sender. This includes
kinesics or language that reflects the inner emotions and motivations rather than the actual
delivered message. It also includes such vague terms as "gut feeling", "hunches" or
"premonitions".

2.4. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Organizational Communication is a process by which activities of a society are collected

and coordinated to reach the goals of both individuals and the collective group. It is a subfield
of general communications studies and is often a component to effective management in
a workplace environment.

Organizational communication, or the sharing of organizational information, remains a

vital and critical tool when trying to create and maintain a competitive advantage. Without
organizational communication, it would be extremely difficult to know what an organization
stands for, why it exists, who its customers are, how work is completed, who has authority
over others and so on. Organizational communication serves as the glue that holds everything
together while, at the same time, acting as a magnifying glass by making this more clear.

2.4.1. Communication According to Organizational Structure:

[Link]. Formal Communication:

Such a communication is that which is associated with the formal organization structure
and the official status or the position of the communicator and the receiver. It travels through
the formal channels officially recognized positions in the organization chart. Formal
communication is mostly in black and white. Thus, it is a deliberate attempt to regulate the
flow of communication so as to ensure that information flows smoothly, accurately and
timely.

We frequently come across the phrase ‘through proper channel’. It emphasizes the
essence of a formal channel of communication. For example, when the General Manager
issues instructions (because of his senior position in the organization), it is formal
communication.

The forms of formal communication are as under:

(i) Departmental meetings,
(ii) Conference,
(iii) Telephone calls,
(iv) Company news bulletins,
(v) Special interviews and special purpose publications and messages.

The main advantage of the formal communication is that the official channels enable the
routine and standardized information to pass without claiming much of managerial attention.
Essentially, executives and managers may devote most of their precious time to matters of
utmost significance.
Centre for Distance Education 2.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

But at the same time, the weakness of formal communication should not go unaccounted.
Communication through channel of command greatly obstructs free and uninterrupted flow
of information.

[Link]. Informal Communication:

Informal communication is also known as ‘Grapevine’. It is free from all sorts of

formalities because it is used on informal relationships between the parties, such as
friendship, membership in the same club or association.

Persons at the executive levels also use informal communication when they find it
difficult to collect information from the workers. Such communication includes comments,
suggestions etc. It may be conveyed by a simple glance, gesture, smile or mere silence.

Managers and executives also favor the growth and development of informal network of
communication off and on. This process, In fact, serves a very useful purpose in
disseminating certain information which, in the general interest of the organization, cannot be
transmitted through the official channels.

Apart from that, it also offers the high and higher ups a clearer insight into what the
subordinates think and feel. But at the same time, the weaknesses of the informal
communication are also worth noting. It may be mentioned that this process very often tends
to pass distorted, misinterpreted, and inaccurate and half- truth information and facts,
depending on the circumstances and the message. But still, executives and managers cannot
do away with informal communication.

2.4.2. Communication According to Direction:

[Link] Downward Communication:

Communication which flows from the superiors to subordinates is referred to as

downward communication. In an organizational structure, the executives must exercise their
powers to achieve the desired objectives which imply that they may be engaged in issuing
orders, instructions and policy directives to the persons at the lower levels. This may be
called downward communication. Under downward communication, immediate performance
of a job is expected.

Katz and Kahn have identified five elements of Downward Communication:

1. Specific task directives; Job instructions.

2. Information designed to produce understanding of the task and its relation to other
organizational tasks; job rationale.
3. Information about organizational procedures and practices.
4. Feedback to the subordinate about his performance.
5. Information of an ideological character to inculcate a sense of mission, indoctrination
of goals.

Communication from superior to subordinate can be face to face as well as through

written memos, orders, job descriptions etc.
Communicative English-1 2.6 Types of Communi…

[Link]. Upward Communication:

In an upward communication, the persons from the lower level are expected to have
communication with those who are above them. It is just the reverse of downward
communication. This sort of communication includes reactions and suggestions from
workers, their grievances etc. Contents of upward communication are reports, reaction,
suggestion statements and proposals prepared for the submission to the boss.

Upward Communication can be divided into four categories on the basis of what the
employee says:

(i) about himself, his performance and problems,

(ii) about others and their problems,
(iii) about organizational policies and practices, and
(iv) about what needs to be done and how it can be done.

The main features of upward communication are:

(1) it is condensed and summarized as it passes through various levels in the hierarchy. It
gives feedback on the extent of effectiveness of downward communication. This
feedback is used for improving communication effectiveness.
(2) It provides the management about the viewpoints, reactions, attitudes, feelings and
morale of employees.
(3) It provides means of control.
(4) Finally, it gives information and date for decision making.

Upward communication may get distorted owing to the nature of superior- subordinate
relationships. An employee is not likely to give any information which may affect him
adversely. Moreover, he may transmit wrong information to impress his superiors. It flows
through many media e.g. chain of command, suggestion boxes, personal contacts, attitude
and morale surveys, grievance procedure, private lines, labor unions etc.

[Link]. Horizontal Communication

When the communication takes place between two or more persons who are subordinates
of the same person or those who are working on the same level of organization, the
communication is known as horizontal (lateral) communication.

The communication between functional managers or among subordinates working under

one boss, the communication between managers of various factories are the examples of such
communication. Horizontal communication may be oral as well as written.

Horizontal Communication satisfies peoples’ needs to know from their own peers without
taking into account other levels in the organization. It is really difficult for an organization to
function efficiently without such horizontal communication flows. Although the formal
organization design does not provide for such communication flows, it is needed for the
coordination and integration of diverse organizational functions.
Centre for Distance Education 2.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

2.4.3. Communication according to Way of Expression:

[Link]. Oral or Verbal Communication:

Oral communication is a direct communication between two individuals. In oral

communication both the parties i.e., sender and receiver exchange their ideas through oral
words either in face to face conversation or through any mechanical or electrical device such
as telephone, teleconference etc. When it is face to face, the person communicating can ask
questions or explanations or sometimes when the communication is not properly understood,
he can clarify meaning.

Oral communication is generally possible where either a direct contact or message to be

conveyed is not of permanent nature. Meetings and conferences, lectures and interviews are
other media of such communication.

Oral communication enjoys certain advantages which may be enumerated as

follows:
(i) Oral communication has the distinct advantage of being quick and prompt. It provides
the opportunity to both the transmitter and receiver of the message to respond directly.
(ii) Oral communication facilitates close contact and thus fosters mutual exchange of
ideas, facts, understanding and cooperation.
(iii)Oral communication through direct contact undoubtedly inculcates in the
subordinates a sense of self-importance which in turn acts as a motivating factor.
(iv) Oral communication further enables the superior to make a quick appraisal of a
subordinate’s action and reaction to any message transmitted. This obviously helps
the superior to minimize and avert conflicts, redesign plans and programs according
to the need of time and circumstances.
(v) The personality of the communicator is brought to bear in the communication process.
This has a good effect on the subordinates and they understand the communication
properly.
(vi) It can bring a friendly and co-operative team spirit.

However, the following are the disadvantages of the oral communication:

(i) There is a possibility that the spoken words may not be clearly heard or understood.
(ii) It is not good for lengthy communications.
(iii) It requires the art of expressing accurately and appropriately, and listening to others
emphatically.
(iv) It is inadequate where specific performance of policies and rules is needed.
(v) The inexperienced subordinates do not follow the facial expressions and the tone of
the manager’s voice.

[Link]. Written Communication:

When the communication is reduced to black and white (writing), it is called written
communication. This includes written words, graphs, diagrams, pictures, etc. Written
communications are extensively used in organizations.

Sometimes, this form of communication becomes indispensible as in the case of rules,

orders, schedules or policy matters etc. The circulars, magazines, notes and manuals are some
common forms of written communication.
Communicative English-1 2.8 Types of Communi…

It may be asserted from general observations that in all types of organizations both oral
and written communication are in practice. The question is which form should be used and
applied. Much depends on the message, its importance to the receiver, and implication to
functional aspects of the organization.

The following list presents some commonly used forms of communication in different
directions:

Oral Written
(1) Personal instructions. (1) Rules and instructions handbook
(2) Lectures, conferences, meetings. (2) Letters, circulars and memos.
(3) Grapevine rumors. (3) Posters.
(4) Interviews. (4) Bulletin and notice Boards.
(5) Face to face conversation. (5) Handbooks and Manuals.
(6) Telephone etc. (6) Annual Reports.
(7) House Magazines.
(8) Union Publications.
(9) Personal letters and suggestions.
(10) Complaint Procedure.

2.5. MASS COMMUNICATION

Mass communication is a process in which a person, group of people, or an organization

sends a message through a channel of communication to a large group of anonymous and
heterogeneous people and organizations. You can think of a large group of anonymous and
heterogeneous people as either the general public or a segment of the general public.
Channels of communication include broadcast television, radio, social media, and print. The
sender of the message is usually a professional communicator that often represents an
organization. Mass communication is an expensive process. Unlike interpersonal
communication, feedback for mass communication is usually slow and indirect.

Examples:
1. Advertising consists of communication attempting to induce purchasing behavior.
2,. Journalism such as news.
2. Public relations, which are communication, intended to influence public opinion on a
product or an organization.
3. Politics, such as Public Meetings, Campaigning etc.,
5. Religious discourses, gospel meetings etc.,

2.6. SOCIAL COMMUNICATION

Social Communication is a relatively new term that has emerged over the last decade.
While this may appear to be a ‘new’ concept, it is a regrouping and re- categorizing of the
previously known concepts of social reciprocity, social interaction, social skills,
communication or communication skills, and language or language skills. Many recognize
that the behaviors of social reciprocity (social interaction, social skills) and the behaviors of
communication and language overlap to result in one’s ability to communicate socially,
therefore, it is called Social Communication. Social Communication is best understood
through knowledge and understanding of a definition of social reciprocity and a definition of
communication. Please note that many papers and books have been written to define these
Centre for Distance Education 2.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

concepts and this essay simply highlights the key points. The reader is referred to additional
references for more in-depth knowledge and understanding of these concepts.

Social Reciprocity is social interaction and is displayed through the use of joint attention
to share experiences and emotions with another person for a variety of events and in a variety
of contexts. Joint attention is the ability to coordinate one’s visual attention through eye
contact, or eye gaze, and gestures with a social partner, regarding an object or an event. The
person is expected to respond to, as well as, independently initiate behaviors of joint attention
to reflect the ability to act in a socially reciprocal manner. The social partner expects the
person to be responsive to the social partner’s interests and needs, not just to his own interests
or personal needs.

Communication involves three key areas: speech, language, and pragmatic language.
Speech is the expressive production of sounds to produce words and phrases. Language is the
understanding and use of words, phrases and grammatical structures to effectively understand
and convey messages for a variety of interactions within a variety of contexts and with a
variety of people. Pragmatic language refers to the use, purpose, or function of speech and
language. Pragmatic language is the use of non-verbal and verbal behaviors of speech and
language combined to express and respond to functions such as request for basic needs,
request for assistance, protest, and persuade. Non-verbal behaviors include facial
expressions, gestures, and body proximity. Verbal behaviors include voice prosody, voice
stress, and voice intonation. Verbal behaviors are manipulated to change the meaning and
intention of sounds, words and phrases verbally expressed in a social interaction. This
pragmatic use of language follows socially mediated rules that allow others to interpret and
understand another person’s intentions and motives and further enhances the meaning of
particular social communication interactions.

2.7. GROUP COMMUNICATION

Group communication applies to groups containing between three and 20 people.

Communication between two people is a dialogue, and larger groups are unable to use group
communication effectively. Quality group communication involves a facilitator and group
members with a sense of belonging, common goals and mutual respect. Both verbal and
nonverbal communication, are components of group communication.

Successful group communication is essential in a business environment. Many variables

come into play, starting with the seating arrangement. A circular seating arrangement allows
all group members to make eye contact and interact with all other members. This forms the
foundation for a web network style of communication with all group members, sharing ideas
with each other. Sociologists find this type of group communication arrangement to be the
most effective for generating ideas, making decisions and solving problems.

When the primary purpose of a group is to share information, an alternate arrangement is

preferable. This form of group communication starts with a seating arrangement that
emphasizes the group leader: for example a long table with the leader at one end. The leader
presents information and group members give feedback.

Examples:
1. Group Discussions
2. Round Table Conferences etc.,
Communicative English-1 2.10 Types of Communi…

2.8. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Most people would agree that communication between two individuals should be
simple. It is important to remember that there are differences between talking and
communicating. When we talk, we tend to erect barriers that hinder our ability to
communicate. Some of the communication barriers during conversation include:

 The use of jargon, over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

 Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.
 Differences in perception and viewpoint.
 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
 People often hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and
jump to incorrect conclusions.
Let us examine the seven different and possible types of barriers to effective
communication and how these barriers can be overcome.

2.8.1. Physical Barriers

Physical barriers are easy to spot – doors that are closed, walls that are erected, and
distance between people, all work against the goal of effective communication. While
most agree that people need their own personal areas in the workplace, setting up an office
to remove physical barriers is the first step towards opening an effective communication.

Examples:
Examples of physical barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication
include:

Environment - Some barriers are due to the existing environment. For example, if you
are standing in adverse weather conditions, your conversation would be hampered
because you would not be able to pay full attention to what the other person is saying.

Distance - Distance also plays an important part in determining the course of a

conversation. For example, if the members of the staff in an organization are made to sit
in different buildings or different floors, they might have to substitute face to face
communication with phone calls or emails.

Ignorance of Medium - Communication also includes using signs and symbols to

convey a feeling or a thought. However, if there is a lack of ignorance about the
medium in which the sender is sending the message, the conversation can be hampered.

Overcoming Physical Barriers

To overcome physical barriers within the organization, the following measures can be
adopted:

Choosing the correct words and stamping out ambiguity is the only step to making
communication more effective. Face-to-face communication is far superior for most people,
especially once the connection has already been made.
Centre for Distance Education 2.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Open-concept offices are designed to improve workflow and communication. This

concept has grown rapidly over the last decade.

Video conferencing adoption is increasing as enterprises turn to higher-quality, lower-

cost video technology to improve workforce collaboration and reduce reliance on travel.

2.8.2. Cultural Barriers

Cultural barriers are a result of living in an ever shrinking world. Different cultures,
whether they may be a societal culture of a race or simply the work culture of an
organization, can hinder communication if two different cultures clash. In these cases, it is
important to find a common ground to work from. In work situations, identifying a
problem and coming up with a highly efficient way to solve it, can quickly topple any
cultural or institutional barriers. Quite simply, people like results.

Examples of Cultural Barriers

Examples of cultural barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication

include:

Generational - Each age group has a different general approach to work, which often leads
to conflicts with older workers describing younger workers as "slackers," and younger
workers criticizing older workers as being "out of touch."

Status and Resistance - Workers who are accustomed to workplaces where seniority and
status are emphasized may find it difficult to adapt to more fluid environments, where job
titles are de-emphasized and production methods do not always follow a predetermined set
of guidelines.

Overcoming Cultural Barriers

To overcome cultural barriers within the organization, here are some helpful hints:

Determine whether a specific behavior or attribute is a requirement of the job.

There are some cultural differences among the employees that must be accepted and it is
better not to try to change the culture of the employees to perform well. However, there
also are some cultural issues that are relevant to any business and to which employees of a
different culture will have to adapt to, if they are going to succeed in the work culture.

Identify whether or not the organization can reasonably accommodate the cultural
difference. Some cultural differences – such as an employee's willingness to confront her
boss - can be accommodated by slightly altering the expectation or changing the
circumstances of the situation. For example, some cultures are not responsive to stern
feedback, but they are receptive to less direct insinuations regarding their performance.
Exchange of ideas will be useful in how best to communicate with them without violating
their cultural norms.

Determine how best to accommodate the cultural difference. Some cultures are
group-centric rather than individually focused. In such cases praising an individual for their
effort, rather than recognizing the entire group, can create contention among the group and
Communicative English-1 2.12 Types of Communi…

embarrassment for the individual, thereby decreasing the employee's performance instead
of enhancing it. Likewise, giving someone negative feedback in public, even if it is not
severe, can have a detrimental effect on employees of certain cultures. Being sensitive to
and aware of the unique cultural differences of the employees will help the organization to
determine where it is needed to alter its management style or practices.

2.8.3. Language Barriers

Language barriers seem pretty self-inherent, but there are often hidden language
barriers that we are not always aware of. If one is working in an industry that is heavy in
jargon or technical language, care should be taken to avoid these words when speaking
with someone from outside the industry. A clear, direct narrative is preferable to an
incomprehensible slew of specialty terms.

Examples of Language Barriers

Examples of language barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication

include:

Dialects - While two people may technically speak the same language, dialectal
differences can make communication between them difficult. Examples of dialectical
language barriers exist worldwide. Chinese, for example, has a variety of dialects that are
commonly spoken, including Cantonese and Mandarin.

Language Disabilities - Language disabilities are physical impediments to language.

Physical language disabilities that cause language barriers include stuttering, dysphonic or
an articulation disorder and hearing loss.

Overcoming Language Barriers

To overcome language barriers within the workplace, the following measures can be
adopted:

Translate all relevant documents into the primary language of the employees.
However, proper care has to be taken since the translation is not always in the exact same
dialect as that of the employees.

Use an interpreter to give instructions or provide feedback to the employees.

There may be someone in the organization who speaks both languages fluently enough to
convey message to the employees.

Use visual methods of communication more than audio. Show more than tell.
Explain it with pictures as much as possible. Take a lesson from the airlines in how they
convey their safety instructions. Use pictures in your instruction manuals rather than
words. Almost every step in every process can be described in picture format.

Never raise your voice or over-enunciate your words. Talk slower, not louder.
Speak clearly, not forcefully. People of a different language and culture can hear fine.
They probably also are intelligent enough to grasp what is being said if the message is
intelligently delivered without talking down to them.
Centre for Distance Education 2.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Use simpler words with fewer syllables. Be aware of the complexities of certain
words. It is always suggested to use more common words that convey the message in
simpler terms.

Have the employees demonstrate their understanding. Don't assume that the
employee understands; check for understanding. Ask the employee to demonstrate that
they know how to do what you have asked them to do.

2.8.4. Perceptual Barriers

Perceptual barriers are internal. Let us try to understand this concept from our own view
point: If you go into a situation thinking that the person you are talking to isn't going to
understand or be interested in what you have to say, you may end up subconsciously
sabotaging your effort to make your point. You will employ language that is sarcastic,
dismissive, or even obtuse, thereby alienating your conversational partner. Think of movie
scenarios in which someone yells clipped phrases at a person they believe is deaf. The
person yelling ends up looking ridiculous while failing to communicate anything of
substance.

Examples of Perceptual Barriers

Examples of perceptual barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication
include:

Perceptual Filters - We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes, origins and life
experiences that act as "filters" on our experiences of people, events and information.
Seeing things through the lens of our own unique life experiences or "conditioning" may
lead to assumptions, stereotyping and misunderstandings of others whose experiences
differ from our own.

Triggers and Cues - What we say is affected by how we say it (tone, volume) and by our
nonverbal cues, such as body language and facial gestures. For example, one may perceive
a situation differently if the person one is speaking with is smiling or frowning, has body
odor and is standing too close or is not giving direct eye contact.

Overcoming Perceptual Barriers

To overcome perceptual barriers within the workplace, the following measures can be
taken: Effective communication relies on being aware of nonverbal aspects of interactions
with others. It is equally important to be aware of one's own nonverbal behaviors and be
sensitive to how they may be perceived. For instance, maintaining eye contact when
communicating indicates interest. Staring out the window or around the room is often
perceived as boredom or disrespect.

[Link] Barriers

Interpersonal barriers are what ultimately keep us from reaching out to each other and
opening ourselves up, not just to be heard, but to hear others. Oddly enough, this can be
the most difficult area to change. Some people spend their entire lives attempting to
overcome a poor self-image or a series of deeply rooted prejudices about their place in the
Communicative English-1 2.14 Types of Communi…

world. They are unable to form genuine connections with people because they have too
many false perceptions blocking the way.

Examples of Interpersonal Barriers

Examples of interpersonal barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication
include:

Desire to Participate - The lack of desire to participate in the communication process is a

significant barrier. There is nothing more frustrating than trying to communicate with an
individual that clearly does not want to.

Desire to Explore - Unwillingness to explore different ideas, opinions, and priorities create
communication barriers every day of our lives. A clear lack of desire to explore the views,
opinions, or ideas can be extremely frustrating.

Overcoming Interpersonal Barriers

To overcome interpersonal barriers within the workplace, here are some helpful hints:

Use simple words to convey the message. Simplifying the language is the only way to
have an effective process of interpersonal communication. Everyone hates to decipher
spoken words, reserve the deciphering to the writing and when speaking, keep it simple and
easy to understand.

Learn the art of listening. A person will always try to get his opinions across first
before listening to the other person's point of view. Listening to both attentively and
proactively improves interpersonal communication,

Keep composure while communicating. The process of interpersonal communication

is more effective if emotions are kept at bay. Keeping proper composure while talking or
negotiating with a business partner will keep the speaker on the right track towards
achieving the goal.

Provide constructive criticism. Constructive criticism is perhaps the best sign in

communicating with the other person on a more personal level. Both the sender and
receiver of communications may use feedback for effective interpersonal communication.

2.8.6. Gender Barriers

Gender barriers have become less of an issue in recent years, but there is still the
possibility for a man to misconstrue the words of a woman, or vice versa.

Even in a workplace where women and men share equal stature, knowledge and
experience, differing communication styles may prevent them from working together
effectively. Gender barriers can be inherent or may be related to gender stereotypes and the
ways in which men and women are taught to behave as children.

Although not all men or all women communicate the same way as the rest of their
gender, several traits that tend to be more common in one gender or the other have been
identified.
Centre for Distance Education 2.15 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Examples of Gender Barriers

 Women talk about other people. Men talk about tangible things like business,
sports, food and drinks.
 Women ask questions to gain an understanding. Men talk to give information rather
than asking questions.
 Women are more likely to talk to other women when a problem or conflict arises.
Men are often known for dealing with problems or issues internally
 Women focus on feelings, senses and meaning. They rely on their intuition to find
answers. Men focus on facts, reason and logic. They find answers by analyzing and
figuring things out.
 A disagreement between women affects many aspects of their relationship and may
take a long time to resolve. Men can argue or disagree and then move on quickly
from the conflict.

Overcoming Gender Barriers

To overcome gender barriers within the workplace, here are some helpful hints:

Educate the team about Gender Bias. Bias is embedded in stereotypes and
organizational practices that can be hard to detect, but when people are made aware of it,
they see possibilities for change.

Create Safe "Identity Workspaces". Companies should encourage women to build

communities in which similarly positioned women can discuss their feedback, compare
notes, and emotionally support one another's learning. Identifying common experiences
increases women's willingness to talk openly, take risks, and be vulnerable without fearing
that others will misunderstand or judge them.

2.8.7. Emotional Barriers

Emotional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important to put aside to engage
in conversations. We are often taught to fear the words coming out of our own mouths, as
in the phrase "anything you say can and will be used against you." Overcoming this fear is
difficult, but necessary. The trick is to have full confidence in what you are saying and
your qualifications in saying it. People often pick up on insecurity. Belief in self and belief
in what is to be said make the speaker able to communicate clearly without becoming
overly involved in his/her emotions.

Examples of Emotional Barriers

Examples of emotional barriers that prevent individuals from effective communication
include:

Anger - Anger can affect the way the brain processes information given to a person. For
example, angry people have difficulty in processing logical statements, limiting their
ability to accept explanations and solutions offered by others

Pride - The need to be right all the time will not only annoy others, it can shut down
effective communication. For example, one might focus only on one’s perspective, or
might come up with ways to shoot down other people before even listening to their points.
Communicative English-1 2.16 Types of Communi…

Anxiousness - Anxiety has a negative impact on the part of the brain that manages
creativity and communication skills. For example, constant worries can hinder the ability
to concentrate on the information that is given or received.

Overcoming Emotional Barriers

Accepting Imperfections. The drive to win every argument or get the last word often
spawns from overcompensation, or trying to cover emotional insecurities with a sense of
superiority. Accepting imperfections from time to time makes a person easier to
communicate with.

Relaxation Exercises. While a mental health professional should address anxiety

disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder or phobias – typical anxiety, like the
anxiety you feel before giving a speech – can be managed with relaxation exercises.

2.9 CONCLUSION

Communication is the process of transmitting information and common understanding

from one person to another. The elements of the communication process are the sender,
encoding the message, transmitting the message through a medium, receiving the message,
decoding the message, feedback, and noise. Communication at different levels and in
different types operates differently to achieve the common goal of the sender and the
receiver. A number of barriers retard effective communication. These can be divided into
seven categories: physical barriers, cultural barriers, language barriers, perceptual barriers,
interpersonal barriers, gender barriers and emotional barriers. To improve the effectiveness
of communication, both the sender and receiver should understand how to handle these
barriers. In conclusion, barriers to communication are a problem that exists in many
organizations across the globe, but with the right approach, these barriers can be completely
resolved or at least kept to a minimum.

2.10. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is intrapersonal communication and how is it different from interpersonal

communication? Explain.
2. Discuss different types of organizational communication.
3. Explain Mass communication and how it is different from Social communication.
4. Write a short note on Group Communication with suitable examples.
5. What are the barriers in communication and how to handle the barriers?

2.11. REFERENCES

1. Asha Kaul. 2007. Effective Business Communication. Tata McGraw – Hill publishing
Company Limited
2. M Ashraf Rizvi. 2008. Effective Technical Communication. Tata McGraw – Hill
publishing Company Limited.
3. Meenakshi Raman and Sangeeta Sharma. 2011. Technical Communication Principles
and Practice. Oxford University Press..
4. Leena Sen. 2007. Communication Skills. Prentice-Hall of IndiaPvt Ltd.
5. Lesley Lanir. 2010. English Teaching Professional: Learning Disability, Issue 7,
pp.34-35, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd.
K. Sai Krishna
 LESSON: 3
LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION: SIGN
LANGUAGE AND BODY LANGUAGE
OBJECTIVES:

 The objectives of the lesson are –

 To facilitate the learner to understand the distinct features of language and
communication.
 To make explicit the interrelated appeals of communication.
 To illustrate the barriers of communication.
 To understand the influencing factors of effective communication.
 To discuss the origin and features of sign language
 To examine the predominant aspects of body language

STRUCTURE

3.2. Introduction
3.3. Language and Communication
3.3.1. Definitions of Language
3.3.2. Definitions of Communication
3.4. Process of Communication
3.5. Barriers of Communication
3.6. Sign Language
3.6.1. Types of Sign Language
3.7. Body Language
3.8. Conclusion
3.9. Self-Assessment Questions
3.10. References

3.2. INTRODUCTION:

The success of any individual in the context of globalization largely depends on

his/her communication skills. It is important to dispel the myth that communication is merely
verbal. The lesson takes a look at the interrelated aspects of language and communication,
defines them and provides insights on the process and features of effective communication.
It focuses on the barriers of communication and brings into context important tools of non-
verbal communication namely sign language and body language.

3.3. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

Etymology – The word ‘Language’ is derived from 13th century French word ‘language’
which means ‘what is said’, ‘conversation’ and ‘talk’: It has its roots from Latin word
‘Lingua’.
Communicative English-1 3.2 Language and Comm…

3.3.1. Definitions of Language: Language is a broader term to define as it is viewed from

different perspectives by different cross sections of people.

Some of the definitions are –

(1) A particular style of speaking or writing

(2) The system of communication in speech and writing that is used by people of a particular
country or area. ( Source : Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)

(3) Language is a communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbitrary

signals such as voice sounds, gestures or written symbols.(Richard Nordquist)

(4) A language consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus combining those symbols,
that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages (Bruce Goldstein).

We can define Language as a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables
us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiments.

3.3.2. Definitions of Communication:

Taking into account its varied features, communication is defined in many ways. Here are
some definitions which try to explain its importance.

(1) Communication is the process by which we exchange meanings, facts, ideas, opinions
or emotions with other people.

(2) Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person
to another; it involves a transmitting an idea, information, or a feeing to a receiver.

(3) Communication is the single most essential skill – Sir John Harvey

(4) Communication is any behaviour that results in an exchange of meaning.

(American Management Association).

(5) Communication is the process involving the transmission and reception of symbols
eliciting meaning in the minds of the participants by making common their life
experiences(Baird [Link])

(6) Effective communication is purposive symbolic interchange resulting in workable

understanding and agreement between the sender and the receiver
(George T. Varadaman).

Language, beyond doubt, has made our lives more civilized, more sophisticated and more
meaningful. It has created new worlds, vistas and opportunities. The creative and purpose
use of language by literary artists enriched the complexion of life and has been on important
tool in socio-cultural, intellectual and spiritual development of societies.

Language played and continues to play a predominant role in the scientific and
technological development of the world. Of late, languages have become more and more
Centre for Distance Education 3.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

dynamic by assuming newer dimensions in terms of their varied features such as grammar,
spelling, pronunciation and usage.

It has been a constant pursuit of man to explore the mysteries, complexities, subtleties and
nuances of language to better the ways and means of communication. In spite of its
remarkable progress, language communication is marred by certain inhibitions. The
consistent efforts of man have been successful in making language an indispensable tool for
communication but it remains a perennial business to make communication more innovative,
more purposeful and more resourceful. Krishna Mohan and Meera Banerji make the
following valid observation in this regard: “Though human society has progressed with
remarkable speed, the use of language for communication is still not free from ignorance,
prejudice and superstition” (2007).

3.4 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION:

At the same time, the purview of communication does not confine to mere language as
communication is both verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication includes oral and
written communication while non-verbal communication includes signs, symbols and
gestures. But the ultimate purpose of communication is meaningful sharing of common
linguistic codes that make sense. Communication which is a dynamic interactive process
involves five steps. They are:

(1) Ideation
(2) Encoding
(3) Transmission
(4) Decoding
(5) Feedback

Precisely, the communication process can be represented in the form of a flow chart.

Sender ----Sender converts the idea into words or gestures --------------Message

Travels over channel------------Receiver decodes message ----------------Receiver
responds
(Source: Effective Technical Communication by M. Ashraf Rizvi)

Each step in the process is equally significant for successful communication. The
following are certain fundamental features of effective communication.

(1) The most important features of effective communication are clarity and integrity of
the message to be conveyed.

(2) The communicator must know the purpose and objective of the message he/she wants
to achieve.

(3) The language chosen should be known to both the parties.

(4) An appropriate medium should be chosen to convey the message properly.

(5) There should be appropriate feedback to the message.

Communicative English-1 3.4 Language and Comm…

(Source: Technical Communication: Principles and Practice: Meenakshi Raman and

Sangeetha Sharma)

3.5 BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION:

In the process of communication, it is also important to overcome the barriers that prevent or
control the progress or movement. Barriers are of different types such as :

(1) Psychological
(2) Physical
(3) Emotions
(4) Linguistic
(5) Interpersonal

1. Psychological: The mental framework or disposition of the speaker at times may alter the
process of communication. His personal inhibitions on the subject, preconceived ideas,
attitudinal traits and ego may distract him/her thereby causing failure of communication.

2. Physical: Physical discomfort caused by fatigue and pain may disrupt the communication.
Similarly the physical surroundings and ambience, if unfavorable, may become a barrier for
the speaker to communicate in an effective manner. Proper mental preparedness and physical
comforts are the vital factors in effective communication.

3. Emotional: Emotions such as anger, anxiety, stress and sorrow may affect the
concentration of the speaker. Emotion overtakes reason and hinders the process of
communication. Emotional balance is quite important in order to achieve the desired
objective of communication. Negative and uncontrolled emotions are to be checked to
facilitate better communication.

4. Linguistic: As far as language is concerned the barriers could be syntactical (related to

structure) or semantical (related to meaning). If the structure of the sentence is faulty, there is
scope for ambiguity. Look at the following examples:

(1) If the child doesn’t thrive on cold milk, boil it.

(2) Wanted an arm chair for an old man with wooden legs.

Grammatical incorrectness, improper pausing during speaking, faulty punctuation and

lexical ambiguity would certainly hamper the process of communication. It is advisable to
make the communication error free and listener/audience oriented.

5. Intrapersonal Barriers: Each individual is unique in his own way in terms of individual
perception, assumptions, thinking and drawing inferences. Hence varied personal traits and
personality features play a significant role in communication. The remedy to overcome this
barrier is to keep in mind the listener or the receiver. One should bring in objectivity in one’s
outlook and take an unbiased stand-point while communicating. Meenakshi Raman and
Sangeetha Sharma offer the following remedies to overcome the interpersonal barriers:

(1) Be Non-judgemental
(2) Be empathetic
(3) Do not assume anything
Centre for Distance Education 3.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

(4) Strike to the subject

(5) Listen and above all, paraphrase
(6) Remember that generalizations do not always hold good in all situations.

In the light of the fact that communication conveys thoughts, feelings and emotions to the
desired audience, every possible tool in the process of conveying is important. One needs to
possess the four communication skills namely Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.
They are not merely skills but abilities required to become good communicator. For all the
skills, language is an important device. Listening and Reading are considered to be receptive
skills and speaking and writing are the productive skills. The ultimate objective of each skill
is either to receive or convey communication. Proficiency, fluency and ability in a particular
language enables a person or individual to be an effective communicator. Language and
Communication are not to be treated as separate entities as they are interdisciplinary and
interdependent.

The general notion held by each one of us is that language is merely words, sentences,
phrases, clauses and expressions. But it is only verbal aspect of communication. Non-
Verbal communication refers to all communication that occurs without the use of words.
Before the advent of language, the primitive and prehistoric man used signs and symbols to
communicate messages. In fact language is defined as a system of communication using
sounds and symbols that enable us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas and expressions.
There exists a language which uses manual communication and body language to convey
meaning as opposed to acoustically conveyed sound patterns.

Having discussed the dominant aspects of language and communication, let us take a
look at some of the rudimentary features of sign language and body language.

3.6 SIGN LANGUAGE:

One of the vital features of a language is cultural transmission. Human language is not
genetically inherited but it is culturally transmitted. For a child to acquire language, language
speaking environment is quite essential. Language is not an inbuilt skill, either it is acquired
or learnt. Acquisition depends on the environment and a normal child is expected to acquire
language by virtue of the exposure before he/she starts learning a language in an institutional
environment/setting. A normal child is one who is physically fit and whose cognitive abilities
are sound to acquire the nuances of language.

A child who is deaf cannot, unlike a normal child, acquire a language. He/She receives
communication thought gestures or sings, George Yule in The Study of Language observes:
Just as most children of English-speaking or Spanish-speaking parents naturally acquire
English or Spanish at a very early age, so the deaf children of deaf parents naturally acquire
signs (or sign language).If the deaf child is brought up in America he/she will acquire
American Sign Language (ASL) or Ameslan .

Recent studies in Ethnology indicate that there are at present 137 sign languages. It is
also interesting to know that as many as two million use sign language in the United States of
America. But Sign Language in the U.S.A. is discouraged in educational institutions. There
are certain inhibitions to treat Sign Language as language as it hardly possesses most of the
characteristic features of a normal language.
Communicative English-1 3.6 Language and Comm…

There exists a general tendency to treat gestures and signs equally. Fundamen- tally,
both signs and gestures include the hands (with other parts of the body) but they are different.
Sign is like speech and is used instead of speaking, where as gestures are mostly used while
speaking”.

The following are certain examples of gestures:

(1) Making a downward movement with one hand while talking about not doing very
well in the class.

(2) Making a twisting motion with one hand as you describe trying to open a bottle or jar.
( Source: The Study of Language, George Yule)

Therefore, Gestures are part of the communicative act being performed. On the other
hand, actions such as waving one’s hand, keeping thumbs up and putting the pointed finger
on the lips to indicate farewell/greetings, victory, keep quite, which are also part of non
verbal behaviour, are not gestures but emblems. Emblems function as fixed phrases and
don’t form part of the speech. Emblems vary from place to place mostly depend on social
knowledge. Gestures are of three types, namely:

(1) Iconics
(2) Deictics
(3) Beats

Iconics are gestures that seem to be a reflection of meaning. E.g. Someone says: ‘I need a
small piece of paper’ by showing the part of the hand or palm. The gesture adds to the
meaning and the communicated message is accomplished through speech and gesture
combined.

Deictics: are gestures used to point out. E.g. Showing a book and saying “This book is
interesting” or “Would you like to read this book?”.

Other quick movements of hand or fingers are described as beats. Even beats are part and
parcel of the speech, as they accompany speech. George Yule writes: “When hand
movements are used in order to ‘speak’ we can describe them as a part of Sign Language’
(1996).

3.6.1. Types of Sign Language

As far as Sign Language is concerned, there are two broad categories namely, Alternate
Sign Languages and Primary Sign Language.

Alternate Sign Language involves the use of hand signals developed by speakers to
communicate in a particular context where speech cannot be used. (Source: George
Yule, 1996). One of the ideal examples is the use of sign language by Buddhist or Jain
Monks as they observe rules of silence.

On the other hand Primary Sign Language is the primary language of a cross section of
people who do not use a spoken language and who are physically incapable of producing
spoken language. Hence the sign language for them is their first language.
Centre for Distance Education 3.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

The Primary Sign Language is widely used among deaf communities in France and
Britain. British Sign Language (BSC) has its own features which distinctly vary from French
Sign Language (SLF).

It is believed that American Sign Language (ASL) is an underground language which is

specifically designed and devised to cater to the needs of the deaf of hearing community.
The language is more virtual than auditory (for the eyes, not the ears). American Sign
Language has four dimensions namely: Shape, Orientation, Location and Movement

Eg: For the expression ‘Thank-You’, we can identify the following:

Shape – Spreading the flat hand

Orientation – Palm up (flat hand, palm towards higher)
Location: The sign begins near the mouth and is completed at chest level.
Movement: Out and downward (George Yule)

Sign Language is not merely for the deaf, for it has been judiciously used for conveying
messages in a more meaningful and convincing manner. Signs become effective visual tools
to enhance the quality and meaning of the message.

In day to day communication, signs play a significant role as they speak a universal language.
For example, the signs used for Toilet, traffic rules and precautionary warnings such as
danger and radiation are easily recognizable. The following are some of the advantages of
visual signals.

 Economy and Brevity – Not much verbal communication is required if a thing is

pictorially represented.
 Appeal – Colorful pictures and messages enhance the worth of the message and make
it more and more appealing.
 Educational value – Pictures at times are more eloquent than words.

Audio/Sound Signals – Advantages

- Quickness – Eg. The sound of hooter alerts/The sound of an ambulance which
paves way for the clearance of traffic.

- Time Management – Instead of making announcements devices like buzzers

convey the message and save lot of time.

Sign Language inspite of the useful features, has certain limitations such as:
 Basic ideas are communicated, but they are not so comprehensive.
 Involvement of skill – certain contexts may not permit pictures/signs in
communication.
 Verbal communication can be altered but sign language once used cannot be altered
or corrected.
 There is every likelihood that sign language may be misunderstood .

3.7 BODY LANGUAGE:

Communication is a perpetual process which takes place voluntarily or involuntarily. As

discussed in the earlier sections, it is not merely verbal. Non-Verbal clues such as gestures,
Communicative English-1 3.8 Language and Comm…

signs and body language equally or rather more eloquently, convey the message. James Borg
in his book titled Body Language (2008) says that body language or non-verbal language
powerfully communicates the following:

 acceptance and rejection

 liking and disliking
 interest and freedom
 truth and deception

Body Language, which is more obvious, therefore is of equal importance. Meenakshi

Raman and Sangeetha Sharma in their work Technical Communication – Principles and
Practice (2011) make the following observation on body language.

Body Language includes every aspect of our appearance, from what we wear, how we
stand, look, and move to our facial expressions and physical habits such as nodding the head,
jingling change in the pocket, or fiddling with a necktie. Our use of space and gestures are
other key indicators.

Body Language, as a key component of non-verbal communication has gained adequate

attention and it assumed a special status as a separate discipline which is known as Kinesics.
Kinesis is the study of the body’s movements. It is the way the body communicates through
physical movement.

The language of the body is more conspicuous and clear. Words can masquerade (hide)
our feelings and emotions, but the body discreetly reveals the intentions. Sigmund Freud, a
noted psychologist, makes the following observation: “He that has eyes to see and ears to
hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret. If his lips are silent he chats
with his fingertips: betrayal oozes out of him at every pore”.

Now let us take a look at the role of different parts of the human body in communication.
Before examining their role it is important to perceive that all the movement of body in the
process of communication are guided by our thoughts, feelings and emotions. Watzlawick
and associates comment: “You communicate just by being. Nodding your head, blinking our
eyes, shrugging shoulders, waving hands, and other such physical activities are all forms of
communication”.

As mentioned earlier, here is an account of Key indicators of body language.

(a) Personal Appearance: The personal demeanor of a person speaks volumes about the
individual’s personality and attitude. Though at times, appearances are deceptive, personal
appearance includes being decently dressed which is a sign of expression. Moreover, one’s
own appearance is a source of confidence which enables to communicate more vehemently
and effectively. The formal dress of a policeman or a solider brings him pride and
confidence. More so, personal appearance and a feel good situation about one’s own
appearance is a morale booster.

(b)Posture: Posture of a person refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. It indicates the
attitudinal traits of a person in plentitude. They include both positive aspects and the
negative qualities. In formal contexts a bad posture of the speaker may create an adverse
impression, however effective the content may be. Content and delivery mismatch will make
Centre for Distance Education 3.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

the process of communication dismal and appalling. The posture of a person reflects the
spirit, preparedness, confidence and energy. The following are some of the examples of
attributes reflected though postures.

 Slumped posture – low spirits

 Erect posture – High spirits, energy
 Learn Forward – Open and Honest
 Lean backward: defensive or disinterested.
 Crossed arms – defensive or not ready to listen
 Uncrossed arms – Willingness to listen

(c) Head: Head is one of the key indicators in non-verbal communication. Holding the head
high is a symbol for honour and self respect. But bent head reflects one’s bashfulness,
diffidence and nervousness. Nodding of the head or its movement from right to left side is an
indicator for agreement and disagreement respectively. At the same time a jerk of the head
indicates rejection or agreement depending on the context. Nodding is suggestive of respect
given to the speaker.

(d) Face: “Face is the index of the mind”. As rightly said, the face reflects one’s emotions,
feelings and thoughts. The face has its own language, which at times, is difficult to decipher
and comprehend and which at times is distinctly expressive. The following are considered to
be the six basic expressions. Happiness, Disgust, Anger, Surprise, Fear, Sadness. (Source:
Meenakshi Raman)

The face, at a given point of time, is capable of multiple expressions. The word ‘face’ is
found in a good number of idiomatic expressions such as:

Make a face Come to face with

Red-faced Face to Face
Pale-faced Hide one’s face
A long face
Face value
Bare faced lie
Blue in the face

(e) Eye Contact: It is believed that the language of the eyes speaks for itself and is
expressive. Eyes can smile, scorn and show varied feelings such as kindness, concern and
empathy. In fact-to-face communication, eye contact is a crucial indicator. R.C. Bhatia
observes that “The eyes, along with the eyebrows, eyelids and the size of the pupils
communicate deepest feelings”.
(source: Business Communication by R.C. Bhatia, 2nd Edition)

No eye contact during interaction or communication shows disinterest and diffidence

on the part of the speaker. It is also suggestive of arrogance and nervousness. Eye contact is
an indication of one’s attitude towards the listener or the audience.

Body Language, as an important tool of non-verbal communication, has its own

limitations. It varies from person to person and context to context. Unlike verbal language it
is not governed by rules of grammar or syntax. But surely it is a skill which enhances one’s
own potential to communicate in an effective way.
Communicative English-1 3.10 Language and Comm…

3.8. CONCLUSION:

The lesson has briefly acquainted you with the dynamic nature of communication. The
definitions of communication tell you that in communication you deal with ideas. But these
ideas cannot be communicated unless you code them appropriately in words, or in signs, or in
symbols. The process of communication tells you that there are several elements that play an
integral part to make it interactive. Unless these elements are effectively dealt with, the
impact of communication may be lessened. Non-verbal communication is an integral part of
us and helps in communicating effectively. The way an individual positions himself, holds
his hands, tilts his head, all transmit volumes about the individual. As mentioned in the
previous lesson, it has been found that the listener pays heed to the verbal content only 7% of
the time, 38% of the time his attention focuses on voice articulation and modulation, and 55%
of the time his attention centres on body language or body sport if all these three components
are in harmony, the listener has no problem in grasping the import of the message. If there is
some dichotomy between the two, it creates conflict in the mind of the listener and he
believes the voice modulation and the body language more than the words.

3.9. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define the terms ‘language’ and ‘communication’ and distinguish between them.
2. Consider communication as a dynamic interactive process.
3. Enumerate the features of effective communication
4. Discuss the barriers for effective communication and suggest suitable remedies to
overcome the barriers.
5. Distinguish the terms ‘gestures’ and ‘signs’ with your own examples.
6. What is sign language and what are its types?
7. Give an account of visual and audio signals with suitable examples.
8. Discuss the various aspects of body language.
9. ‘Face is the index of the mind’ – Elucidate.
10. What aspects of an individual’s personality are reflected through one’s
body language?.
11. ‘The language of the eyes is more expressive than the language of the words”.
Comment.

3.10. REFERENCES

1. Borg, James.2008. Body Language, Pearson-Prentice Hall, Edinburgh 2008.

2. Duck, Steve et al. 2012. The Basics of Communication, Sage Publishers, New Delhi.
3. Meenakshi Raman and Sangeetha Sharma. 2011. Technical Communication,
Principles and Practice OUP, New Delhi.
4. [Link] Rizvi. 2006. Effective Technical Communication, The Tata Mc Graw Hill
Series, New Delhi.
5. Kaul, Asha, 2009. Business Communication, Prentice Hall Publications, New Delhi.
6. Mohan, Krishna et al, 2007. Developing Communication Skills. Macmillan Pubs ,
New Delhi.
7. Bhatia, R.C. 2009. Business Communication, Ane’s student Edition, New Delhi.
8. Yule, George. 1996. The Study of Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge: CUP.

R.V. Jayanth Kasyap

 LESSON – 4
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS (A)
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the lesson are –

 to examine language as a tool of communication.
 to understand the social purpose of language.
 to identify the different functions of language.
 to enable the student to use language for self-expression
 to learn the phrases and sentences for effective communication

STRUCTURE OF LESSON

4.1. Introduction
4.2. Language Functions
4.3. Language Expressions
4.4. Greetings and Leave-Takings
4.5. Introducing oneself and others
4.6. Inviting and Responding
4.7. Seeking Permission and Giving/Refusing Permission
4.8. Making Requests
4.9. Asking questions
4.10. Conclusion
4.11. Self-assessment Questions
4.12. Exercises
4.13. References.

4.1. INTRODUCTION

We often describe language as a tool of communication of ideas and thoughts. But as

Randolph Quirk says, ideas are rare and the ability to express them is rarer. We use language
for a more simpler basic purpose – for expressing one’s feelings, wishes, emotions – in our
day to day life. We also use language to interact with others in different contexts and
situations for different purposes on a daily basis. Therefore we say that language performs
several functions in society – personal self-expression and interpersonal communication. In
this lesson we discuss the different functions of language.

The communicative approach to teaching and learning English lays “major emphasis on
the communicative purpose of a speech act. It focuses on what people want to do or what they
want to accomplish through speech” (Finnocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983). It does not take up
grammatical structures or grammar rules as its teaching units but the social-linguistic
functions of language that help achieve a specific purpose in communication.
Communicative English -1 4.2 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

4.2. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

Greetings, apologies, gratitude, etc., are some of the communicative purposes. They are
expressed through:

 fixed expressions like “Good morning”, “Good evening”, Sorry about that”, “Thank
you”, “I am really much obliged to you”, etc.,

 communicative expressions are like “How’s your mother now?” or “Shall we meet
next week?”

The language functions are: making requests, showing concern, offering help, agreeing or
disagreeing, asking for opinions, inviting, etc.

A communicative language function includes both fixed expressions and communicative

expressions. For example, a greeting (fixed expression) and an expression of concern
(communicative expression) can be used together as:

“Good morning! I hope you are feeling better today.”

“Hello, I wish I could help you.”

While the basic functions to be expressed depend solely on the purpose(s) of the
speaker, the specific notions depend on three major factors: (a) the functions, (b) the elements
in the situation, and (c) the topic being discussed. The elements in the situation are:

1. The persons or participants involved in the speech act. What ages are they? Are they males
or females? How many people are there? What are their social roles? Is the relationship
such as mother-child, student-teacher, doctor-patient, and superior- subordinate? What are
their attitudes towards each other? Are they friendly, opposed to each other, strangers, or
acquaintances?

2. The place where the conversation occurs. Is it in a house, at the railway station, at a bank
counter, in an office, hospital, or in a library? Should it be a whisper, normal voice, or
should it be brief or sustained?

3. The time of its occurrence. Is it a usual, daily occurrence? Is it a special occasion? Is it at a

party? Is it on a festival day?

4. The topic or activity being discussed. Is it a pleasant invitation or a reminder to complete a

job?

Different linguists have listed language functions under different groups. Many
Finnocchiaro (1979) places functional categories under the headings – Personal,
Interpersonal, Directive, Referential, and Imaginative. In this lesson we deal with mostly
Interpersonal and Directive functions.

Some everyday Communicative functions are the following:

 Greeting & taking leave
 Introducing people to one another
 Introducing yourself
Centre for Distance Education 4.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 Making requests & asking for directions

 Seeking permission
 Making and accepting an apology
 Inviting and accepting / declining an invitation
 Making a complaint
 Congratulating, expressing sympathy and offering condolences
 Asking for and making suggestions
 Offering advice and persuading
 Expressing agreement / disagreement
 Seeking clarification

4.3. LANGUAGE EXPRESSIONS

Which expression to choose and when?

In language there is a range of expressions to be used within a single function from which
one chooses an appropriate one. In our own language, we have the correct idea when to use,
what and how. But in a second or foreign language, which has a different culture, a learner
needs to know more about expressions, choices and situations.
For example, an invitation could be

 as formal as:
I’d like to invite you to dinner.
Do please come to the anniversary dinner we are hosting.
 and as informal as:
Hi, what are you doing this evening? Join me for dinner at Taj Hotel, will you?
The choices of specific notions depend on the relations or occasions such as formal
and polite/informal and familiar or casual.
 There are certain “neutral” expressions like apology, gratitude (e.g. Sorry, Thank
you).

While using them it doesn’t matter who you are talking to, or when, or where. These are
the same with all and in all such situations.

You know from your general social sense when a situation is formal or informal. That
determines what kind of language you will use. Look at the following:

Situation Language
Formal Formal and polite
Informal Informal and casual or familiar
Neutral Neutral, neither very formal nor very casual.

The four points of consideration we need to keep in mind are:

In what context of the situation? (Setting)

What is it about? (Topic)
Who are the participants in the conversation? (Social relationship)
How it is to be said? (Attitude to the topic and the participants)
Communicative English -1 4.4 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

4.4. GREETINGS AND LEAVE TAKINGS

SOME PATTERNS OF GREETINGS

Conversation Starters

Patterns Responses
Hello, how do you do? Hello, how do you do?
Hi Sam, nice to see you. So am I.
Good morning / afternoon Good morning / afternoon / evening
Hello, how are you? Pretty fine, thanks.
How are things? Fine / excellent / nice.
How is life? Fine / excellent / nice.
I trust all goes well with you. Fine / excellent / nice.

SOME PATTERNS OF CLOSING THE CONVERSATION

Conversation Closers

Patterns Responses
See you soon Good bye/bye
I’ll be in touch See you soon
It was nice meeting you, That’s quite all
but I’m afraid I’ll have right.
to go now
I must leave. I hope I hope we can meet
you’ll excuse me. again soon

4.5. INTRODUCING ONESELF AND OTHERS

When you meet a stranger, you have to introduce yourself before you start speaking to
him on other issues.
 Sometimes, you may have to introduce your companions to your friends or relatives
or colleagues who meet you.
 In an official set up, the act of introducing is a formal affair
 and among equals, it is informal
 but whatever be the situations, your expression should signify joy at meeting the
person.

Patterns of introducing oneself

 Good morning! I’m Joseph, Joseph Amalraj
 Hello! My name is Joseph Amalraj
 I have just joined in-----
 I’m from----
 I work for----
 I’m the new ----

Dialogue (formal)
(Mrs. Veena Thomas walks up to Mr. Ajay Sarkar, an employee in the bank where she has
just started work)
Centre for Distance Education 4.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Mrs. Thomas: Good morning! I’m Veena Thomas. I’ve joined the bank today as an assistant
accounts officer. I was with a private finance company in Trichy earlier.

Mr. Sarkar : (rising to his feet): Good morning! I’m happy to meet you. I’m Ajay Sarkar,
and I’m a manager in the housing loans division. Welcome to our bank!.

Mrs. Thomas : Thank you, Mr. Sarkar. Very nice meeting you too.

Patterns of Introducing others

 Please meet my friend, Mr. Mansur Khan.
 This is Mr. Albert, my classmate.
 Let me introduce you to my sister, Miss Seema.
 May I introduce you to our new manager, Mr. Lakshmi Narayanan?
 I’d like to introduce you to ….

4.6. INVITING AND RESPONDING

Inviting a person to a function or a party

 requires the use of certain expressions,
 convey a feeling that you are sincere in your invitation and you really want the person
to be present.
 Pleasant appearance and friendly body language are essential when you invite a
person of equal rank or a close relative.
 when you invite an official, pay due attention while inviting him.

Like the patterns of inviting, there are also expressions of accepting or rejecting an invitation.
When you decline an invitation, choose courteous expressions
 to convey the idea that you are not able to attend
 give reason - because of some unavoidable preoccupation,
 you have to mention explicitly the reason.

SAMPLE DIALOGUE – I
Senthil: My sister’s betrothal is fixed on this Sunday. Would you like to attend
it? I’ve invited some of my classmates.
Sunit: Thank you. I would be simply delighted to attend it. At what time is
the actual function?
Senthil: Evening five followed by dinner at 8.
Sunit : Well, I’ll be there at 4 pm.

SOME PATTERNS FOR INVITING PEOPLE

 Would you mind _____________ ?
 Why don’t you _______________ ?
 I would be delighted if you could _________________________ .
 I would like to invite _____________ .
 Would you like to ____________ ?

SOME PATTERNS FOR ACCEPTING AN INVITATION

 Thank you.
 That’s a nice idea.
Communicative English -1 4.6 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

 That sounds well.

 I won’t say ‘no’.
 That gives me the greatest pleasure.
 What a wonderful/splendid idea.
 That’s really most kind of you.

SOME PATTERNS FOR DECLINING AN INVITATION

 I wish I could but
 I’m afraid that I
 I’m terribly sorry
 I regret that I shall not be able to attend the party.
 That’s very kind of you but
 Thank you very much but
 Thank you for asking me but
 Unfortunately,
 What a pity!

Task:
II Invite a friend to your College Day Function.
III Invite your friend to join a picnic party.

4.7. SEEKING PERMISSION AND GIVING/ REFUSING PERMISSION

Seeking permission involves use of some specific expressions with a tinge of politeness
on the part of the seeker. The response may be either positive or negative. In case the
permission is declined, it should be done politely with a brief explanation as why the
permission is turned down.

SAMPLE DIALOGUE – I

(Rajkukar, a student of III [Link]. meets the Head of the Department)

Rajkumar : Good morning Sir, Would you mind if I miss the first hour lecture
tomorrow?
Professor : What’s the matter, Rajkumar? It’s Prof. Mohan’s class.
Rajkumar : Yes sir, I am rather helpless. I’m always regular and never miss
any class. But, tomorrow my mother has an appointment with the
doctor at 9 am and I’ve to take her. My father is on business tour.
Professor : Then, by all means, go ahead. Just put in a word to Prof. Mohan.
Rajkumar : Yes sir, I have already sought his permission.
Professor : OK, be on time for the 2nd hour lecture.

SOME PATTERNS FOR SEEKING PERMISSION

 If you don’t mind, I’d like to _______________ .
 Would (do) you mind, if I _________________ ?
 Would it be possible _________________ ?
 Could I please _________________ ?
 Is it all right if I _________________ ?
 Have you any objection if I _______________ ?
 May (can, could) I ________________ please ?
Centre for Distance Education 4.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

SOME PATTERNS FOR GIVING PERMISSION

 By all means, go ahead.
 No, not at all.
 Oh, sure.
 Yes, certainly
 Yes, of course.
 That’s perfectly all right.
 You’ve my permission.
 I can’t see any objection.

SOME PATTERNS FOR REFUSING PERMISSION

 Sorry, it’s not possible.
 I’m afraid, it’s not possible.
 I’m sorry, I’m helpless.
 I’m afraid, that is out of question.
 Sorry, you can’t.
 Sorry, permission will not be granted.
 I’m sorry, I’m not supposed to…..

Task:
Requesting permission from the Principal to conduct a quiz programme.

Requesting permission from the teacher to go home an hour earlier.

4.8. MAKING REQUESTS

Requests are formal or informal depending on the relationship of the participants and the
context of the situation. When one talks to seniors, elders, and strangers, one makes formal
requests. When talking to equals/friends, people who are close to oneself, one makes informal
requests.

Informal requests
 Do you mind calling the police from your cell phone?
 What’s the matter, please?
 Will you please come as soon as you can?
 Can you please take care of the police till then?
 No sir, do you mind waiting a little more?
 Can you please give us any more information?
 Do you think I could use your telephone,please?
 Could I ask a favour of you?
 Excuse me, could you help me, please.

Formal requests
 Could you please come immediately?
 Would you mind taking him to hospital please?
 Could you please let us go?
 Would you please come to the police station tomorrow morning?
 Could you possibly help us with this man’s body?
Communicative English -1 4.8 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

 We wonder if you would be kind enough to let us go.

 Would you kindly take him to hospital please?
 I’m sorry to trouble you, but I need your help.
 Would you mind helping me with this, please?
 I wonder if you could do me a favour.

Responses to requests
 Yes? OK---------
 Yes,--------
 I’m sorry, I don’t know.
 No, I’m afraid not.
 Certainly, I shall be glad to help.
 Sure. I’d be glad to help.
 Of course, by all means.

Patterns to acknowledgement positive responses to requests

 Thank you./Thank you very much./Thanks a lot.
 You’re most welcome./ You’re welcome
 Not at all.

A. Here are a few situations. Judge them to be formal or informal and write down
appropriate requests. The first one has been done for you as an example:

1. You need some medicines. Your friend is going to the market. Ask him/her to get
the medicines for you.
2. You have to return some books to the library. But you haven’t finished working on
them.

B. Working in pairs, write and enact the following situations in the form of brief dialogues
choosing appropriate expressions from those given above.

a. Mr. Joseph has just arrived in Guntur and asks a traffic policeman for directions to a hotel
b. where his office has made arrangements for his stay.
c. Chandra requests her neighbour, Madhu, to teach her to bake a cake.
d. Priya goes to the head of her department with a request for a day’s leave.

Dialogue (formal)
(Vikram is filling in a form at a railway booking counter when his pen stops writing. He
turns to a stranger standing next to him and requests her to lend him a pen.)

Vikram: I’m sorry to bother you, but I need your help. My pen is not writing. May I
borrow yours, please?
Stranger: Certainly. Here, you can use this pen.
Vikram: (Uses the pen and returns it to its owner): I’ve completed filling in the form.
Thank you very much.
Stranger : You’re welcome!
Centre for Distance Education 4.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

4.9. ASKING QUESTIONS

Questions are classified into two categories __

open ended and closed.
The open-ended questions call for general answers and explanations e.g,
Where do you live?
Why did you do it?

Closed questions are usually answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ e.g., Is he a swing bowler? Do you
know French?
In social context, asking straight questions lacking in politeness is never liked.
 A question should be couched in politeness and
 it should not cause embarrassment either to you or the other person.

Some Polite Questions and their appropriate responses

A question is generally asked for seeking information or clarification. It has certain other
functions as well. Some of them are as follows.

Request : Could you lend me your pen?

Inviting : Would you like to attend the party?
Offering help : Could I carry your bag?
Permission : May I sit by your side?
Suggestion : Could I attend the meeting on your behalf?

4.10. CONCLUSION

In this lesson we have explained the communicative purpose of language. The language
expressions we use depend on the context, the topic, the participants and their relationships.
Accordingly we can use formal or informal expressions. The language functions discussed in
this lesson are greetings and partings, conversation starters and closers, introducing oneself
and others, extending invitations and accepting or declining them, seeking permission and
giving or refusing permission, making requests and asking for directions. The next lesson
will describe more functions of language.

4.11. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the basic purpose of language?

2. What is meant by self-expression?
3. How do we interact with people in our daily life?
4. What are the communicative functions of language?
5. How can we select appropriate expressions to suit formal/informal situations?

4.12. EXERCISES

I. Introducing Others.

Sample Conversation
RAKESH: Hello, Rahim nice to see you again, How do you do?
RAHIM : How do you do?
Communicative English -1 4.10 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

RAKESH: When did you come from your native place?

RAHIM : Today morning, I couldn't get the reservation and had to spend the whole
night in the train sitting and standing.
RAKESH : It is the festival season. You should have booked the ticket at leat one week
earlier.
RAHIM : You are right. My uncle promised to take me in his car but suddenly he had
to leave for Delhi and so I had to suffer with no wink of sleep whole night.

(Sujatha comes along with her sister)

SUJATHA : Hello! Good morning, nice to be back again.
RAKESH & RAHIM : Good morning
SUJATHA : Please meet my sister, Syamala. She has joined I year English
literature. Syamala, this is Mr. Rakesh and here is Mr. Rahim,
my classmates.
RAKESH : Pleased to meet you.
RAHIM : Glad to meet you.
SYAMALA : Pleasure is mine. My sister has spoken about you. If I
remember, Mr. Rahim is a poet and you Mr. Rakesh Sharma is
our college cricket captain.
RAKESH : You are right.

II. Inviting and Responding

SAMPLE DIALOGUE
Aysha : Sajida, we are planning to go on a picnic to Sathanoor Dam. Why don’t you
join us? My mother wanted me to invite you.
Sajida : That’s really good. When do you propose to go?
Aysha : This Wednesday, a public holiday.
Sajida : I’m afraid I shall not be able to join you. We are planning to go to our
village. My grandmother has invited us. So you may excuse me.
Aysha : Doesn’t matter. I shall inform my mother.

III. Seeking Permission and Response

SAMPLE DIALOGUE
(Nirmal Kumar, a student meets the Principal.)
Nirmal Kumar: Good Morning, sir. Today is the last day for the payment of
examination fees. The M.O. sent by my father a week back hasn’t
reached me yet. My mother, however, is coming tomorrow with cash.
Would it be possible for me to pay the fees tomorrow?

Principal : I’m afraid, Nirmal, I can’t help you. The University rules are strict.
The only possibility is that you’ve to pay the fees with a fine of Rs. 5
for every paper.
Nirmal Kumar : Thank you sir, That’s enough. I’ll pay the fees tomorrow with fine.
Principal : Don’t mistake me. I’m rule-bound.
Nirmal Kumar : I understand your difficulty, sir. Thank you.
Centre for Distance Education 4.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

IV. Making Requests.

Dialogue (informal)
(Vimal asks her friend Aman if he could get an application form from the passport office)

Vimala : Aman, could you do me a favour, please? I’d like you to pick up a
passport application form for me on your way back from office.
Aman : Sure, I’ll do that today.
Vimala : Hope it won’t be a problem.
Aman : Of course not! No problem at all.
Vimal : Thanks!
Aman : Not at all.

4.13. REFERENCES

1. Finnochiaro, Mary1979. “The Functional – Notional Syllabus: Problems, Practices,

Problems”. English Teaching Forum, 17:11-29.
2. Finnochiaro, Mary and Christopher Brumfit. 1983. The Functional – Notional
Approach. Oxford: OUP.
3. Leech, Geoffrey and Svartvik, Jan. 1975. A Communicative Grammar of English.
London: Longman.
4. Apte, Madhavi. 2007. A Course in English Communication: For the Learners of
English as a Second Language. New Delhi: Prentice – hall of India.
5. Board of Editors. 2007. Written and Spoken Communication in English. Hyderabad:
Universities Press.

Prof. K. Ratna Shiela Mani

 LESSON – 5
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS (B)
OBJECTIVES

1. To learn socially appropriate expressions through conversations.

2. To present a range of expressions for choice in performing functions.
3. To respond effectively in formal and informal situations.
4. To learn the phrases and patterns for effective communication.

STRUCTURE

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Making a Complaint
5.3 Expressing sympathy
5.4. Apology and Gratitude
5.5. Congratulations, Praises and Compliments
5.6. Directions and Instructions
5.7. Agreeing and Disagreeing
5.8. Seeking and Giving Advice
5.9. Conclusion
5.10. Self-assessment Questions
5.11. Exercises
5.12. References

5.1. INTRODUCTION

In the previous lesson we have examined some language functions and explained the
language expressions to perform them. In this lesson, we examine some more language
functions such as complaining, suggesting, advising, persuading, sympathizing,
complimenting, agreeing/disagreeing, seeking and giving advice. The patterns of language
expressions and the responses are also presented.

5.2. MAKING A COMPLAINT

If someone complains about our behavior, it is necessary to offer to make amends or to

take appropriate action apart from offering an apology. In many situations special expressions
are not needed when complaining. But in general one should avoid being rude and insulting.

Some expressions used in both formal and informal situations to make complaints are
given below. Use the right intonation while repeating them.

a. I’m sorry to trouble you. But there’s a problem I’d like to speak to you about.
b. It would help if you could have the leaking pipe repaired.
c. That’s very kind of you.
d. I hope you didn’t mind.
e. I have a complaint to make.
Communicative English-1 5.2 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

f. My new washing machine is not working.

g. Your dealer has not responded to my calls.
h. I’d like to have the piece replaced.
i. I insist on having the piece replaced.
j. Thank you for being so understanding and helpful.
k. I’m sorry to have bothered you.
l. I’m very upset with you.
m. I’m very annoyed with you.
n. I’m surprised you didn’t think of giving me the good news.
o. That’s all right.
p. I guess these things happen.
q. Let’s just forget it, shall we?

2. Working in pairs, write and enact the following situations in the form of brief dialogues
choosing appropriate expressions from those given above.

a. Mr. Nigam has by mistake been sent a huge bill by the telephone department for calls
made on another number. He goes to meet the official in charge of billing at the
Bharat Sanchar Nigam office in his area and make a formal complaint.

b. Maria finds that her sister has forgotten to feed the parrot that she left in her care
while out of station. She calls her on the telephone and complains.

5.3 EXPRESSING SYMPATHY

You should express sympathy for your friends, relatives and colleagues when they meet
with misfortunes like failure in exam, losing job, loss in business, demise of someone in the
family etc., which sometimes may put them in a traumatic condition and a few sympathetic
words may produce a healing effect and keep your relationship rooted.

Sujatha: Hello, Elizabeth, what’s the matter? You’ve not been coming to college for
the past one- week. I heard that there was some tragedy in your family.
Elizabeth: Yes My aunty passed away. She was so loving and affectionate to us.
Sujatha: I’m so sorry to learn about her sudden demise. How did she die?
Elizabeth: She had a massive heart attack
Sujatha: I can’t find words to explain my deep feelings. I remember to have met her
once in your house. She was so lovely. I can easily understand your feelings.
Please bear the loss.

SOME EXPRESSIONS OF SYMPATHY

 I am sorry to learn to ………

 I’m awfully sorry
 It’s no doubt terrible
 Its upsetting
 You’ve my deepest sympathy
 I can’t find words to express my feelings
 I know how you feel
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Exercises

1. Look at some expressions used in both formal and informal situations to express
agreement and disagreement, and to seek clarification on something. Read each item and
repeat it, using the right intonation.

a. I quite agree with you.

b. Perhaps you’re right.
c. You’re absolutely right.
d. Excuse me. I’m sorry to interrupt, but I have a doubt that I’d like you to clarify.
e. Pardon me for interrupting, but is it true that …….?

5. 4. APOLOGY AND GRATITUDE

Apology and regret are expressed when one makes a mistake, or hurts someone, or if
something wrong takes place for which one is responsible.

Gratitude is expressed when someone does something good for us, helps us, gives us a
gift or treats us nicely.

Formal and informal ways of expression depend on the relation of participants and the
context of the situation.

Expressing apology
 I am extremely/really/very sorry madam.
 I am sorry.
 I apologize for my ------------.
 Please accept my apologies.
 It’s my fault. Sorry.

Responses to apologies
 That’s all right/OK.
 Don’t worry about that. It’s not your fault.
 Not at all. (Denying the fault)
 So you should be. (not forgiving)

An offer of amends may be needed. For example, “Let me pay for the damage./How can I
correct it?”
Excuses may be offered. For example, “I couldn’t help it because-----------./I wanted to come
on time but----------.”

Expressing regret
 I shouldn’t have been so careless.
 I should have been more careful.
 How could I not think of it?
 I am usually particular about things. But this time, some how--------------
 I’m afraid I have committed a blunder.
 That was really a lapse on my part.
 It was an oversight. I will be more careful in future.
Communicative English-1 5.4 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

Responding to expressions or regret:

 Don’t worry about that.
 That’s all right. It happens.
 Are you really sorry about it? Take it easy, please!
 OK, don’t think about it now. It’s OK.
 You can do better next time.

Expressing gratitude: Formal expressions

 Thank you young man. It’s very kind of you.
 Thank you. How kind of you to help us out.
 We are really grateful for your help.
 We are much obliged, and really appreciate your help.
 How thoughtful of you. Thank you so much.
 I am/We are indebted to you. (in case of a big favour or help)

Informal expressions
 Thank you.
 How thoughtful! What would I do without you?
 Thanks a lot.
 Thanks.
When leaving someone who has just treated or entertained us, we usually say
Thank you very much for-------
 the wonderful evening.
 the delicious meal.
 lovely music.
 the nice treat.
or other such expressions.
The usual response or answer is: “It was my/our pleasure.”

Responding to gratitude
 You are welcome.
 It’s all right/It’s OK.
 Think nothing of it.
 I am glad I could help.
 I am glad you like it.
 Don’t mention it, please!
 It was a pleasure/My pleasure.

Tasks:
Apologies: Express apologies and respond in the following situations.
1. Forgetting the birthday of a dear one.
2. Giving someone a wrong telephone number.
3. Disturbing someone during work, sleep, holiday, etc.

Regret: Express regret and respond when the following happen:

1. Spill coffee on someone’s clothes.
2. Knock over a child as you are in a hurry.
3. Broke the neighbour’s window pane by accident.
Centre for Distance Education 5.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Gratitude: Express gratitude and respond in the following situations.

1. A colleague helped you to finish your work before leaving office.
2. Your neighbour lends you his car in an emergency.
3. Someone helps you to find a job.

5.5. Congratulations, Praises and Compliments

When a person is delighted by his performance, he tells his friends / relatives.

Courtesy and social obligations require that we should:
 share the person’s joy sincerely and
 compliment him ungrudgingly,
 using certain specific expressions of complimenting.

Read the following conversation and examine the pattern of complimenting

Simran: Good evening, dad.
Dad : Good evening, what Simran, you seem to be in a jubilant mood?
Simran: Yes, dad. It’s a wonderful day in my life and never will I forget it.
Dad : Let’s share your joy, girl. What makes the day wonderful?
Simran: I’m made the secretary of the English Association.
Dad : That’s simply great! Congratulations. How did it happen? Was there an
election?
Simran: Thanks, Dad….
Dad : How were you selected?
Simran: There was an interesting elocution …. I was rated first.
Dad : What a fantastic performance! You really deserve congratulations.
Mummy: Well done, my dear girl! We will celebrate it.
Simran: Thank you, mum.

Some Expressions
Informal Responses
Well done! Thank you very much.
Congratulations! That’s very kind of you
Fantastic /Excellent! That’s good of you.
That’s great. Thanks

Formal Response
Let me congratulate you.
Please accept my congratulations. Thank you very much
Allow me to offer my congratulations.
Well done, sir. Congratulations.

Praises, compliments are always a part of pleasant conversation. It is good to do it to keep

social relations going well. All humans love to be appreciated. Compliments can be given on
other possessions or accessories as a house, a car, a garden, a music system, a camera, etc.
People can be praised for their talents, skills, styles of dressing, taste in arts and so on.

Expressions generally used in praising

 You are very good at --------, aren’t you?
 You ------- very well, don’t you?
 You are a wonderful--------, aren’t you?
Communicative English-1 5.6 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

 You are great when it comes to writing letters, aren’t you?

 I’m quite/really/very impressed with your------

Responding to praises
 Thanks.
 I am really grateful.
 Thank you very much.
 It’s kind/nice of you to say so.
 Thank you for calling (telephone); thank you for the visit (home/hospital)
 Oh, I wouldn’t say/expect/imagine that.
 It is a pleasant surprise, Sir; I really did not expect such a high increment (Salary);
thank you sir.

Expressions used in complimenting

 You look great/lovely/wonderful today.
 You look smart/nice/pleasant today.
 That’s a nice dress/smart suit/pretty ring you are wearing.
 What a lovely skirt/saree/shirt/jacket! It suits you.
 What a pretty necklace/ear tops! It goes with your dress/eyes/complexion.
 I like your new dress/suit/tie/hairstyle/shoes.

Responding to compliments
 Really? How nice of you to say that.
 Thanks.
 I’m glad you like it.
 It’s kind of you to say so.

Here is an example of praise and response between partners.

Designing dresses. You: I am impressed with your dress design.

You are really good at it, aren’t you?
Partner: Do you really think so? Thanks a lot.

A. Work with a partner and tell what he/she is good at. Respond to the partner’s praise about
the following.
1. Painting
2. Playing the guitar
3. Playing tennis
4. Dancing
5. Making kites

Here is an example of compliment and responses.

Hairstyle. “You look nice today. I like your hairstyle.”
Response: “I’m glad you like it. I have wanted a change for some time.”

B. Give compliments to friends, family anyone you think of about the following. Also give
responses to the compliments.
1. New car
2. A data storing gadget: pen drive
Centre for Distance Education 5.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

3. The newly painted house.

4. The garden around the house.
5. Promotion in the job.

5.6. DIRECTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS

One needs to be careful in giving and following instructions and directions. Also, while
making suggestions, one has to take into account what others want. Suggestions, which
include the other participants in the conversation and are polite, will be accepted more easily.
At the same time, one also must see that they are made confidently for others to take note of
them. Whereas for instructions and directions, imperative sentences like “Take left, then
walk a few yards to turn on your right”, etc. are used, in suggestions which include other
people, questions such as “Shall we-------“ or “Why don’t we”, etc. are used.

Examples

A. Asking for directions:

Excuse me, could you please tell me how to find this address?

Giving directions:
Yes! Walk up to the next street signal in the same direction as you are, take a turn on your
right, and then walk till you come to a white building. This office is one the 4 th floor of the
white building.

B. Another example of giving directions to a person who wants to find the nearby shoe shop.

If you go left for a few meters from here, and then take the lane on the right, keep walking
and look for the medical store which is just next to the big shoe shop.

Give instructions and/or directions as required in the following situations.

1. To a guest who is at the crossroads before reaching your house.

Tell him/her how to reach your house from there. You may imagine these or give the
real ones.
2. To a guest to reach the bus stand from the railway station.

5.7. AGREEING AND DISAGREEING

Agreement is sometimes easy but on a controversial topic, it is difficult. Some of them

are bound to disagree. Then it becomes a discussion. Agreement and disagreement can be
also about small things like choice of clothes, taste for style, fashion, and other things. or with
regard to views on certain subjects. The more controversial a topic like faith, traditional
living, political ideology, the more disagreement there is.

Expressing agreement
 I (quite) agree.
 You are absolutely right
 Perhaps you’ right
 I think so too.
 I am with you there.
Communicative English-1 5.8 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

 Oh yes, certainly.
 Can anyone agree less with that?
 Yes, I can’t help thinking the same.

Expressing disagreement
 I don’t’ agree with you/this view.
 I disagree entirely. (strong)
 I wouldn’t say that.
 I don’t know about that.
 Do you think so? Why?
 Oh come on, you can’t be serious!
 I/we don’t see it the way you see it.
 I’m afraid, I’ll differ with you on that point.
 I’m sorry, but I can’t agree with you there.
 I’m afraid, I can’t accept the idea.

2. Working in pairs, write and enact the following situations in the form of brief dialogues
choosing appropriate expressions from those given above.

a. Two persons discuss the issue of euthanasia. They agree on some points and disagree
on others.
b. Ms Anjali Majumdar is giving a talk on the first topic in your physics textbook. You
have a doubt and would like Ms Majumdar to explain a point she has made before she
continues her lecture. You ask for clarification politely.

Exercises
Here is an example of a conversation containing agreement and disagreement.
The importance of English language

Father: Leela, English is a very important language.

Leela: Yes, father, it certainly is! Especially in the wake of globalization of the economy.
Father: And it’s very easy to learn.
Leela: Oh, I wouldn’t say that.

Make small conversations on the following topics.

1. English speaking people don’t need to learn any foreign languages.
2. Dangerous criminals should be hanged without trials.
3. Men are more intelligent than women.

5.8. SEEKING AND GIVING ADVICE

Advice can be solicited (asked for) or unsolicited. Usually, if advice is sought from
someone, the listener is in a mood to take it or consider it. Unsolicited advice invites
problems many times, though at times it may be welcome.

 Ways to seek (solicit) advice.

 What can I do?/What shall I do?
 What do you think I should do?
 What would you do if you were me?
Centre for Distance Education 5.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 What would you do if you were in my position?

 Do you think I should ------------?
 What would you advise in this situation?
 What would your advice be?
 I’d like some/your advice on/about--------
 How do you see this? A problem? A Challenge? Advise me please.
 Can you please sort me out on-------?
 Can you help me sort------out?

Ways to give advice (Solicited or unsolicited)

 I advise you to ---------
 If I were you, I’d-------
 I’d---------------if I were in your position
 It mightn’t be a bad idea to--------
 You had (you’d) better do something fast about this letter.
 I think you should--------
 Take my advice and-------
 The way I see it, you should-------
 You should/ought to---------
 You really shouldn’t ---------, you know.
 I don’t think you should---------
 I wouldn’t advise you should-------
 You had better not do this again.
 You would be well advised not to--------
 If you follow my advice---------
 I don’t wish to interfere but--------
 I know it’s none of my business, but I’d like to----------
Responding to given advice (Positive)
 Yes, I suppose I should-----
 Yes, I can see your point.
 Thank you for your advice. I’ll do that.
 Oh yes! Sounds good to me.
 Well yes, I should have known better.
 Yes, perhaps I should---------
 Hmm, maybe you are right.
 Thanks. How could I not think of it myself?
 I’m glad I asked you.
Responding to given advice (Negative)
 I don’t see why--------
 I’m afraid I disagree with you on this.
 I’d rather make up my own mind.
 I am sorry I can’t do that.
 I think I am better off without your advice.
 I think I don’t need to take anyone’s advice.
 I think I know what to do.
 Why would you tell me this?
Communicative English-1 5.10 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

Exercises

A. Use the following situations to ask for advice.

1. You don’t enjoy your present job. Ask a senior colleague for advice.
2. You are putting on too much weight. Go to a nutritionist-dietician. Ask for advice.

B. Give advice in the following situations.

1. The bus you are travelling in has a driver who seems to be rather rash in his driving.
2. Your friend’s younger brother is a minor and yet you have seen him driving a car.

C. Accept or reject the advice given in the situations below.

[Link] smoke too much. Take my advice and stop it.
2. You had better run now or you’ll miss your train.

5.9. CONCLUSION

In today’s world of globalization of business and education, the need for learning English
effectively is being felt more than ever before. In this lesson and the previous one we have
examined the most common of the language functions. We have gone through conversations
in various social contexts, in formal and informal situations. We have also listed the
expressions used within the particular communicative function. This will help in learning
English for communication in day-to-day life. These are only some of the ways in which
language function in a society.

5.10. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the directive functions of language? Give examples.

2. Why should we compliment others? How is it done?
3. What care should be taken when we express disagreement?
4. How are suggestions and advice offered?
5. What are the patterns of giving instructions?

5.11. EXERCISES

Exercise – I: Complaining

(Mrs. Nair goes to her neighbour, Shamim, to make a complaint)

Mrs. Nair : Good evening, Mr. Shamim. I’m sorry to trouble you, but there’s a small
problem that I want to speak to you about.
Shamim : What is it, Mrs. Nair?
Mrs. Nair : There seems to be a leak in your bathroom pipe and the water seeps through
the roof of our flat downstairs. Could you have the pipe repaired, please.
Shamim : Oh, I’m terribly sorry. I knew the pipe had a leak somewhere, but I didn’t
realize that it was causing damage to your flat. Please forgive me. I’ll
have the pipe repaired immediately.
Mrs. Nair : That’s very kind of you, Mr. Shamim. I hope you didn’t mind my bringing
up this matter.
Shamim : Oh no, Mrs. Nair. I’m glad you brought the problem to my notice. I
wouldn’t have known about it otherwise.
Centre for Distance Education 5.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Exercise – II: Asking and giving suggestions.

(Kamala drops in at the local youth club to watch a group of young people rehearse for a
play they plan to put up shortly.)

Kamala : That was very entertaining. I enjoyed every minute of the play.
Maya : Thank you, Kamala, for sitting through our rehearsal.
Nasir : Any suggestions, Kamala? We have been at this for so long and have
stopped seeing things clearly.
Kamala : Well, first I suggest that you could think of another title for the play. I don’t
think the present title is either interesting or suitable.
Maya : That’s a good suggestion. What’s your second suggestion, Kamala?
Kamala : In my opinion, Maya, the character of the old woman whom you play could
appear at the end of the play to say why she behaved as she did. Do you
think it will be possible?
Nasir : Why not? We’ll try that one out. Anything else, Kamala?
Kamala : No, that’s all. I really feel you have a wonderful play there.
Maya : Thanks a lot, Kamala! You have been of great help.

III. Speech Practice:

At a Railway Booking Office
Kavya : Excuse me, ma’am, could you please tell me if there are sleeper class
tickers available for Friday, 21 July on the Kerala Express to New
Delhi.
Booking assistant : Sure, I’ll let you know in a moment. (Checks on her computer.) I’m
afraid there are no tickets available for the 21st. Could you tell me how
many tickers you need?
Kavya : I need just one ticket. It’s really very urgent.
Booking assistant : Oh, in that case, why don’t you buy a tatkal ticket? There will be no
problem at all in getting one. Please go to counter no.6.
Kavya : Thank you very much, Ma’am. You have been most helpful.
Booking assistant : You’re welcome.

IV. Speech Practice:

At a Restaurant
Anthony : Could we have a table for four, please? We prefer one away from the
entrance door. (to a waiter)
Waiter : Certainly, sir, will this corner table be all right?
Anthony : Thank you, this is fine. (Everyone sits down at the table).
Waiter : What can I get you, Sir? (after filling glasses with water and offering the
menu card)
Anthony : Could you take our order, please? We will have three vegetarian thalis and
one masala dosa. We would also like to have two cold coffees and two
lassis. Could you repeat the order, please? (after going through the card and
discussing with the other people in the group)
Waiter : Can I get you anything else, sir?
Anthony : Thank you, no. That will be all.
Communicative English-1 5.12 Verbal and Non-Verbal…

5.12. REFERENCES

1. Finnochiaro, Mary.1979. “The Functional – Notional Syllabus: Problems, Practices,

Problems”. English Teaching Forum, 17:11-29.
2. Finnochiaro, Mary and Christopher Brumfit. 1983. The Functional – Notional
Approach. Oxford: OUP.
3. Leech, Geoffrey and Svartvik, Jan. 1975. A Communicative Grammar of English.
London: Longman.
4. Apte, Madhavi. 2007. A Course in English Communication: For the Learners of
English as a Second Language. New Delhi: Prentice – hall of India.
5. Board of Editors. 2007. Written and Spoken Communication in English. Hyderabad:
Universities Press.

Prof. K. Ratna Shiela Mani

 LESSON-6
LISTENING
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are to enable the students to

 understand the importance and purpose of listening
 understand different types of listening
 be aware of barriers to listening and handling techniques to avoid thems
 understand the steps to be taken to improve effective listening

STRUCTURE

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Listening
6.3. Hearing versus Listening
6.4 Purpose of Listening
6.5. Common Myths about listening
6.6. Traits of a good listener
6.7. General Listening Types
6.7.1. Discriminative Listening
6.7.2. Comprehensive Listening
6.8. Specific Listening Types
6.8.1. Informational Listening
6.8.2. Critical Listening
6.8.3. Empathic Listening
6.9. Other Listening Types
6.9.1. Appreciative Listening
6.9.2. Rapport Listening
6.9.3. Selective Listening
6.10. Listening Subskills
6.11. Listening Barriers
6.11.1. Psychological Barriers
6.11.2. Environmental Barriers
6.11.3. Emotional / Personal Barriers
6.11.4. Linguistic / Semantic Barriers
6.11.5. Linguistic / Semantic Barriers
6.12. Overcoming Listening Barriers
6.13. Effective Listening
6.14. Benefits of Effective Listening
6.15. Conclusion
6.16. Self-Assessment Questions
6.17. References
Communicative English-1 6.2 Listening

6.1. INTRODUCTION

Language skills are divided into 1. Receptive skills and 2. Productive skills. Receptive
skills include listening and reading while the productive ones are speaking and writing.
Language skills could also be divided into aural and graphic ones. The aural skills deal with
listening and speaking ability while the graphic skills focus on reading and writing. This
lesson deals with the listening skills, hindrances to effective listening and throws some light
on the techniques to improve the listening skills.

6.2. LISTENING

Listening is a skill of critical significance in all aspects of our lives--from maintaining our
personal relationships, to getting our jobs done, to taking notes in class, to figuring out which
bus to take to the airport. Regardless of how we're engaged with listening, it's important to
understand that listening involves more than just hearing the words that are directed at us.
Listening is an active process by which we make sense of, assess, and respond to what we
hear.

The listening process involves five stages: receiving, understanding, evaluating,

remembering, and responding. These stages will be discussed in more detail in later sections.
Basically, an effective listener must hear and identify the speech sounds directed toward
them, understand the message of those sounds, critically evaluate or assess that message,
remember what's been said, and respond (either verbally or nonverbally)
to information they've received.

6.3. HEARING VERSUS LISTENING

Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas listening requires more than that: it
requires focus. Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the
use of language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it
means being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. The ability to listen effectively
depends on the degree to which these messages are perceived and understood.

Hearing is one of the five senses of a person and it is the ability to perceive sound by
detecting vibrations through an organ such as the ear. According to Merriam-Webster,
hearing is “the process, function, or power of perceiving sound; specifically: the special sense
by which noises and tones are received as stimuli.” In hearing, vibrations are detected by the
ear and then converted into nerve impulses and sent to the brain. A person who is unable to
hear has a condition known as deafness. Hearing occurs even in sleep, where the ear
processes the sounds and passes them on to the brain, but the brain does not always react to
the sound.

Listening also known as ‘active listening’ is a technique used in communication which

requires a person to pay attention to the speaker and provide feedback. Listening is a step
further than hearing, where after the brain receives the nerve impulses and deciphers it, it
then sends feedback. Listening requires concentration, deriving meaning from the sound that
is heard and reacting to it. Listening is a process of communication, where if the person is not
listening it can cause a break in communication. Listening is defined by Merriam-Webster as,
“to hear something with thoughtful attention: give consideration.”
Centre for Distance Education 6.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

6.4. PURPOSE OF LISTENING

Building trust
People who listen are trusted more than those who grab the talking stick and barge straight
into chatter. Trust is the grease of changing minds and listening is the key.

Credibility
If you listen first to others and more to others, then your credibility with them (and with other
listeners) will go up. They are perceived as competent, capable and working with others
rather than against them. Good leaders are good at listening and good listeners are seen as
potentially good leaders.

Support
Listening alone is a good supportive activity that people appreciate, especially when they are
upset or otherwise concerned. Listening shows respect and empathy for other people. By
listening, you are sending a message that says 'You are important to me. I respect you.'
Listening thus boosts their sense of identity.

Getting things done

As well as building trust, listening also lets you achieve your goals.

Information
Listening gives you lots of information that can be useful, both now and in the future.
Especially if you can guide what the person is saying, you can achieve much with very little
talk.

Reciprocation
Very significantly, if you listen to other people, they are more likely to listen to you. From
the exchange principle, your support of them obliges them to return support to you, which
you can then use to achieve your goals.

Listening to grow
Listening skills are important in growth, in terms of emotional development and intelligence.
When people speak to you, you may have the instinctive reaction to judge them for what they
say or what they represent to you. This reaction, however, may be opposing to emotional and
intellectual growth. By judging someone you allow your own thoughts and opinions about a
particular subject to dominate your mindset, without listening to the other person and taking
everything they communicate into account. By listening effectively, however, you are able to
see where they come from and perhaps understand why they see things from a certain
perspective, and this may show you some flaws in your own opinions, allowing you to learn
and grow through the experience.

6.5. COMMON MYTHS ABOUT LISTENING

To better understand what it takes to be a good listener, we must discard the following
common myths associated with listening.

Myth – 1: ‘I do not have to concentrate: listening comes naturally.’

Truth: Being a good listener requires a conscious effort. You must keep your mind constantly
engaged and in gear.
Communicative English-1 6.4 Listening

Myth – 2: ‘I am a good listener because I always get the facts and figures straight.’

Truth: You may be a selective listener. You listen to the facts and figures, but do not hear or
comprehend the rest of the information, such as questions raised, emotions of the speaker,
context, opinions, and ideas discussed.

Myth – 3: ‘You should not interrupt when someone is speaking.’

Truth: A good listener does not hesitate to interrupt if the speaker’s information is unclear.
You must be an inquisitive listener to be an effective listener.

Myth – 4: ‘A good listener paraphrases everything a speaker says.’

Truth: If you constantly parrot people’s statements back to them, they will think you are slow
or – even worse – proud. It is good to repeat the key information and ask the speaker to verify
it, but do not rephrase all the comments.

6.6. TRAITS OF A GOOD LISTENER

Although acquiring the skill of active listening needs much effort, it is not impossible. A
few guidelines are given in the following paragraphs. Some actions might seem unnatural and
forced but can be inculcated with practice. For example, it is very difficult to be patient with
a speaker if he/she appears to be irrational and illogical. However, we must be tolerant in
such circumstances. The guidelines suggested here will definitely help develop an attitude of
tolerance and understanding.

Being Non-evaluative

The verbal and non-verbal behavior of an active listener will suggest to the speaker that
he/she is being properly heard and understood. It should not, however, indicate what one
thinks about the person. The purpose is to communicate, overlooking the qualities of the
ideas, attitudes, and values of the speaker. In other words, the speaker is not to be evaluated
for his/her personal qualities. Our behavior should convey the impression that we accept the
speaker without making any judgement right or wrong, good or bad, suitable or unsuitable.

Paraphrasing

To clarify a point, one can simply paraphrase what the speaker has said and enquire from
the speaker whether one has heard it accurately. Use phrases like the following ones to ensure
that the information has been paraphrased correctly:

As I gather, you want to tell….

So you mean to say that…
Oh! Your feeling towards….
Do you mean that…

Reflecting Implications

To reflect on the implications of what has been said, it is necessary to go a bit beyond the
direct contents of the speaker, indicating appreciation of his/her ideas and what he/she is
leading to. This may encourage the speaker to further extend the ideas. The listener’s aim
Centre for Distance Education 6.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

here is to reflect eagerness and zest by verbal or non-verbal means, thereby giving positive
feedback. Phrases such as the following can be used:

I am sure if you did that, you would be in a position to…

So this might lead to a result which….
So you are suggesting that we might….
Will that help us to alleviate the problem of…

If this technique is used to change the direction of the speaker’s thinking, by showing
one’s cleverness in suggesting ideas that the speaker has not thought of before, it creates
distrust between the two parties. However, if the technique is used with the genuine intention
of understanding more, one can certainly help the speaker by boosting his/her confidence and
making him/her believe that the listener has grasped the content well.

Reflecting Hidden Feelings

Sometimes, one has to go beyond the explicit feelings and content of what is being said to
unravel the underlying feeling, intentions, beliefs, or values that may be influencing the
speaker’s words. The listeners must try and empathize or identify themselves with the
speaker, to experience what they feel. One can express one’s sentiments by using phrases
such as:

If I were in your place, I would not have handled the situation so well.
That must have been a satisfying experience.
If I were in such a situation, I would have sought the help of seniors.
If that had happened to me, I would have been upset.

In reflecting the speaker’s covert feelings, one must be careful not to overexpose the
speaker, by coaxing them to admit more that they desire. We should also avoid suggesting to
the speaker that the feelings we reflect are what ought to be felt by the speaker in such a
situation. This would make the speaker feel evaluated. Acceptance is conveyed more by
one’s manner and tone than by words.

Inviting Further Contributions

In a situation where we have not heard or understood enough yet to respond with empathy
and understanding, we must prompt the speaker to give more information. Phrases such as the
following can be used:

Can you throw more light on….

I would be great if you can expand more on this.
What happened after this?
How did you react when…?

While it is useful to ask questions, one should guard against asking too many. This may
lead speakers to suspect that rather than seeking information, one is interrogating or
challenging them.

When we want a speaker to expand on his/her subject, we must ask open-ended questions,
which require more than a straight yes or no answer. Open-ended questions encourage a
speaker and help the listener gain more information. For instance, ‘What solutions have you
Communicative English-1 6.6 Listening

thought of?’ is open-ended, whereas ‘Have you thought of this solution?’ is not. Avoid
probing and create supportive, trusting climate, which helps the communication move
smoothly.

The listener must keep statements and questions short and easy to understand.

Responding Non-verbally

Listeners can show active interest by adopting certain postures and sending non-verbal
signals that communicate their interest in what the speaker is saying. These include regular
eye contact, body leaning slightly towards the speaker, head nods, and a slightly tilted head.
Occasionally, certain receptive utterances such as ‘yes’ and ‘ur-hum’ can also be used to
indicate that one is following what the speaker is saying, while being careful not to overdo it.
Attentive silence is more effective than too many receptive utterances.

By giving such non – verbal signals, the listener helps the speaker feel more confident
and reflects interest and understanding. This also helps generate more trust between the
listener and the speaker.

6.7. GENERAL LISTENING TYPES

The two main types of listening – the foundations of all listening sub-types are:
 Discriminative Listening
 Comprehensive Listening

6.7.1. Discriminative Listening

Discriminative listening is first developed at a very early age – perhaps even before birth,
in the womb. This is the most basic form of listening and does not involve the understanding
of the meaning of words or phrases but merely the different sounds that are produced. In
early childhood, for example, a distinction is made between the sounds of the voices of the
parents – the voice of the father sounds different from that of the mother.

Discriminative listening develops through childhood and into adulthood. As we grow

older and develop and gain more life experience, our ability to distinguish between different
sounds is improved. Not only can we recognize different voices, but we also develop the
ability to recognize subtle differences in the way that sounds are made – this is fundamental
to ultimately understanding what these sounds mean. Differences include many subtleties,
recognizing foreign languages, distinguishing between regional accents and clues to the
emotions and feelings of the speaker.

Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is happy or sad,
angry or stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually being said and, of
course, does aid comprehension. When discriminative listening skills are combined with
visual stimuli, the resulting ability to ‘listen’ to body-language enables us to begin to
understand the speaker more fully – for example recognizing somebody is sad despite what
they are saying or how they are saying it.
Centre for Distance Education 6.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

6.7.2. Comprehensive Listening

Comprehensive listening involves understanding the message or messages that are being
communicated. Like discriminative listening, comprehensive listening is fundamental to all
listening sub-types.

In order to be able to use comprehensive listening and therefore gain understanding, the
listener first needs appropriate vocabulary and language skills. Using overly complicated
language or technical jargon, therefore, can be a barrier to comprehensive listening.
Comprehensive listening is further complicated by the fact that two different people listening
to the same thing may understand the message in two different ways. This problem can be
multiplied in a group setting, like a classroom or business meeting where numerous different
meanings can be derived from what has been said.

Comprehensive listening is complimented by sub-messages from non-verbal

communication, such as the tone of voice, gestures and other body language. These non-
verbal signals can greatly aid communication and comprehension but can also confuse and
potentially lead to misunderstanding. In many listening situations it is vital to seek
clarification and use skills such as reflection to aid comprehension.

6.8. SPECIFIC LISTENING TYPES

Discriminative and comprehensive listening are prerequisites for specific listening types.
Listening types can be defined by the goal of the listening. The three main types most
common in interpersonal relationships are:

 Informational Listening (Listening to Learn)

 Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and Analyze)
 Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to Understand Feeling and Emotion)

In reality you may have more than one goal for listening at any given time – for example,
you may be listening to learn whilst also attempting to be empathetic.

6.8.1. Informational Listening

Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in informational listening. This
is true in many day-to-day situations, in education and at work, when you listen to the news,
watch a documentary, when a friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked-through a
technical problem with a computer – there are many other examples of informational
listening too.

Although all types of listening are ‘active’ – they require concentration and a conscious
effort to understand. Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of
listening. When we’re listening to learn or be instructed we are taking in new information
and facts, we are not criticizing or analyzing. Informational listening, especially in formal
settings like in work meetings or while in education, is often accompanied by note taking – a
way of recording key information so that it can be reviewed later.
Communicative English-1 6.8 Listening

6.8.2. Critical Listening

We can be said to be engaged in critical listening when the goal is to evaluate or

scrutinize what is being said. Critical listening is a much more active behavior than
informational listening and usually involves some sort of problem solving or decision
making. Critical listening is akin to critical reading; both involve analysis of the information
being received and alignment with what we already know or believe. Whereas informational
listening may be mostly concerned with receiving facts and/or new information - critical
listening is about analyzing opinion and making a judgment.

When the word ‘critical’ is used to describe listening, reading or thinking, it does not
necessarily mean that you are claiming that the information you are listening to is somehow
faulty or flawed. Rather, critical listening means engaging in what you are listening to by
asking yourself questions such as, ‘what is the speaker trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main
argument being presented?’, ‘how does what I’m hearing differ from my beliefs, knowledge
or opinion?’. Critical listening is, therefore, fundamental to true learning.

Many day-to-day decisions that we make are based on some form of ‘critical’ analysis,
whether it be critical listening, reading or thought. Our opinions, values and beliefs are based
on our ability to process information and formulate our own feelings about the world around
us as well as weigh up the pros and cons to make an informed decision.

It is often important, when listening critically, to have an open-mind and not be biased by
stereotypes or preconceived ideas. By doing this you will become a better listener and
broaden your knowledge and perception of other people and your relationships.

6.8.3. Empathic Listening

Empathic listening involves attempting to understand the feelings and emotions of the
speaker – to put yourself into the speaker’s shoes and share their thoughts.

Empathy is a way of deeply connecting with another person and therapeutic or empathic
listening can be particularly challenging. Empathy is not the same as sympathy, it involves
more than being compassionate or feeling sorry for somebody else – it involves a deeper
connection – a realization and understanding of another person’s point of view.

Counselors, therapists and some other professionals use therapeutic or empathic listening
to understand and ultimately help their clients. This type of listening does not involve
making judgments or offering advice but gently encouraging the speaker to explain and
elaborate on their feelings and emotions. Skills such as clarification and reflection are often
used to help avoid misunderstandings.

We are all capable of empathic listening and may practice it with friends, family and
colleagues. Showing empathy is a desirable trait in many interpersonal relationships – you
may well feel more comfortable talking about your own feelings and emotions with a
particular person. They are likely to be better at listening empathetically to you than others,
this is often based on similar perspectives, experiences, beliefs and values – a good friend,
your spouse, a parent or sibling for example.
Centre for Distance Education 6.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

6.9. OTHER LISTENING TYPES

Although usually less important or useful in interpersonal relationships, there are other types
of listening that we engage in.

6.9.1. Appreciative Listening

Appreciative listening is listening for enjoyment. A good example is listening to music,

especially as a way to relax.

6.9.2. Rapport Listening

When trying to build rapport with others we can engage in a type of listening that encourages
the other person to trust and like us. A salesman, for example, may make an effort to listen
carefully to what you are saying as a way to promote trust and potentially make a sale. This
type of listening is common in situations of negotiation.

6.9.3. Selective Listening

This is a more negative type of listening, it implies that the listener is somehow biased to
what they are hearing. Bias can be based on preconceived ideas or emotionally difficult
communications. Selective listening is a sign of failing communication – you cannot hope to
understand if you have filtered out some of the message and may reinforce or strengthen your
bias for future communications.

6.10. LISTENING SUBSKILLS

The listening sub skills are:

 listening to confirm expectations,
 listening to extract specific information,
 listening for general understanding and
 inferring the speaker’s attitude.

Listening to confirm expectations. Listeners are expected to predict what they are going to
listen and then, listen to it to confirm their expectations. In this process, the interest of the
listeners is aroused and they have a definite purpose for listening.

Listening to extract specific information. Extracting specific information when listening to

a particular concept or conversation is a major sub skill since a great deal of what is said in
conversation is redundant and unnecessary. In this process, listeners discard the redundant
and unnecessary information and pick up the information which they really need and what is
really important to them, like a swan, which consumes milk and discards the water, when
given mixed.

Listening for general understanding. Listeners listen to conversations in order to get a

general idea of what the main points are. Their task in this process is fairly simple but it is a
vital skill (because they listen to authentic spoken language) that they must develop.

Inferring the speaker’s attitude. An awareness of stress, intonation or any body language,
such as facial expression or gestures, will help the listener to work out meaning.
Communicative English-1 6.10 Listening

Situation Listening sub skill(s) Reasons

You are at the airport, For specific information, You are only interested in your own
listening for information then in detail flight. Then, when your flight is
about your flight. mentioned, you listen carefully for
information about the boarding gate,
possible delays etc.
You are in a city that you In detail It is important that you understand
do not know. You have all the directions. If you miss a
asked someone for detail, the directions will be difficult
directions to your hotel or impossible to follow.
You are listening to a song For gist / or in detail The answer depends on the listener
on the radio. and the song. You might be happy
with a general impression of what a
song is about, or you might want to
understand all the lyrics.
You are chatting to an old For gist and / or in detail It depends how interested you are in
friend and exchanging your friend’s news and perhaps how
news it relates to you. May be you listen
to some parts for gist and other parts
in more detail.
You are paying for your For specific information You are waiting to hear how much
shopping at the you have to pay. You may also be
supermarket expecting a particular question (Do
you have a loyalty card /
membership card? Would you like
to have a bag? Etc.)

6.11. LISTENING BARRIERS

Despite the fact that listening is taken for granted, researchers have estimated that a
manager listens only at a 25 per cent efficiency level. Immediately after presentations,
according to a research, only 25 per cent of what the listener has listened to can be recalled.
This only shows how listening suffers because of inherent problems.

6.11.1. Psychological Barriers

1. Prejudgement/hasty evaluation: Shallow listening prevents the listener from looking

critically into the finer aspects of what the speaker says. In the process, the listener,
passes a hasty/unfounded remark about the speaker.

2. Superficial frame of reference: it is failure to understand the mental framework of the

speaker. Every person brings with him his or her own background of likes and
dislikes and knowledge. Very often this background can be contrary to the listener’s
background. This creates a barrier in understanding.

3. Closed-mindedness: Lack of interest in various topics brings about the inability to

take interest in the speaker’s topic.

4. Inability to pay attention: A wandering mind and day dreaming habit prevent the
listener from concentrating on what the speaker says.
Centre for Distance Education 6.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

5. Prejudice/envy/jealousy/dislike/hatred: Personal limitation can bar a listener from

keeping an open mind to receive thoughts and opinions. A prejudiced listener looks
for a chance to derail a talk/conversation.

6. Ego involvement/geocentricism: Difference of opinion, or a feeling of hurt limits the

listener from concentrating on the speaker’s words and thoughts. The listener might
think that his/her ideas are more important than what the others think. An egoistic
attitude alienates the listener from others. Being right is their motto because they
cannot be wrong. Such self-centered listeners are poorly rated than those who are
open to ideas.

7. The urge to debate or advise: This refers to an irrepressible urge to contradict the
speaker and make a point. Your whole attention is to design your rebuttal by allowing
your mind to race at a mile a minute. There are people who are the know alls. They
look for chances to intervene and make their point noted before the speaker has
finished.

6.11.2. Environmental Barriers

1. Physical distractions: Noisy surroundings, loud music, noise of machines, noisy office
equipment, noise of horns of vehicles from road traffic, etc. affect listening.

2. Loud talking: Cultural habits of people at workplace, and conversations at the top of
their voices can disturb others at work.

3. Visual barriers: Posters on wall may catch your attention while you are engaged in a
conversation with your boss, or distracted by a person’s clothes, heavy jewelry, eye
shadow etc.

6.11.3. Emotional / Personal Barriers

1. Beliefs and attitudes: Your strong opinion on issues of religion, sex, politics, business
policies, may prevent you from agreeing with the speaker.

2. Sad memories: Loss of a dear one in a tragedy or if any reference is made to incidents
of a similar kind may prevent you from listening.

3. Fear: You many not like to oppose your boss for fear of losing an opportunity to
prove yourself for a post, or being misunderstood.

4. Anxiety: The state of health of someone dear to you may keep you disturbed at
workplace and hence not able to pay attention.

5. Anger: You perhaps expected a promotion and when not given, you may feel sore
about it.

6.11.4. Linguistic / Semantic Barriers

Speaker’s style of speaking and mannerisms: Some speakers have affected manners or a
rhetorical manner of speaking. The hollowness of speech may irritate you and block your
Communicative English-1 6.12 Listening

mind from listening. Very often jingoistic fervor in a politician’s speech creates this block
affecting the listening span of sections in the audience.

1. Difficult words and use of jargon: Jargon means high phrases and words that are
peculiar to a trade or profession. It also means meaningless writing. They may irritate
the receiver of the message.

2. Lag time: The time take by the speaker between words and sentences can either
irritate or bore you and hence prevent you from listening.

3. Different frame of reference: The speaker’s mental framework may be different from
yours. For instance, the meaning of a certain word, say capitalism or socialism may
not act as trigger words and create resistance in your and consequently reduce your
listening level

4. Mispronounced words or words with double meanings: All these can create problems
with understanding and hence listening may get hampered.

6.11.5. Socio-cultural Barriers

1. Different Cultural background: Different accents and pronunciation of words by

people from different cultures can be a major problem in international
communication.

2. Personal space and public space: Lack of this can also cause discomfort to people
from different cultural background, for example, Asians are different from their
Western counterparts. An Asian participant in a workshop may feel uncomfortable if
the speaker, a westerner, comes too close to explain a point.

3. Sense of time: This is also a major problem. Research indicates that while a Western
businessperson likes to get down to business immediately, the Asian counterpart may
like to indulge in small talk or have tea before settling down to discuss business.

6.11.6. Physiological Barriers

1. Hearing impairment: It is a physical disability and requires medical attention.

2. Hunger: Pangs of hunger can obstruct or reduce listening span.
3. Tiredness: Overwork and exhaustion can prevent a listener from paying attention.
4. Pain: Physical or emotional pain can block listening altogether.

6.12. OVERCOMING LISTENING BARRIERS

Since listening is an arduous task and also extremely important at workplace, it is

essential that we have a clear idea about how we can improve our listening ability. Effective
listening leads to excellence in work!

1. Be a willing listener by controlling all barriers, and build a proactive interest to think
or act congenially for better understanding.
2. Ensure that all environmental distractions / noises do not occur.
Centre for Distance Education 6.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

3. A long lecture / seminar / conference might demand that you are not hungry or tired
or tired to listen to the talks. So ensure that you have taken proper rest and food for
the task on hand.
4. It is important that you discipline yourself as a listener by controlling all
psychological barriers. Neither day dreaming nor dislike for the speaker is going to
help you. Hence, it is important to control all disruptive psychological barriers to
enable yourself to be a proactive listener.
5. Carrying a notebook/a writing pad to take down brief notes / key points is a good
habit to force effective listening on oneself. Application of mind to matter is an
enjoyable work.
6. Practicing good body language, sitting correctly, establishing eye contact with the
speaker are effective enablers for good listening to take place

6.13. EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Genuine listening has become a rare gift—the gift of time. It helps build relationships,
solve problems, ensure understanding, resolve conflicts, and improve accuracy. At work,
effective listening means fewer errors and less wasted time. At home, it helps develop
resourceful, self-reliant kids who can solve their own problems. Listening builds friendships
and careers. It saves money and marriages.
Here are 10 tips for developing effective listening skills.

Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

Talking to someone while they scan the room, study a computer screen, or gaze out the
window is like trying to hit a moving target.

In most Western cultures, eye contact is considered a basic ingredient of effective

communication. When we talk, we look each other in the eye. That doesn’t mean that you
can’t carry on a conversation from across the room, or from another room, but if the
conversation continues for any length of time, you (or the other person) will get up and move.
The desire for better communication pulls you together.

Do your conversational partners the courtesy of turning to face them. Put aside papers,
books, the phone and other distractions. Look at them, even if they don’t look at you.
Shyness, uncertainty, shame, guilt, or other emotions, along with cultural taboos, can inhibit
eye contact in some people under some circumstances. Excuse the other guy, but stay focused
yourself.

Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.

Now that you’ve made eye contact, relax. You don’t have to stare fixedly at the other
person. You can look away now and then and carry on like a normal person. The important
thing is to be attentive. The dictionary says that to “attend” another person means to:

 be present
 give attention
 apply or direct yourself
 pay attention
 remain ready to serve
Communicative English-1 6.14 Listening

Mentally screen out distractions, like background activity and noise. In addition, try not to
focus on the speaker’s accent or speech mannerisms to the point where they become
distractions. Finally, don’t be distracted by your own thoughts, feelings, or biases.

Step 3: Keep an open mind.

Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things she tells you. If
what he/she says alarms you, go ahead and feel alarmed, but don’t say to yourself, “Well, that
was a stupid move.” As soon as you indulge in judgmental bemusements, you’ve
compromised your effectiveness as a listener.

Listen without jumping to conclusions. Remember that the speaker is using language to
represent the thoughts and feelings inside his/her brain. You don’t know what those thoughts
and feelings are and the only way you’ll find out is by listening.

Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying.

Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being communicated.
Whether a literal picture, or an arrangement of abstract concepts, your brain will do the
necessary work if you stay focused, with senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches,
concentrate on, and remember, key words and phrases.

When it’s your turn to listen, don’t spend the time planning what to say next. You can’t
rehearse and listen at the same time. Think only about what the other person is saying.
Finally, concentrate on what is being said, even if it bores you. If your thoughts start to
wander, immediately force yourself to refocus.

Step 5: Don’t interrupt and don’t impose your “solutions.”

Children used to be taught that it’s rude to interrupt. Certainly the opposite is being modeled
on the majority of talk shows and reality programs, where loud, aggressive, in-your-face
behavior is condoned, if not encouraged.

Interrupting sends a variety of messages. It says:

 “I’m more important than you are.”
 “What I have to say is more interesting, accurate or relevant.”
 “I don’t really care what you think.”
 “I don’t have time for your opinion.”
 “This isn’t a conversation, it’s a contest, and I’m going to win.”

We all think and speak at different rates. If you are a quick thinker and an agile talker, the
burden is on you to relax your pace for the slower, more thoughtful communicator—or for the
guy who has trouble expressing himself.

When listening to someone talk about a problem, refrain from suggesting solutions. Most
of us prefer to figure out our own solutions. Somewhere way down the line, if you are
absolutely bursting with a brilliant solution, at least get the speaker’s permission. Ask,
“Would you like to hear my ideas?”
Centre for Distance Education 6.15 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.

When you don’t understand something, of course you should ask the speaker to explain it
to you. But rather than interrupt, wait until the speaker pauses. Then say something like,
“Back up a second. I didn’t understand what you just said about…”

Step 7: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.

If you feel sad when the person with whom you are talking expresses sadness, joyful
when he/she expresses joy, fearful when he/she describes fears—and convey those feelings
through your facial expressions and words—then your effectiveness as a listener is assured.
Empathy is the heart and soul of good listening.

To experience empathy, you have to put yourself in the other person’s place and allow
yourself to feel what it is like to be her at that moment. This is not an easy thing to do. It
takes energy and concentration. But it is a generous and helpful thing to do, and it facilitates
communication like nothing else does.

Step 8: Give the speaker regular feedback.

Show that you understand where the speaker is coming from by reflecting the speaker’s
feelings. “You must be thrilled!” “What a terrible ordeal for you.” “I can see that you are
confused.” If the speaker’s feelings are hidden or unclear, then occasionally paraphrase the
content of the message. Or just nod and show your understanding through appropriate facial
expressions and an occasional well-timed “hmmm” or “uh huh.”

The idea is to give the speaker some proof that you are listening, and that you are
following her train of thought—not off indulging in your own fantasies while she talks to the
ether.
In task situations, regardless of whether at work or home, always restate instructions and
messages to be sure you understand correctly.

6.14. BENEFITS OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING

These are some example of benefits of effective listening

Respect- Listening with paying full attention is communicating to the speaker with respect.
Giving respect to the speaker, you also receive theirs.

Airtime- Understanding that there should be give and take in the conversation. Giving the
time to listen to the speaker, they most likely will do the same thing.

Information- Listening is adapting new information, being attentive will help you
understand more the person. The information may be important and may apply to your
professional and personal life.

Increased Likability- You notice that when you make a conversation, you like the people
who listen to your words. It is the same thing when you listen to people, they like when you
give attention to them.
Communicative English-1 6.16 Listening

Better Relationships- Listening can improve your relationships with others. Being able to
listen to other people`s concerns and problems without judgement will do that.

Great Clarity- Listening carefully to the speaker will help you avoid any conflicts or
misunderstanding.

6.15. CONCLUSION

In this lesson, we have learnt that effective listening is an active process and not a passive
one. It takes considerable amount of effort to concentrate on messages for understanding to
take place. Because it is an arduous process, it challenges the listener’s mental faculties.
Therefore, it is said that listening is not hearing and that a listener not only hears through the
ears, but listens also through the eyes. Good listening is a prerequisite for success in
professional careers. It is a significant area of effective communication skills, and when we
listen critically, we succeed in establishing a rapport with people.

6.16. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is listening? How is listening different from hearing?

2. Explain different types of listening in detail.
3. List out the different barriers of listening and how to overcome them?
4. Write a short note on the steps to be taken to improve effective listening?
5. What are the benefits of effective listening?

6.17. REFERENCES

1. Communication Skills: A Multi-Skill Course. (2008): Bharathiar University, Chennai,

Macmillan Publishers.
2. M Ashraf Rizvi (2008). Effective Technical Communication. Tata McGraw – Hill
publishing Company Limited.
3. Meenakshi Raman, Sangeeta Sharma(2011). Technical Communication: Principles and
Practice. Oxford University Press.
4. Lesley Lanir, (2010) English Teaching Professional: Learning disability, Issue 7,
Macmillan Publishers India Ltd.
5. Sanjay Kumar, Pushpa Latha (2011). Communication Skills. Oxford University Press.

K. Sai Krishna
 LESSON – 7
SPEAKING: PROBLEM SOUNDS AND
WORD STRESS
OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will understand

 the identification and production of the sounds in English posing difficulty to Indian
speakers.
 some helpful exercises to master these sounds.
 that the principle of stress in a word is an important feature of spoken English;
 that stress pattern of a word affects the pronunciation of a word;
 some of the common rules to show stress patterns in different types of words;
 how to identify stress in a word and also to reproduce it in your speech.

STRUCTURE

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Problem Sounds
[Link]
7.2.2. Vowels
7.3. Word Stress
7.3.1. Primary and Secondary Stress
7.3.2. Pronunciation of Stressed syllables
7.4. Stress – Free and Fixed
7.5. Stress Shift
7.6. Functional Stress
7.7. Accent in Compound Words
7.8. Rules for Stress Patterns
7.9. Conclusion
7.10. Exercises
7.11. References

7.1. INTRODUCTION

In your first semester the course on Phonetics was intended to make you aware of the
importance of good pronunciation in effective communication when we use the medium of
speech. You were introduced to the sounds (vowels and consonants) present in the English
language and also the phonemic symbols which are used to represent those speech sounds.
Communicative English-1 7.2 Speaking: Problem…

The 44 basic speech sounds or phonemes of English are given below with their
phonemic symbols and examples.
Consonants Pure Vowels Diphthongs
/p/ pin /f/ fine /h/ hat /i:/ leap /u:/ fool /eɪ/ train
/b/ bin /v/ vine /m/ men /ɪ/ lip /ʌ/ sun /a ɪ/ try
/t/ tin / θ/ thin /n/ none /e/ bed /ə/ about / ɔɪ/ toy
/d/ din /ð/ then /ŋ/ king /æ/ man /ɜ:/ bird / ɪə/ ear
/k/ kin /s/ sin /l/ lake /ɑ:/ arm /eə/ dare
/g/ gun /z/ zoo /r/ road /ɒ/ cot
/fʃ/ chain /ʃ/ shoe /j/ yes /ɔː/ caught /ʊə/ poor
/dʒ/ jug /ʒ/ measure /w/ wet /ʊ/ full
/aʊ/ now

/əʊ/ no

7.2. PROBLEM SOUNDS

You must have felt that some sounds were familiar to you while some sounds were
strange and difficult to acquire. The point to note here is that no two languages have exactly
the same number and types of sounds. In particular those sounds of English not present in
our mother tongue will pose difficulty. Let us focus on the problematic sounds in English for
non-native speakers like Indians.

7.2.1. Consonants: The consonant sounds / p, b, k, g, h, m, n, I, / do not appear to be

difficult. Let us dwell on the other sounds.

1. /p, t, k. /
The voiceless plosives / p, t, k / should be aspirated at the beginning of stressed
syllables. Aspiration means that these sounds are released with a strong puff of air. Indians
do not aspirate them in stressed positions. For example, in the word paper, the first ‘p’ is
aspirated while the second is not. We can show it like this / 'p heI - pə /.

Examples:

tend / thend / a'ttend / ə - 'thend / count / khaunt / acc'ount / ə - 'khaunt /

part / pha : t /apart / ə - pha : t / / p, t, k / are not aspirated when they

(i) are preceded by / s / as in spy, sty, sky.

(ii) occur in unstressed syllables as in 'leper, 'filter, 'pocket.

2. / t, d / in past tense marker –ed:-

Another problem with the sounds / t, d / arises in regard to the pronunciation of the
-ed inflection (ending) for past tense. Indians usually pronounce words according to their
spelling so they should take care to listen and learn the three different pronunciations of –ed.

(i) It is pronounced as / t / when it occurs after voiceless consonants except / t /.

walked / wɔ : kt / l aughed/ la: f t /
clapped/ klæpt / finished/ fInɪʃ t /
kissed / kɪst / mixed / mɪkst /
Centre for Distance Education 7.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

(ii) It is pronounced as / d / when it occurs after voiced sounds (including vowels) except
/d/.
rubbed / rbd / sighed / saɪd /
loved / lvd / joined / dʒɔɪnd /
pulled / puld / jammed / dʒæmd /

(iii) It is pronounced as / -Id / when it occurs after / t / and / d /.

waited /weɪtɪd / guided / gaɪdɪd /
melted / meltɪd / bounded / bDndɪd /

3. / f , v /
These two sounds are produced with the lower lip coming close to the upper front
teeth to make a narrow gap. The air passes through the gap with audible friction. They are
called labio-dental sounds. But producing / v / is difficult for Indian language speakers
because they have a sound in their languages produced with a free passage of air. The clue is
to put the lower lip and upper front teeth in the position of the sound / f / and produce
friction.

Examples:
fan/ fæn / van / væn / leaf / li: f / leave /li: v /
fail/feɪl / veil / veɪl / calf / ka : f / carve / ka : v /
file/ faɪl / vile / vaɪl / proof / pru:f / prove / pru : v /

4. / θ , ð /
The consonants / θ , ð / are also friction sounds like / f, v /. The friction is produced
with the air passing through a narrow gap between the tip of the tongue and the upper front
teeth. They are dental sounds made with friction. But Indian languages have the dental
sounds t , d / where the tip of the tongue touches the upper front teeth.
 

Examples
thin / θ ɪn / those / ðəuz /
thank / θæŋk / this / ðɪs /
thief / θi: f / father / fa: ðə /

In spelling both the sounds / θ, ð / are indicated by th , which causes some confusion.
Another confusion is when th is pronounced as / t / in English as in the River Thames,
Thomas etc.

5. / s, z /
These are alveolar sounds made with friction. Some Indian speakers fail to distinguish
between these two sounds in words though they can produce them. Telugu speakers often
use the / dʒ/ sound instead of / z /.

Examples:
sip / sɪp / zip / zɪp / sink / sɪŋk / zinc / zɪŋk /
bus / bs / buzz / bz / seal / si : l / zeal / zi:l /
lacy / leɪsɪ / lazy / leɪzɪ / hiss / hɪs / his / hɪz /
loose / lu:s / lose / lu:z / rice / raɪs / rise / raɪz /
Communicative English-1 7.4 Speaking: Problem…

The sounds / s, z / present the most difficulty in regard to the pronunciation of the –s
or -es suffix used as a plural marker or as a third person singular present tense marker. The
following rules will be helpful to know how the suffix is pronounced.

(i) It is pronounced as / s / when it occurs after voiceless sounds except / s , ʃ , tʒ /.

sleeps / sli : ps / cats / kæts / taps / tæps /
looks / luks / laughs / la: fs / snakes / sneɪks /

(ii) It is pronounced as / z / when it occurs after voiced sounds (including vowels) except
/ z, ʒ , dʒ /
eggs / egz / girls / gɜ: lz / banged / bæŋd /
pulls / pulz boys / bɔɪz / drives / draɪvz /

(iii) It is pronounced as / -ɪz / when it occurs after / s, z, ʃ , ʒ , tʃ , dʒ /

roses / rə uzɪz/ matches / mætʃɪz / races / reɪsɪz /
judges / dʒdʒɪz / bushes / buʃɪz / garages / gæra: ʒɪz /

6) / ʃ ,ʒ /
These sounds are articulated with the tip of the tongue coming close to the teeth ridge
and the front of the tongue rising towards the hard palate. The air escapes with friction
through the narrow gap. They are Palato-alveolar sounds. / ʃ / occurs at the beginning of
English words but not / ʒ / . Some Indian speakers wrongly pronounce / ʃ / as / z / or / dʒ /.

measure / 'meʒə /
rubbish / 'rbɪʃ / vision / 'vɪʒən /
conditon / kən'dɪʃən / occasion / ə'keɪʒ ən /
sharp / ʃa: p / explosion / ɪks'pləuʒən /
precious / 'preʃəs/ treasure / 'treʒə /
ocean / 'əuʃ ən /

7) Of the three nasal sounds / m, n, ŋ / only / ŋ / presents some problem to Indian

speakers because they usually pronounce a word according to the spelling. The sound / ŋ / is
spelled with ng as in sing, so most Indians pronounce the word as / sIŋg / . Try not to
pronounce / g / after / ŋ / in the following words:

hang / hæŋ / hanging / hæŋ ɪŋ /

ring / rɪŋ / ringing / rɪŋɪŋ /
bang / bæŋ / banging / bæŋɪŋ /

In some words like anger we pronounce a / g / after / ŋ / . A general rule is this:

If a word is derived from a verb ending in ng, no / g / is pronounced, as in / sɪŋə / ; if not, / g /
is pronounced, as in / strDŋgə / produced from the adjective / strDŋ / .
Notice the difference in these words.
bringing / brIŋɪŋ/ anger / æŋgə /
hanging / hæŋɪŋ / hungry/ hʌŋgrɪ /
banged / bæŋd / language / læŋgwɪdʒ /
longing (from long (v) ) / lDŋɪŋ / longer (from adj. long) /lDŋgə/
Centre for Distance Education 7.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

8) /j/w/

These consonants consist of a smooth glide towards a following vowel sound.

/ j / is produced with a quick glide from the position of the vowel sound of / ɪ / to another
vowel (the / ɪ / is very short ). Try saying these sounds in the words:

yard / ja : d / yacht / jDt / yes / jes /

due / dju : / new / nju : / beauty /bju:t ɪ /

/ w / is produced with a quick glide from the vowel / u / to whatever vowel follows as in war
/wɔ: / (the lips are rounded). Many languages do not have a separate / w / sound but it is not
difficult to learn.
Try these words:
watch / wDtʃ / wool / wul / water / wDtə / swear / sweə / twelve / twelv / wood / wud /

As mentioned earlier, many Indian speakers replace / w / by a sound close to / v /. They do

not show difference between verse and worse; veil and wail etc.

9) /r/
Indians tend to pronounce / r / in all positions whereas in British English / r / is
pronounced only before vowels. It is not pronounced word finally or before a consonant.
Indian and British examples are given below.

hard / hərd / / hɜ:d / here / hɪər / / hɪə /

born / bDrn / / bɔ: n / car / ka: r / / ka : /

10) Syllabic consonants / n, l, m / Many Indian speakers do not make use of syllabic
consonants / n, l, m / in certain syllables. They pronounce a vowel sound between two
consonant sounds in the second syllables of the words below.

In the second syllables of the following words, it is better not to insert a vowel between
the two consonants.

middle /mɪdl / often / Dfn / or / Dfən /

eagle / i: gl / occasion / əkeɪʒ n / or / əkeɪʒən /
Bible / baɪbl / rhythm / rɪðm / or / rɪðəm /

7.2.2. Vowels

1. / ɪ: , I /
The difficulty with these vowels in the pronunciation of Indian speakers is that the
difference of length is not maintained. The sounds / i: / and / ɪ / , are not made distinct. See
the following pairs of words.

feel / fi : l / fill / fɪl / seek / si : k / sick / sɪk /

leak / li : k / lick / lɪk / reach / ri : tʃ / rich / rɪtʃ /

2. The sounds / D / and / ɔ: / do not exist in Telugu, so they are often confused and the
length is not maintained. The lips are slightly rounded for / D / while for / ɔ: / the mouth is
less open and the lips are more rounded.
Communicative English-1 7.6 Speaking: Problem…

Examples:
cot / kDt / caught, court / kɔ: t / shot/ ʃDt / short / ʃ ɔ:t / pot / p Dt / port / p ɔ: t /

Indian speakers also pronounce / o : / + r instead of / ɔ: / in certain spellings, examples:

court, port, floor, four are pronounced as / ko:rt /, / po:rt /, / flo:r / , / fo:r / respectively.

3) /ɑ:/&//
Sometimes the sound / ɑ: / and /  / are not kept distinct from these two. For / ɑ: / the mouth
is open and no lip-rounding; remember / ɑ: / is a long sound. For /  / the mouth is not very
open. /  / does not occur at the end of English words.

luck / lk / lark / lɑ: k / bun / bn / barn / bɑ: n /

duck /dk / dark / dɑ: k / hut / ht / heart / hɑ: t /

4. The vowels / u / and / u : / again have to be made distinct in regard to the length. /u / does
not occur at the beginning of English words.

pull /pul / pool / pu: l / foot / fut / food / fu: d /

full / ful / fool /fu: l / should /ʃud / shoed /ʃu: d /

5. Most Indian speakers do not distinguish between / ɜ: / and / ə / since these sounds do not
occur in their languages. / ɜ: / is produced with the teeth quite close together and without
lip-rounding. / ə / is a short version of / ɜ: / ; it is very short and indistinct. It because it is
the commonest of the English vowels and occurs only in unstressed syllables and never in
stressed syllables.

word / wɜ : d / dirt / dɜ : t / bird / bɜ: d / firm / fɜ: m /

again / ə'gen / contain / kən’teɪn teacher / 'ti : tʃə / pilot / 'paɪlət /

Diphthongs :

A diphthong is a glide from one vowel to another, and the whole glide acts like one of
the long, simple vowels.

1. / eɪ, aɪ /
Indian speakers pronounce / eI / correctly only in certain spellings like ai as in plain,
train and faith. In words spelled with a, they pronounce a long / e: / sound as they are
unaware that English does not have a long pure vowel / e: /.

See the sound and spelling of these words:

gate / geɪt / paste / peɪst / bake / beɪk / able / eɪbl /

fate / feɪt / cake / keɪk / age / eɪdʒ / race / reɪs /

In some words / eɪ / and / aɪ / are confused. Words like train, straight, rail, are mis-
pronounced with / aɪ / as / traIn / , / strait / and / raɪl /. Keep the two sounds distinct.

file / faɪl / fail / feɪl / rise / raɪz / raise / reɪz /

like / laɪk / lake / leɪk / tried / traɪd / trade / treɪd /
Centre for Distance Education 7.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

2. / eə / and / uə / are problem sounds for Indian speakers because they are replaced by
the pure vowels / e: / and / u: / respectively and using a final / r / sound too as in bare
/ be : r /.

stare / steə / where / weə / tour / tuə / poor/puə

3. We also have to keep / eɪ / and / eə / distinct because some Indians pronounce / eɪ / instead
of / eə / fior certain spellings.

air / eə / fair, fare / feə / heir / eə / bear, bare / beə / hair / heə /

4. The pure vowel / i : / is used instead of / ɪə / for certain spellings by Indians.

beer / bɪə / serious / sɪərɪəs /

deer / dɪə / hero / hɪərəu /

5. / au / and əu /

The diphthong / au / is not difficult for most people. Remember to make / a / more
prominent than / u /.
/ əu / is more difficult because Indian languages do not have this diphthong; instead they
pronounce a long pure vowel / o : /.
For example so can be produced this way: say a long / sɜ: / (Sir) and round your lips at
the endto make / səu /.

grow / grəu / nose / nəuz / so, sew / səu /

road / rəud / joke / dʒəuk / stove / stəuv /

However take care to keep / əu / distinct from /au / .

hole / həul / howl / haul / loud / ləud / loud / laud /

know / nəu / now / nau / tones / təunz / towns / taunz /
row (line ) /rəu / row (quarrel) / rau /

7.3. WORD STRESS

This section discusses the significance and role of the syllable in a word. You are now
aware that some words have only one syllable; others have two, three, four, five and even six
syllables. The most important feature of spoken English is that if a word has more than one
syllable, only one syllable (or occasionally two syllables) is prominent. It means that that
particular syllable is said with greater breath force. It is louder, even longer, than the rest of
the syllables. So we say that such a syllable receives stress or is stressed. In the following
words the syllables written in capital letters are uttered more prominently than the rest of
them in these words. They are called stressed syllables.

PENcil, misTAKE, deFEND, conTAIN, cigaRETTE, ADvertise, beLIEVE, TEAcher.

Communicative English-1 7.8 Speaking: Problem…

7.3.1. Primary and Secondary Stress

For example in English, the word examination has five syllables: /ig-zæ-mi-nei -ʃən /.

The last syllable can also be pronounced as / ʃn / with a syllabic consonant / n /. In this word
1 1

the fourth syllable / nei / stands out among the five syllables. It receives the primary stress
which is shown by putting a small vertical bar above and in front of the syllable like this,
/ ˈneɪ /. One other syllable /ˈzæ / receives secondary stress which is shown by a small vertical
bar below and in front of the syllable, like this, / 1zæ /. The other syllables / ɪg / , /mi/, /ʃən /
or ʃ n / (syllabic n) are pronounced with minimum prominence. These three syllables are
grouped together and described as weak or unstressed syllables. That is to say, in a
polysyllabic word one syllable is more prominent than the rest; so we say it receives primary
stress. In a word of four syllables or more, another syllable also may be prominent, so it
receives secondary stress.

Note: The greater prominence of a syllable may be due to stress or greater breath force.
Often the length of a vowel in the syllable, stress and change in the pitch of the voice
work together to make a syllable more prominent than its neighbouring syllables. It
is for this reason that the term ‘word accent’ is sometimes preferred to ‘word stress’.

Thus ‘word stress’ or ‘word accent’ can be defined as the relative degree of prominence with
which the different syllables in a word are pronounced.

Note: Monosyllabic words do not have stress when produced in isolation.

7.3.2. Pronunciation of Stressed syllables

If we listen carefully to a few words we can see how the different syllables are
pronounced. The phonemic transcription of the words is also given.
Salad / 1sæ - ˈləd /, / galaxy / ˈgæ -ˈlək –sɪ /

You will notice that the two as in the spelling of salad are not pronounced alike. The
first a is pronounced prominently as æ while the second a is pronounced by using a weak
vowel / ə /. This is because the first syllable is stressed in salad and the second syllable is
unstressed, therefore weakened. Again in galaxy, there are three syllables and the two as are
pronounced differently. The first a is pronounced as /æ/ while the second a becomes / ə /,
which is a weak vowel.

The vowel is the nucleus or central part of the syllable. So the vowel changes its sound
value depending on whether it occurs in a stressed or an unstressed syllable. It is obvious that
word stress changes the pronunciation of a word in English because of the greater or less
prominence of syllables in a given word. This is the important reason for learning where the
stress occurs in English words. If the wrong syllable is stressed, it will change the
pronunciation of the word.

So, word accent is an essential part of the shape of the word in English. Every word has
its characteristic stress pattern and any arbitrary change in the pattern results in the word not
being recognized. The important point here is that a word gets its identity not only from its
sound sequence (vowels and consonants) but also from its stress pattern. The implication for
non-native speakers of English is that no one can learn the pronunciation of an English word
Centre for Distance Education 7.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

without learning its accent or stress pattern. Indian languages, for example, do not have this
feature of stress in spoken form. In these languages all the syllables in a word are equally
pronounced so there is the possibility that in English the wrong syllable is stressed or all the
syllables are given equal weight.

Let us, therefore, study the accentual pattern of words in English speech in greater detail.

7.4. STRESS – FREE AND FIXED

In English words, stress is said to be free in the sense that some words are stressed on the
first syllable, some on the second, some on the third, or fourth etc. See the words below:
'artist, 'beauty, 'tailor, 'colour, 'able, 'marriage, 'guidance, 'mansion, 'nation.

All of them are disyllabic words with the stress falling on the first syllable.

The following disyllabic words have the stress falling on the second syllable:
a'gree, at'tract, be'come, re'ceive, com'pare, con'nect, con'fess, mis'take.

Examples of trisyllablic words which are stressed on the first syllable are given below.
'advertise, 'anything, 'beautiful, 'customer, 'colourless, 'diplomat, 'scholarship.

Other trisyllabic words have the stress on the second syllable:

a'greement, ar'tistic, de'velop, con'nection, con'tentment, con'ductor.

Some trisyllabic words receive the stress on the third syllable.

Ciga'rette, disap'point, under'stand, seven’teen,

We can see that stress in English is free, but at the same time, it is also fixed. It means
that in a given word only one of its syllables is stressed, and we cannot change the stress
pattern as we like. To take the same examples as above, words like tailor and pencil are
always stressed on the first syllable, never on the second. Words like mistake and connect
are always stressed on the second syllable and not on the first. Cigarette and seventeen
receive stress only on the third syllable and never on the other syllables. Since stress in
English speech is fixed in this sense, we have to learn which syllable in a given word should
be stressed. Using a pronouncing dictionary is of great help in learning the stress patterns in
English.

7.5. STRESS SHIFT

Another difficulty about word accent in English is that stress generally shifts from one
syllable to another in some derived words. So even if we know that a particular syllable is
stressed in a given word, in its derivative we cannot be sure that the stress will remain on the
same syllable. A few examples are given below to illustrate this.

Photograph / 'fəu-tə-græf/ (primary accent on first syllable)

Photographer / fə-'tD-grə- fə / (primary accent on 2nd syllable)
Photography / fə-'tD-grə- fɪ / (primary accent on 2nd syllable)
Photographic / 1fəu-tə- 'græ-fɪk / (primary stress on 3rd syllable; secondary
stress on 1st syllable)
Communicative English-1 7.10 Speaking: Problem…

Politics / /'pD -lə - tiks/ (1st syllable stressed)

Political / pə-'li – tɪ -kl/ (2nd syllable stressed)
Politician /1pD - lə-'tɪ - ʃən/ (Primary stressed on 3rd syllable; Secondary
stress on 1st syllable.
7.6. FUNCTIONAL STRESS

A third difficulty with word stress in English has to do with stress shifting from one
syllable to the next depending on the function of these words. There are many disyllabic
words in English with the same spelling but the pronunciation is different because of change
in stress pattern. If these words function as nouns or adjectives in a sentence, they are
stressed on the first syllable. If the same words are used as verbs, they are stressed on the
second syllable.

Examples:
Word Noun or Adjective Verb
object / 'Db-dʒikt/ / əb - 'dʒekt/
subject / 'sΛb – dʒɪkt/ / səb - 'dʒekt/
conduct / 'kDn-dəkt/ / kən - 'dΛkt/
convict / 'kDn-vɪkt/ / kən - 'vɪkt/
perfect / 'p3 : - fɪkt/ / pə - 'fekt/
desert / 'de - zət/ / dɪ- 'z3:t/
present / 'pre-znt/ / prɪ- 'zent/

Note: There are exceptions to this feature. There are some disyllabic words which can be
used as nouns and verbs but which do not undergo such a shift in the stressed syllable.
A few examples are: 'limit, 'order, re'mark, 'visit etc.

7.7. ACCENT IN COMPOUND WORDS

Compound words are words composed of two separable words. In most compound words
in English the primary stress falls on the first element. Some variations in terms of syllables
are given below:

'crossword, 'blackbird, 'hairbrush, 'postman, 'school-bus, 'cardboard.

'grandmother, 'door-handle, 'bus-station.

There are a few compound words ending with ever and self which are stressed on
their second elements: her'self, him'self, them'selves, how'ever, what'ever, when'ever.

Some compound words are stressed on both the elements but the primary stress is
always on the second element.
1bad -'tempered, 1old-'fashioned,  good – 'looking,  door- handle.

7.8. RULES FOR STRESS PATTERNS

The foregoing discussion of word stress in English gives us the impression that one has to
learn the stress pattern of every English word separately because it is unpredictable and
irregular. However, there are many regular patterns seen in English words which make it
possible for us to state certain common rules for accent patterns. Some useful rules are given
below:
Centre for Distance Education 7.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

1. Words with weak prefixes are always stressed on the root.

Ahead / ə'hed / alone / ə'ləun / across / ə'krDs /

become / bɪ'km / beneath/bɪ'ni:θ / between / bɪt'wi:n /

2. The inflectional suffixes -ed, -es and –ing, and the derivational suffixes -age, -ance, -en,
-er, -ess, -ful, -hood, -ice, -ish, -ive, -less, -ly, -ment, -ness, -or, -er, -ship, -some, -ure
and -y do not affect the stress pattern.

'village - 'villages 'actor - 'actress 'laugh - 'laughter

ap'pear - ap'peared 'coward - 'cowardice ap'point - ap'pointment
be'gin - be'ginning con'duce - con'ducive ad'vance - ad'vancing
'light - 'lighted 'bitter - 'bitterness com'mit - com'mitting
'enter - 'entered 'fellow - 'fellowhip 'brush - 'brushing
'enter - 'entering 'beauty - 'beautiful
ap'pear - ap'pearance ex'pose - ex'posure

3. Words ending in –ion have the primary stress on the penultimate syllable.
trans'lation intro'duction
deco'ration in'fection
exami'nation qualifi'cation

4. Words ending in –ity have the primary stress on the antepenultimate syllable, i.e., the third
syllable from the end.

gene'rosity, elec'tricity, possi'bility, peculi'arity, a'bility, seni'ority.

5. Words ending in –ic, -ical, -ically, -ious, -ial, -ially, -ian, -iance, -iant, -ual, -itive have the
primary accent on the syllable before the suffix.

me'chanic, me'chanical, me'chanically, e'lectric, e'lectrical, eco'nomic,

eco'nomical, eco'nomically, confi'dential, confi'dentially, 'anxious, cere'monious,
cere'monial, cere'monially, 'Asian, ci'vilian, co'median.

6. Words ending in –eau, -ary, -ery, -ience, -ient, -ier, -iture, -sory, -sure, -ive, -tor, -tory etc.
are stressed on the syllable preceding the endings.

'bureau, 'contrary, 'binary, 'artery, 'bravery, 'audience, con'venience,

de'ficient, expedient, 'courtier, 'frontier, 'furniture, com'pulsory, 'censure,
ex'posure, cor'rective, 'doctor, 'sculptor, 'victory, di'rectory

7. The monosyllabic suffixes –aire, -ean, -ee, -een, -eer, -ese, -esque, -ette,
-eum, -ique, -oo, -oon take the primary stress.

million'naire, question'naire, Euro'pean, Jaco'bean, trus'tee, emplo'yee, can'teen,

engi'neer, ca'reer, Bur'mese, Chi'nese, gro'tesque, pictu'resque, geor'gette, ga'zette,
mu'seum, mauso'leum, cri'tique, tech'nique, bam'boo, kanga'roo, bal'loon, buf'foon.

8. The disyllabic suffixes –ental, -ential, -escence, -escent, -ician, -iety, -itis carry the stress
on their first syllables.
Communicative English-1 7.12 Speaking: Problem…

'dental, funda'mental, cre'dential, es'sential, ado'lescence, coa'lescence,

ado'lescent, 'cresent, lo'gician, poli'tician, 'piety, pro'priety, arth'ritis, neu'ritis.

9. Words ending in -cracy, -gamy, -graphy, -gyny, -logy, -metry, -nomy, -phony, -scopy,
and -sophy receive their primary stress on the syllable preceding the endings.

de'mocracy, 'bigamy, bi'ography, mi'sogyny, bi'ology, ge'ometry,

e'coonomy, te'lephony, radi'oscopy, phi'losophy.

10. Disyllabic verbs ending in –ate and –ize (or –ise) are stressed on the ending:
mi'grate, nar'rate, re'late, bap'tize, cap'size, re'vise (exception is 'realise).

11. Verbs consisting of more than two syllables and ending in –ate and –ize (or –ise) are
generally stressed on the third syllable from the end.

'abdicate, anp'ticipate, a'djudicate, 'liberate, 'agonize, 'criticize, a'natomize. (exceptions

are i'dealise and 'characterize).

7.9. CONCLUSION

When we teach writing, we focus on features like spelling, punctuation, word order etc.
Similarly, when we teach spoken English, we need to concentrate on features used in speech
like stress. Moreover, some of these features like word stress are not part of our Indian
languages, so there is the reality of our mother tongues interfering with the way we learn to
speak English. So in this lesson, attention is paid to the problem sounds and also reducing
mother tongue interference (MTI). This lesson shows that there are many aspects of word
stress in English speech that need to be learned, especially by non-native learners of English.
Word stress or accent is an essential part of the word form. Along with the consonant and
vowel sounds, the relative prominence of the syllable give the word its pronunciation.

7.10. EXERCISES

Do the following exercises. Use a pronouncing dictionary if necessary.

[Link] stress and pronounce the following words with aspiration, wherever appropriate.
prepare, attain, mistake, compose, contents (noun), temper, approve, tiger, retire,
important, apply, intend.

2. Pronounce the correct sound for the past tense suffix in:-
searched, jammed, asked, peeped, guided, liked, rounded, tanned, ranged, kicked.

3. Arrange the following words having the sounds / θ / and / ð / in two columns.
cloth, breathe, faith, moth, clothe, breath, wreath, wrath, death, thirty, worth,
loathe, smooth, worthy, earth.

4. Find out the correct pronunciation of the plural suffix and say them aloud.
Walks, songs, bangs, bells, benches, dresses, Jacks, washes, lifts, changes.

5. Identity the / ɜ: / sound and the / ɑ: / sound in the following words.

Purse, world, heart, herd, pass, theist, guard, balm, furl, march.
Centre for Distance Education 7.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

6. Transcribe and mark stress in the following words and underline the / ə / sound.
rubber, brother, ahead, combine, arrange, liberty, enter, England, favour, creature

7. Pronounce these words and identify the sounds / eɪ / and / eə / in them.

where, chair, faith, share, page, wake, mare, fake, glare, tear (v).

8. Distinguish betweent he following words on the basis of the sounds / au / and / əu /.

explode, soul, phoned, over, house, found, foal, grow, choke, fowl.

9. identify which syllable gets the primary stress in the following words

Academy, academic, academician, advertise, advertisement,

examine, examinee, accident, accidental, responsible,
responsibility

10. Say whether the following words are stressed only on the first element or on both
elements. Write them in two columns.

second-hand, short-sighted, post-graduate, bookshop, airport, bedtime, lipstick

salesman, greenhouse, typewriter, teacup, Vice-Chancellor, earrings, handbag, car
park.

11. Using the rules of word stress, mark the primary accent in the following groups of words
and pronounce them correctly.

1. Conjunction, dissection, congratulations, vacation, participation, comprehension.

2. Majority, identity, crudity, liberality, nationality, velocity.
3. Pathetic, sympathetic, grammatical, historically, characteristic, radical.
4. Ambitious, luxuriant, industrial, casual, commercial, conscious
5. Colonize, pulsate, manipulate, vegetate, sympathize, jeopardize.
6. Unique, Japanese, convalesce, incidental, zoology, plutocracy.
7. Kingdom, clearance, brotherhood, wonderful, laziness, employment.

7.11. REFERENCES

1. T. Balasubramaniam. 1981. A Textbook of English Phonetics for Indian Students.

Macmillan.
2. J. Sethi and P.V. Dhamija. 1989. A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English.
Prentice-Hall of India [Link].
3. Board of Editors. 2007. Written and Spoken Communication in English. Hyderabad:
Universities Press.
4. R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison. 1972. Spoken English for India. Madras: Orient
Longman.
5. J.D.O’ Connor. 1970. Better English Pronunciation. CUP.
6. Daniel Jones. English Pronouncing Dictionary. 1977. 14th edition.

Prof. K. Ratna Shiela Mani

 LESSON - 8
SPEAKING: INTONATION AND THE ART OF
PUBLIC SPEAKING
OBJECTIVES

From this lesson, you will be able to

 understand how to choose the tone to be used on the nucleus.
 recognize and produce the falling, rising and falling-rising tones
on particular syllables.
 know the uses and implications of using the tones.
 explain the art of public speaking
 how to overcome the anxiety of public speaking
 discuss public speaking skills and techniques.

STRUCTURE

8.1. Introduction
8.2. Intonation
8.3. Pauses and tone groups
8.4. Stress in Connected Speech
8.5. Nucleus
8.6. Choice of the Tone
8.7. The Falling Tone
8.8. The Rising Tone
8.9. The Falling – Rising Tone
8.10. The Art of Public Speaking
8.11. Common Fears of Public Speaking
8.12. How to Overcome Fear of Public Speaking
8.13. Public Speaking Hints and Tips
8.14. Conclusion
8.15. Exercises
8.16. References

8.1. INTRODUCTION

In your first semester course on Phonetics, you were introduced to r features of

spoken English like syllables, word stress, sentence stress and intonation.

In this lesson we discuss the necessary stages involved in using connected speech
effectively such as division of an utterance into tone groups, marking stress and identifying
the nucleus in each tone group. Attention is paid to features like the choice of the tone with
which the nucleus in a word group is uttered, the uses and contexts in which a particular tone
is used and its significance (or nuances of meaning). This is followed by a section on the art
of public speaking, focusing on the skills and techniques of public speaking.
Communicative English-1 8.2 Speaking: Intonation…

8.2. INTONATION

We are all aware that no language is spoken in a single tone or monotone. The pitch
of the speaker’s voice rises and falls, and at times remains steady, whether high or low. The
vocal chords, as you know, are elastic bands of tissue in our larynx (throat). The pitch of the
voice is determined by the number of vibrations made by the vocal cords. If the frequency is
high, the pitch also is high; if the frequency is low, the pitch is low too. These patterns of
variation of the pitch of the voice constitute the ‘intonation’ of a language.

Every language has its own unique intonation. In some languages the tone is an
intrinsic part of the word, i.e., a word said with two different tones will have two different
meanings. But in English the tone is a feature of the ‘word group’, or group of words, and not
of the specific words. Let us see what a word group or ‘tone group’ is.

8.3. PAUSES AND TONE GROUPS

When we speak, our utterances can be short or long. A short utterance will be said as
one group, i.e., in one breath.

Example:
a. I met some boys.
b. He is going tomorrow.
c. Don’t’ come late.
d. She bought a car.

While uttering longer sentences, we need to pause in between, to think and also breathe.
Longer utterances will be divided into small groups of words, or word groups, between which
we pause. Each word group will have a tone associated with it, so they are also called ‘tone
groups’.

Example:
a. When the cat is away, / the mice play.
b. If you had studied well, / you wouldn’t have failed.
c. I borrowed some money / and built a house.
d. When you go out, / post this letter.

From these examples, we can see that each word group forms a compact meaningful unit.
So how do we know where to pause in a long utterance? Often punctuation helps in
determining tone groups, but not always.

The pause should be between two groups of words. If you pause in the middle of a group
of words, it will make your speech difficult to understand.

Pauses can also change the meaning of what we say. Look at the following pair of sentences.
I got up, / quickly got dressed, / and went downstairs.
I got up quickly, / got dressed, / and went downstairs.

Note: Tone group boundary is shown by a slash; one slash for a slight pause and two for a
longer pause
Centre for Distance Education 8.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Examples:
a. Remember what your mother tells you.
b. I’m looking for pen and paper.
c. I went to see the Principal,/ but he wasn’t there.
d. If I see you again, / I’ll hit you.
e. My father met with an accident, / but luckily, /he wasn’t seriously hurt.

8.4. STRESS IN CONNECTED SPEECH

Generally, the content words in an utterance are stressed whereas grammatical words
are usually not stressed. In the tone group as well, we have to stress the important words or
syllables, i.e., utter them at a higher pitch.

The content or lexical words are nouns, adjectives, adverbs, main verbs,
demonstrative pronouns and interrogative pronouns. The grammatical or form words are
articles, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, personal and relative pronouns.

In connected speech stressed words/syllables are pronounced carefully while the

unstressed words are weakened and said quickly. This feature is important to maintain the
rhythm of spoken English.

Examples:
a. ˈRavi is ˈgoing to ˈDelhi.
b. His ˈconduct was ˈpraised
c. I’ve ˈjust ˈbought a ˈcar.

In sentence a, the words Ravi, going and Delhi are stressed In sentence b, conduct, and
praised are stressed, while in c, just, bought and car are stressed. But in each sentence, one of
the words may be more important than the rest in terms of the meaning the speaker wants to
convey. Here, the words Delhi, praised and car are the most important ones, so the change in
the pitch of the speaker’s voice occurs on the stressed syllables of these words.

8.5. NUCLEUS

The above examples show that in addition to being stressed, a change in the pitch of
the voice occurs on the words Delhi, praised and car. The syllable on which a change in the
pitch takes place is said to be the ‘nucleus’. It receives the primary accent or nuclear accent.
If there are stressed syllables after the nucleus in an utterance, they are said on a low pitch.
They are marked with secondary stress marks. See the example below.

I must ˈgo to the `bank this ˌmorning.

Here the nucleus is the word bank and so the stressed syllable in morning is marked with a
secondary stress mark.

Location of the nucleus

A change in the pitch takes place on the syllable which the speaker wants to make the most
prominent.

Example:
a. I ˈhate `tea. (I may like coffee)
Communicative English-1 8.4 Speaking: Intonation…

b. I `hate ˌtea. (stressing the hatred)

c. `I ˌhate ˌtea. (but my husband likes it)

Thus, in the same utterance different syllables can receive the tone, depending upon what
the speaker wants to emphasize. If no special emphasis is intended, the nucleus is generally
the stressed syllable of the last important word in the group.

8.6. CHOICE OF THE TONE

Once we locate the nucleus in a word group, we have to decide the tone in which we
need to say it. A tone is simply the changing pitch of the voice on a stressed syllable.
Intonation serves two functions it indicates:

(i) the type of utterance used by a speaker and

(ii) his attitude at the time of speaking.
(iii) Native speakers of English use a large number of the tones to convey subtle shades or
nuances of meaning.

For non-native speakers of English like Indians, the uses and implications of using at
least three tones – the Falling Tone, the Rising Tone and the Falling Rising Tone – are
necessary for basic understanding.

8.7. THE FALLING TONE

This tone consists of a fall of the voice from a fairly high note to a very low note on a
single stressed syllable.

Examples:
`No, `two, `you, `how, `one, `ten, `still, `wait, `yes, `six, `what, `which,

In the examples below an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one. Unstressed

syllables are said on a low note.

be`fore, be`hind, a`lone, my`self

I `know, you `can, they `came, its `me.

Uses of the Falling Tone:

The following types of sentences are generally said with a falling tone.

Ordinary 1. statements which are complete and definite and made without any implications.
(i) The 'train 'came `early.
(ii) I have 'two `brothers.
(iii) I’m de'lighted to `meet you.
(iv) She can 'sing `well.

2. Wh – questions said in a matter - of- fact manner.

(i) 'How’s your `father?
(ii) 'When are you `going?
(iii) 'Where were you `born?
(iv) 'Where does she `work?
Centre for Distance Education 8.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

3. Commands.
(i) 'Stop that `noise.
(ii) 'Pick 'up your `pencil.
(iii) 'Go and `post it.
(iv) 'Open the `window.

4. Exclamations.
(i) 'Excellent!
(ii) 'How `wonderful!
(iii) 'How `clever of you!
(iv) 'What a 'beautiful `place!

5. Tag – questions when agreement by the listener is expected.

(i) You’re on `holiday, / `aren’t you? `Yes, / I `am.
(ii) He’s `clever, /`isn’t he? `Yes, / he `is.
(iii) You 'don’t 'work in `Delhi, / `do you? `No, / I `don’t.

8.8. THE RISING TONE

This tone consists of a rise in the voice from a very low note to a fairly high one on a
single stressed syllable.

/no /two /three /four /still /please /house /wait

/when/ /this /what /yes

When there are one or more unstressed syllables before the stressed syllable, they are
said on a very low note as in the case of the falling tone. But any unstressed syllables after
the rising tone will be said on a continuing rising pitch. Listen to these words.

A/ lone.. be/fore.. be/ hind. a/ gain. my/ self. /did you?

/can we? You/ didn’t? I/needn’t?

Uses of the Rising Tone:

The rising tone is used with the following tone groups.

1. Incomplete utterances, often the first clause of a sentence, or even an end tone group.
(i) 'When I 'went to /Agra, / it was `winter there.
(ii) If you 'don’t 'start /early, / you’ll 'miss the `bus.
(iii) You’re 'leaving to`day, / I sup /pose.

2. Yes / No type questions.

(i) Can I 'see your /book?
(ii) ˈIs he /working?
(iii) 'Did you /meet him?

3. Wh – questions showing politeness, friendliness, warmth, personal interest.

(i) 'How’s your /father?
(ii) 'What’s the /matter?
(iii) 'When can you /come?
Communicative English-1 8.6 Speaking: Intonation…

4. Requests and commands intended to sound like a request.

(i) 'Close the /door.
(ii) /Sit there.
(iii) 'Shut the /window.

5. Statement intended to be a question.

(i) He 'won’t /come.
(ii) He 'isn’t /going.
(iii) You 'don’t want to /see him.

6. Tag – questions while asking for information.

(i) You’re on `holiday, / /aren’t you? `No, / I`m /not.
(ii) You’re not `working , //are you? `Yes, / I /am.
(iii) You’re not `hungry, //are you? `Yes, / I /am.

8.9. THE FALLING – RISING TONE

This consists of a fall of the tone from a high level to a low level and rise to a fairly
high level.

Examples:
V
Yes, V No, VWait, VHow

This tone is typically used for special implications not verbally expressed. It means
that the listener should understand more than a literal interpretation of words. Statements said
in this tone can be contrasted with those said in a falling tone. In the case of the latter,
nothing extra is meant to be read into the remarks uttered.

eg. She is `clever. (stating a fact)

She is Vclever. (but not reliable - implication).

The term ‘special implication’ can cover insinuations, veiled insult, apology,
unpleasant news, happiness, reassurance, grumbling, or doubt on the part of the speaker as to
the validity of his remark. The fall-rise may take place on one syllable or it may be spread
over several, in which case it is referred to as ‘divided’ fall-rise.

The Vhouses are ,nice. (but perhaps the people in them aren’t so pleasant.)
I ˈdidn’t ˈsee you at the Vtheatre. (I saw you somewhere else).

Examples:
The`coffee was /good. (but the service was poor)
Do you play /tennis? VSometimes. (Not always,of course)
`That’s the /spirit. (encouraging)
You did `quite, /well. ( encouraging, sympathetic)
`I /can (I’ m almost certain you can’t)
`She won’t /help. (perhaps you will)

8.10. THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

Public speaking (sometimes termed oratory or oration) is the process or act of
performing a presentation (a speech) focused around an individual directly speaking to a
Centre for Distance Education 8.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

live audience in a structured, deliberate manner in order to inform, influence, or entertain

them. Public speaking is commonly understood as the formal, face-to-face talking of a single
person to a group of listeners. It is closely allied to "presenting", although the latter is more
often associated with commercial activity. Most of the time, public speaking is to persuade
the audience.

In public speaking, as in any form of communication, there are five basic elements,
often expressed as "who is saying what to whom using what medium with what effects?" The
purpose of public speaking can range from simply transmitting information, to motivating
people to act, to simply telling a story. Good orators should be able to read their audience and
not just engage them. The power of a truly great presenter is the ability to change the
emotions of their listeners, not just inform them. Interpersonal communication and public
speaking have several components that embrace such things as motivational speaking,
leadership/personal development, business, customer service, large group communication,
and mass communication. Public speaking can be a powerful tool to use for purposes such as
motivation, influence, persuasion, informing, translation, or simply ethos.

Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates all developed theories of public speaking and their ideas
took on institutional form through the development of permanent schools where public
speaking was taught. Though Greece eventually lost political sovereignty, the Greek culture
of training in public speaking was adopted virtually wholesale by the Romans.

With the political rise of the Roman Republic, Roman orators copied and modified
Greek techniques of public speaking. Under Roman influence, instruction in rhetoric
developed into a full curriculum including instruction in grammar (study of the poets),
preliminary exercises (progymnasmata), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in
both forensic and deliberative genres. The Latin style was heavily influenced by Cicero, and
involved a strong emphasis on a broad education in all areas of humanistic study (in the
liberal arts, including philosophy), as well as on the use of wit and humor, on appeal to the
listener's emotions, and on digressions (often used to explore general themes related to the
specific topic of the speech).

This Latin style was the primary form of oration in the world until the beginning of
the 20th century. After World War II there began a gradual deprecation of the Latin style of
oration. With the rise of the scientific method and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking
and writing, even formal oratory has become less polished and ornate than in the Classical
period, though politicians today can still make or break their careers on the basis of a
successful (or unsuccessful) speech.

Some of the greatest examples of public speaking are well known and studied years
after the speech was delivered. Examples are Pericles' funeral oration in 427 B.C.E. over the
dead of the Peloponnesian War; Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address in 1863, soon after
Sojourner Truth's identification of racial problem in "Ain't I a Woman?" and Mahatma
Gandhi's message of nonviolent resistance in India, inspiring Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I
Have a Dream" speech at the Washington Monument in 1963. Leaders such as Martin Luther
King, Jr., Winston Churchill are notable examples of effective orators who used oratory to
have a significant impact on society.
Communicative English-1 8.8 Speaking: Intonation…

As said earlier, the objectives of a public speaker's presentation can range from
simply transmitting information, to motivating people to act, to simply telling a story.
Professional public speakers often engage in ongoing training and education to refine their
craft. This may include seeking guidance to improve their speaking skills—such as learning
better storytelling techniques, for example, or learning how to effectively use humour as a
communication tool—as well as continuous research in their topic area of focus.

For someone to become a public speaker, he should refer to the book Eloquence in
Public Speaking written by Dr. Kenneth McFarland. McFarland, who passed away in 1985,
is also known as the “Dean of American Public Speakers,” and in his book he didn’t talk
about methodology or technique at [Link] central message was that the key to eloquence is
the emotional component that the speaker brings to the subject. Where we speak from the
heart, with a deep concern and compassion we acquire eloquence

So the starting point of the art of public speaking is for you to pick a subject that you
really care about, the subjects that you would like to share with others because you really,
intensely feel that others could benefit from your knowledge, according to Tracy Brian.
The second part of public speaking, the real core to the subject, is preparation. Preparation is
more important than anything else except caring about your subject.

It’s not unusual for a person to spend many hours, days and even weeks, preparing for
a talk. Whenever you see a professional speaker who gives a talk that seems almost
effortless, you can know for sure that it was preceded by enormous preparation.

To prepare for a talk, the first thing you do is write out an objective statement of what
you wish to accomplish as a result of this presentation. If it’s a 10 minute presentation, or a
10 hour presentation, the statement of your objective is the same. It’s the answer to the
question, “Who is my audience and what effect do I want my talk to have upon them?”

This section covers hints and tips on public speaking and presentation skills, dealing
with public speaking nerves and anxiety, public speaking skills, public speaking techniques
and public speaking training.

8.11. COMMON FEARS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

It has been found that public speaking tops the list of phobias for most people.

Our body does all kinds of unpleasant things to us when we have to stand up and face
a sea of faces with the hope of getting our message across in a compelling and interesting
way.
Our hands may sweat and our mouth goes dry. Our knees may shake and a quaver
affects our voice. Our heart may race and those well known butterflies invade our stomach.

When all that happens most people don't think of getting their message across in a
compelling and interesting way; they just think of getting off the 'stage' as quickly as
possible! Our body reacts when put under pressure, and for most people, public speaking is
just about the worst pressure they can be put under.

It's normal to be nervous and have a lot of anxiety when speaking in public. In a way,
it's less normal not to have nerves or anxiety;
Centre for Distance Education 8.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Public Speaking Anxiety

Why does public speaking make us anxious?

Given below are some of the reasons,

 You may be judged by all those people, and judged badly

 You may feel like a fool
 You might make mistakes and lose your way
 You'll be completely humiliated
 You'll never be as good as _________ (fill in the blank)
 'They' won't like you
 'They' won't 'get' what you're trying to say

8.12. HOW TO OVERCOME FEAR OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

Public speaking may not be comfortable, but nerves are good. Nerves will keep you
awake and ensure you don't get too complacent. If channeled well, nerves can make the
difference between giving a humdrum presentation and giving one that keeps people
listening. Get your attention off yourself. To make your nerves work for you, you need to
focus on just about anything other than yourself. You can distract yourself by paying
attention to the environment in which you're speaking and seeing how you can make it work
for you. Once you're actually in front of your audience, pay attention to them. If you can,
notice how people are dressed, who's wearing glasses, who has on bright colours. Anything
will do and you will find that the less you concentrate on how you are feeling and the more
you concentrate on other things, the more confident you will feel.

Building Confidence in Public Speaking

Your audience can be your friend. Don’t assume they don't like you. They aren't an
anonymous sea of faces, but real people.

When you make an important point, pay attention to the people who are nodding in
agreement and the ones who are frowning in disagreement. As long as you are creating a
reaction in your audience you are in charge.
Keep them awake.

Ways to keep them awake include –

 Ask rhetorical questions
 Maintain eye contact for a second or two with as many people as possible
 Be provocative
 Be challenging
 Change the pace of your delivery
 Change the volume of your voice

Public Speaking Training

Get a coach: Whatever the presentation, public speaking is tough, so get help.
Here are some things to look for when deciding the training that's right for you.
Communicative English-1 8.10 Speaking: Intonation…

Focus on positives not negatives: Any training you do to become more effective at public
speaking should always focus on the positive aspects of what you already do well.

Turn your back on too many rules: If you find a public speaking course that looks as
though it's going to give you lots of dos and don'ts, walk away! Your brain is going to be so
full of whatever it is you're going to be talking about that to try to cram it full of a whole
bunch of rules will just be counterproductive.

You are an individual not a clone: Most importantly, good public speaking training should
treat you as a unique individual, with your own quirks and idiosyncrasies.

8.13. PUBLIC SPEAKING HINTS AND TIPS

Here are just a few hints, public speaking tips and techniques to help you develop
your skills and become far more effective as a public speaker.

Mistakes:
Mistakes are all right. Recovering from mistakes makes you appear more human.
Good recovery puts your audience at ease – they identify with you more.

Humour:
Tell jokes if you're good at telling jokes. If you aren't good, best to leave the jokes
behind.
There's nothing worse than a punch line that has no punch. Gentle humour is good in place of
jokes. Self-deprecation is good, but try not to lay it on too thick.

Tell stories
Stories make you a real person, not just a deliverer of information. Use personal
experiences to bring your material to life. No matter how dry your material is, you can always
find a way to humanise it.

How to use the public speaking environment:

Try not to get stuck in one place. Use all the space that's available to you. Move
around.

One way to do this is to leave your notes in one place and move to another.
If your space is confined (say a meeting room or even presenting at a table) use
stronger body language to convey your message.

How to use Technology

Speak to your audience not your slides. Your slides are there to support you not the other
way around.

Ideally, slides should be graphics and not words (people read faster than they hear and will be
impatient for you to get to the next point).

If all the technology on offer fails, it's still you they've come to hear.

 Find your own unique voice. Don’t feel pressured into a particular style of presenting,
go with what feels comfortable for you. Say it like it is and how it comes naturally.
Centre for Distance Education 8.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 Discover your style of presenting, whether that is standing up, sitting down, or
moving about. Just be wary of pacing as this tends to distract from the content.
 Maintain eye contact with your audience, whether it is to 500 people in a room or a
boardroom table.
 Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse. The old adage of practising your material in front of a
mirror with a hairbrush still stands. Watching yourself back will also make you aware
of how you use your hands, help you adjust your posture and learn to focus your eyes.
Check how often you blink and even what clothes look right.

You can learn to enjoy public speaking and become far more effective at standing in front
of a group of people and delivering a potent message.
When it comes to improving your public speaking skills we have three words:
practise, practise, practise!

8.14. CONCLUSION

In India most of us are exposed to the English language only in the written medium or
in the printed form. But we do not really know how English is actually spoken. English in
writing does not always reflect English as spoken. In speech English uses several features
like stress, weak forms, rhythm and intonation which cannot be identified in written English.
That is to say, by looking at the written word, we cannot always be sure as to how to
pronounce it, in the case of English, unless we listen to English spoken by native [Link]
this lesson we focus on aspects of spoken English such as sentence stress and intonation as
part of improving your speaking [Link] significance of intonation, with the focus on the
uses of three tones – Falling Tone, Rising Tone and Falling-Rising Tone – was also
explained. Guidelines are also given to learn the art of public speaking.

8.15. EXERCISES

1. Mark stress and intonation in the following sentences:

1. When are you coming?
2. You need not come tomorrow.
3. What’s the time?
4. Have you met my sister yesterday?
5. He’s a nice man, isn’t he?
6. Could you meet him?
7. Can you meet me tomorrow?
8. It’s quite cold, isn’t it?
9. She likes you, doesn’t she?
10. Did they leave at once?
11. Where were you born?
12. When my son was sleeping, there was a booming sound.

2 (a) What do you think of the ِcity?

(b) I think it’s beautiful.

3 (a) Please come for lunch on Monday.

(b) I’m afraid I can’t. I’m going to be busy that day.
(a) What about Tuesday?
(b) I’ll be in Bangalore on Tuesday.
Communicative English-1 8.12 Speaking: Intonation…

4 (a) When is the next train to Madras?

(b) At half past three.

5 (a) What’s your name?

(b) Meera
(a) And where were you born?
(b) `Salem
(a) Is that in 'South India?
(b) Yes, that’s right.
(a) Are you married?
(b) No, I’m not.
(a) And what do you do?
(b) I’m a painter.
(a) You’re a painter?

8.16. References

1. T. Balasubramaniam. 1981. A Textbook of English Phonetics for Indian Students.

Macmillan.
2. J. Sethi and P.V. Dhamija. 1989. A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English.
Prentice-Hall of India [Link].
3. Board of Editors. 2007. Written and Spoken Communication in English. Hyderabad:
Universities Press.
4. R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison. 1972. Spoken English for India. Madras: Orient
Longman.
5. J.D.O’ Connor. 1970. Better English Pronunciation. CUP.

Prof. K. Ratna Shiela Mani

 LESSON-9
READING
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are to enable the students to

 understand the importance and purpose of reading
 understand different types of reading
 learn how to improve rate of speed in reading
 learn steps to be taken to improve effective reading skills

STRUCTURE

9.1. Introduction
9.2. Need for developing reading skills
9.3. Types of reading
9.4. Intensive Reading
9.5. Extensive Reading
9.5.1. Skimming
9.5.2. Scanning
9.6. Analytical Reading
9.7. Critical Reading
9.8. Speed of Reading
9.9. Four basic steps to effective reading
9.10. Conclusion
9.11. Self-Assessment Questions
9.12. References

9.1. INTRODUCTION

Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man –
Francis Bacon, the famous essayist, has rightly observed in his well-known essay ‘Of
Studies’. It is true that of all four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing – reading is
probably the most crucial skill. It is so because a good reader can rise above the disadvantage
of limited opportunity received in terms of listening, speaking, and writing a language. By all
means, effective reading skills are vital to achieving success not only in one’s academic but
also professional life. Usually, it is observed that only good readers are good communicators.
It is a skill that cannot be ignored. It is advisable to acquire efficient reading skills as early as
possible.

9.2. NEED FOR DEVELOPING READING SKILLS

You definitely know how to read. But the question is whether you know how to read
skillfully and artfully. Skillful reading is reading for specific information for a better learning
experience in a short span of time. It is an art which can be learnt by using a systematic
approach and by undergoing formal training.
Communicative English-I 9.2 Reading

Have you ever noticed that we do not approach a novel, or a report, or a personal
letter or an email in a similar manner? In fact, the truth is that while reading, you employ
different reading speeds and different approaches to them. However, it is also true that
different people have varied speeds of reading and understanding. So, as a student, who has
to read much for academic pursuance, and as a future professional, there is a dire need to
learn the skills and techniques of artful reading. Before we talk about these techniques and
types, let us know the major benefits that you may achieve by developing the art of efficient
and artful reading.

9.3. TYPES OF READING

Brown (1989), categorized reading under the following types based on how the reader
attends the task of reading. There are two broad types of reading – oral and silent. This lesson
primarily focuses on silent reading, which is considered the most important and major type of
reading. Oral reading is suggested during the preliminary level of learning. Within the
category of silent reading, one encounters intensive and extensive reading.

Intensive: Intensive reading is used to teach or practice specific reading strategies or skills.
The text is treated as an end in itself.

Extensive: Extensive reading on the other hand, involves reading of large quantities of
material, directly and fluently. Extensive reading will have the following types of reading.

a. Skimming
b. Scanning

Extensive reading on the other hand, involves reading of large quantities of material,
directly and fluently. It is treated as a means to an end. It may include reading simply for
pleasure or reading technical, scientific or professional material. Extensive reading is more
academic and involves two specific types of reading, scanning for key details
or skimming for the essential meaning.

9.4. INTENSIVE READING

 Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading "calls attention to grammatical forms,
discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding
literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like." He draws an
analogy to intensive reading as a "zoom lens" strategy.
 Long and Richards (1987) say it is a "detailed in-class" analysis, led by the teacher, of
vocabulary and grammar points, in a short passage.
 Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students
reading selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this
occurs, content and grammatical structures repeat themselves and students get many
opportunities to understand the meanings of the text. The success of "Narrow
Reading" on improving reading comprehension is based on the premise that the more
familiar the reader is with the text, either due to the subject matter or having read
other works by the same author, the more comprehension is promoted.
Centre for Distance Education 9.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Characteristics of Intensive reading

 usually classroom based
 reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text
 students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading
 students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers
 students identify key vocabulary
 students may draw pictures to aid them (such as in problem solving)
 texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again
 aim is to build more language knowledge rather than simply practice the skill of
reading
 seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms

Assessment of intensive reading will take the form of reading tests and quizzes.
The most common systems of questioning are multiple-choice and free-response.

Advantages

 It provides a base to study structure, vocabulary and idioms.

 It provides a base for students to develop a greater control of language
 It provides for a check on the degree of comprehension for individual students

Disadvantages

 There is little actual practice of reading because of the small amount of text.
 In a class with multi-reading abilities, students may not be able to read at their own
level because everyone in the class is reading the same material.
 The text may or may not interest the reader because it was chosen by the teacher.
 There is little chance to learn language patterns due to the small amount of text.
 Because exercises and assessment usually follow intensive reading, students may
come to associate reading with testing and not pleasure.

9.5. EXTENSIVE READING

 Brown (1989) explains that extensive reading is carried out "to achieve a general
understanding of a text."
 Long and Richards (1971: 216) identify extensive reading as "occurring when
students read large amounts of high interest material, usually out of class,
concentrating on meaning, "reading for gist" and skipping unknown words."
 The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence and enjoyment.
 Extensive reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for
specific details.

Characteristics of Extensive reading

Day and Bamford (1980) put forward ten characteristics identified in successful
Extensive Reading Programs. They are duplicated (in abbreviated form) below:

 Students read as much as possible.

 A variety of materials on a range of topics is available.
 Students select what they want to read.
Communicative English-I 9.4 Reading

 The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general
understanding.
 Reading is its own reward.
 Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students in
terms of vocabulary and grammar.
 Reading is individual and silent.
 Reading speed is usually faster than slower.
 Teachers orient students to the goals of the program.
 The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.

Advantages

The following are the advantages of the extensive reading.

 The students may:

- develop a "reading habit"
- gain more confidence in reading
- improve their attitude towards reading and become more motivated to read
- feel more autonomous over their own learning and more likely to take more
Initiative.
- become more "independent readers", being able to read for different purposes and
being able to change reading strategies for different kinds of texts
- become more aware of what's available to them to read and how to access materials
- expand sight vocabulary
- acquire "incidental" grammatical competence - that is, it may be acquired even
though
it was not directly taught
- build background knowledge
- increase reading comprehension
- improve overall language competence
- be more prepared for further academic courses because they have read large
quantities.

 An Extensive Reading program may be combined with writing or combined with

speaking practice in a meaningful way (such as when students discuss with each other
the books they have been reading.
 Broughton (1978) suggested that "It is by pursuing the activity of extensive reading
that the volume of practice necessary to achieve rapid and efficient reading can be
achieved." (p.92)
 Krashen (1993a) suggested that the benefits of free voluntary reading included
"enhanced language acquisition and literacy development, more ideas and
information, greater success in life, loss of verbal memory, and more fun."

Disadvantages

 Students need to have easy access to texts within their language proficiency level. An
Extensive Reading program is easiest to establish when the students have a high level
of second language proficiency. For intermediate levels, students require a specialized
library within their language proficiency range. They need texts they can read without
great use of a dictionary.
Centre for Distance Education 9.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 Students who come from a culture in which literacy is not valued may be unwilling to
participate in pleasure reading or may not get support at home.
 Some people feel that if graded readers are used, they can give a false impression of
the level of reading that has been achieved. They feel that some students may try
"ungraded" materials too soon and may revert to using a dictionary to translate.
 Some people feel that students may place too much emphasis on the number of pages
read instead of on the understanding achieved.

Skimming and scanning are two very different strategies for extensive reading.

They are each used for different purposes, and they are not meant to be used all the
time. They are at the fast end of the extensive reading range, while studying is at the slow
end.
People who know how to skim and scan are flexible readers. They read according to
their purpose and get the information they need quickly without wasting time. They do not
read everything which is what increases their reading speed. Their skill lies in knowing what
specific information to read and which method to use.

9.5.1. SKIMMING

Skimming is one of the tools you can use to read more in less time. Skimming refers
to looking only for the general or main ideas, and works best with non-fiction (or factual)
material. With skimming, your overall understanding is reduced because you don’t read
everything. You read only what is important to your purpose. Skimming takes place while
reading and allows you to look for details in addition to the main ideas.

For instance, you are doing research on a long chapter or a web site. By reading the
first few paragraphs in detail, you will get a good idea of what information will be discussed.
Once you know where the reading is headed, you can begin to read only the first sentence
of each paragraph. Also called topic sentences, they give you the main idea of the
paragraph. If you do not get the main idea in the topic sentence or if the paragraph greatly
interests you, then you may want to skim more.

At the end of each topic sentence, your eyes should drop down through the rest of the
paragraph, looking for important pieces of information, such as names, dates, or events.
Continue to read only topic sentences, dropping down through the rest of the paragraphs,
until you are near the end. Since the last few paragraphs may contain a conclusion or
summary, you should stop skimming there and read in detail. Remember that your overall
comprehension will be lower than if you read in detail. If while skimming, you feel you are
grasping the main ideas, then you are skimming correctly.

While reading, ask yourself the following questions to help you decide whether or not to
skim. If you answer yes to any of these, then skimming is a useful tool.

 Is this material non-fiction?

 Do I have a lot to read and only a small amount of time?
 Do I already know something about this?
 Can any of the material be skipped?
Communicative English-I 9.6 Reading

9.5.2. SCANNING

Scanning is another useful tool for speeding up your reading. Unlike skimming,
when scanning, you look only for a specific fact or piece of information without reading
everything. You scan when you look for your favorite show listed in the cable guide, for your
friend’s phone number in a telephone book, and for the sports scores in the newspaper. For
scanning to be successful, you need to understand how your material is structured as well as
comprehend what you read so you can locate the specific information you need. Scanning
also allows you to find details and other information in a hurry.

Because you already scan many different types of material in your daily life, learning
more details about scanning will be easy. Establishing your purpose, locating the appropriate
material, and knowing how the information is structured before you start scanning is
essential.

The material you scan is typically arranged in the following ways: alphabetically,
chronologically, non-alphabetically, by category, or textually. Alphabetical information is
arranged in order from A to Z, while chronological information is arranged in time or
numerical order.

Information can also be arranged in non- alphabetical order, such as a television

listing, or by category, listings of like items such as an auto parts catalog. Sometimes
information is located within the written paragraphs of text, also known as a textual sense, as
in an encyclopedia entry.

Learning to use your hands while scanning is very helpful in locating specific
information. Do you do anything with your hands to locate a word in a dictionary?, To find a
meeting time on your calendar?, To read a train or bus schedule?. Using your hand or finger
is extremely helpful in focusing your attention and keeping your place while scanning a
column of material.

Your peripheral vision can also help you scan effectively. When your hand moves
down a list of names, you see not only the name your finger is pointing to, but also the names
above and below. Let your eyes work for you when searching for information.

Keep the concept of key words in mind while scanning. Your purpose will determine
the key words. Suppose you are looking for the time a train leaves from New York City for
Washington, D.C. The key words to keep in mind are “from New York City” and “to
Washington D.C.” If you are looking for the cost of a computer printer with the code number
PX-710, the key word to locate in a list of many printers is “PX-710.”

9.6. ANALYTICAL READING

Analytic reading involves reading in an active and systematic way so that you gain an
understanding of what you are reading.
Two approaches to understanding what you read are:

 the SQ3R technique

 thinking through reading.
Centre for Distance Education 9.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

T he S Q3R t echnique

S - Survey
Glance through the whole chapter, section, or article
Read the introduction
Read the headings and subheadings (How is the text organized?)
Read any content overview, chapter summary or ...
Skim for key questions, key information

Q - Question
For each section ask:
What is the main point?
What evidence is there to support that point?
What examples explain the main point?
How does this section fit in with the rest of the text?

R1 – Read

Begin to read the material section by section. Actively search for the answer to the questions
you have asked yourself. Make notes about important points. Link the information with what
you already know and use this to help evaluate the author’s statements.

R2 – Recite

After reading each section, recall the important points – say these aloud and write them down
in the margins of the text. Make your notes in short phrases rather than full sentences. You
may also highlight key information.

R3 – Review

Look back over the whole chapter or article at the way the information fitted together and
how it addressed each of your questions. Think about what you have understood from the
reading. Summarize the main ideas of the text in writing. Rewrite the notes you have taken
(or paraphrase underlined sections) for easy review/reference later.

T hi nki ng t hrough readi ng

This technique involves enhancing your understanding of what you read by recognizing the
level of information that it contains. This involves three levels of recognition:

What does the writer say?

This is literal recognition. It is concerned with the surface information conveyed by the
writer's words.

What does the writer mean?

This is interpretive recognition. We infer meaning from what the writer says. This is what is
usually meant when we talk about reading between the lines.
Communicative English-I 9.8 Reading

How do I connect this with what I already know or need to know?

This is connective recognition. We look for connections between the literal and interpretive
meanings with what we already know or need to know. In this way, we can:
 find new solutions for problems
 reach a new understanding
 change our view.

9.7. CRITICAL READING

Critical reading involves exercising your judgement about what you are reading. It
involves you evaluating the arguments or positions presented by the writer. You ask
questions of the claims or statements made by the author, and then seek to provide answers
for those questions.
Common questions include:

 what is the evidence for this argument?

 do I agree with it?
 if so, what is my evidence for agreement?
 if not, what is my evidence to counter the author's argument?
 what alternative perspectives are possible here?
Make a note of your answers and any other relevant questions and challenges that you think
of.
Reading and thinking critically involves more than claiming that some idea,
argument, or piece of writing is faulty. It involves presenting a reasoned argument that
analyses what you are reading. Being critical, in a scholarly sense, is concerned with
advancing our understanding, not closing it off.

9.8. SPEED OF RREADING

An average college student reads between 150 and 200 words per minute. A ‘good’
reading speed is around 250 to 400 words per minute, but some people can read even 1000
words per minute or more. However, research shows that there is difference in the rate of
reading for different purposes.

Purpose of Reading [Link] Words (Words per minute)

Reading for memorization Fewer than 100
Reading for learning 100 – 200
Reading for comprehension 200 – 400
Skimming 400 - 700

Source: Communication Skills: Sanjay Kumar and Pushpa Latha

Understanding the role of speed in the reading process is essential. Research shows
that a close relation can be observed between reading speed and understanding. Proper
reading training can help you increase both your rate of reading and comprehension. It is a
Centre for Distance Education 9.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

vital fact about reading that plodding, which means reading word by word, reduces
understanding rather that increasing it.

Actually, most adults are able to increase their reading rate significantly and rather
rapidly without lowering their comprehension. Merely reading more rapidly, without actual
improvement in the basic reading habits, however, usually results in lowered comprehension.
Broadly categorized, there are three main factors involved in improving reading speed:

 The desire to improve

 Conscious efforts in using newly acquired techniques
 A motivation to practice

With these, almost anyone can double his/her speed of reading while maintaining
equal or even better comprehension.

Increasing your reading speed

It is more important to improve your reading skills than your reading speed. Being
focused and selective in your reading habits will reduce the time you spend reading. If, in
addition to using a range of reading skills you want to increase your reading speed, then the
following technique will be of use.

The average reading speed is about 240-300 words per minute. For the average
reader, the eye fixes on each word individually.

It is easy for your eye to recognize 4 or 5 words in a single fixation without a loss of
understanding.

The key to increasing your reading speed is not to increase the speed at which your
eyes move across the page, but to increase the word span for a single fixation. A simple way
of developing the habit of taking in more than one word per fixation is to take a page of text
and divide it length ways into three with two lines drawn down the page. Using a pen or
pencil as a pointer, read each line of text by allowing your eye to fall only in the middle of
each of the three sections, as indicated by your pointer.

Developing your reading speed

 Don't worry about how quickly you are reading but instead, concentrate on reading
the line in only three fixations.
 As this becomes more natural, practice without drawing lines.
 Later, reduce the number of fixations to two per line.
 Once this increased word span becomes a comfortable habit, an increase in your
reading speed will occur.

9.9. FOUR BASIC STEPS TO EFFECTIVE READING

While reading a text to learn something, you need to follow the following four basic steps:
Communicative English-I 9.10 Reading

1. Figure out the purpose of reading a particular text: You can identify suitable reading
strategies and use our background knowledge or the topic in order to anticipate the
contents.
2. Spot the parts relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the rest: This selectivity
enables you to focus on particular elements of information from the text. So, you are
able to sift through the information, which in turn reduces the amount of information
you have to hold in short-term memory.

3. Choose the appropriate reading strategy that suits your purpose: Select the strategy
that is suited to the reading task in that particular context and use that strategy in an
interactive manner. This will develop your understanding as well as confidence.

4. Test or assess your comprehension during reading and also when the reading task is
completed. Monitoring comprehension helps you make out the inconsistencies and
discrepancies in total comprehension of the text. At this step, you can also learn to use
alternative strategies.

9.10. CONCLUSION

Having a clear focus for reading is the key element. Setting reading goals comes next.
Survey the text before you spend the time and effort involved in detailed reading. Scan and
skim to select the text for detailed reading.

Scan and skim after detailed reading to reinforce your understanding. Use a form of
note taking whilst reading in detail, to keep you concentrated, aid understanding and provide
you with a record of your reading. Using clear reading goals and a variety of reading skills is
more important than increasing your reading speed. To improve your reading speed, don't
increase the speed of the eye across the page, but increase the number of words the eye
recognizes in a single fixation.

9.11. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by effective reading? Discuss the major benefits of artful reading?
2. Discuss various types of reading and explain how intensive reading is different from
extensive reading.
3. Explain skimming and scanning in detail.
4. What is critical reading and how it is different from analytical reading?
5. Discuss four basic steps to effective reading. Also suggest ways to increase the speed
of reading.

9.12. REFERENCES

1. Brown, D.S. (1988) A World of Books: An Annotated Reading List for ESL/EFL
Students (2nd ed.) Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages.

2. Brown, D.S. (1994) Books for a Small Planet: A Multicultural-Intercultural

Bibliography From Young Young English Learners . Alexandria, VA: Teachers of
English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Centre for Distance Education 9.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

3. Broughton, G., Brumfit, C., Flavell, R., Hill, P., & Pincas, A. (1978) Teaching
English As A Foreign Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
4. Communication Skills: A Multi-Skill Course. (2008): Bharathiar University, Chennai,
Macmillan Publishers.

5. Krashen, Stephen (1995) "Free voluntary reading: linguistic and affective arguments
and some new applications". in Eckman, F.R. , Highland, D., Lee, P.S., Mileham, J.
and Weber, R.R. (Eds.) Second Language Acquisition: Theory and Pedagogy.
Mahwal, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 187-202.

6. Sanjay Kumar, Pushpa Latha (2011). Communication Skills. Oxford University Press.

K. Sai Krishna
 LESSON: 10
WRITING LETTERS AND REPORTS
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are

 To make the students understand how to write letters and reports
 To present an overview of the types of letters
 To explain different types of reports
 To discuss various formats of letters and reports

STRUCTURE

10.1. Introduction
10.2. Letter Writing
10.3. Types of Letters
10.3.1. Personal Letters
10.3.2. Model Personal Letter
10.4. Official Letters
10.5. Letter Writing Formats
10.6. Report Writing
10.7. Types
10.7.1. Event Report
10.7.2. Book Report
10.7.3. Project Report
10.8. Conclusion
10.9. Self-Assessment Questions
10.10. Exercises
10.11. References

10.1. INTRODUCTION

The process of writing involves three steps, they are – thinking, drafting and revising.
We write for various purposes – formal and informal. Formal writing includes official
communication like letters, circulars, reports, invitations, minutes etc. In this lesson we are
discussing the types of letters and various styles of letter writing, Report writing and the types
of reports and models.

10.2. LETTER WRITING

Letters are one of the major sources of communication. They are written to achieve
specific objectives. When these specific objectives of the writer are achieved, the letter
seems to be effective. The reader’s positive reaction to the letter makes the letter effective.
So the writer of the letter should take into consideration the reader’s perspective to have a
positive impact. Letter writing is an essential skill. Despite the prevalence of emails and text
messages, everyone has to write letters at some point. Letters of complaint, job applications,
Communicative English-I 10.2 Writing Letters…

thank you letters, letters requesting changes or making suggestions — the list goes on and
on.

10.3. TYPES OF LETTERS

Letters are of two types.

1. Personal letters
2. Official or Business letters

10.3.1. Personal Letters

A personal letter is written to friends and relatives. It is also informal and consists of
personal issues.
A personal letter has five parts.
i. Heading
ii. Salutation
iii. Body
iv. Subscription
v. Signature

Heading
The heading is written at the top of the first page on the right hand side i.e., name of the
city/town is followed by date in the next line.
Ex: Vijayawada
19.10.’15
The latest trend is not to use a comma after place and date.

Salutation
The form of salutation depends on the relationship between the writer and the addressee.
Some of the forms are

To Salutation
Relatives My dear aunt/uncle/father/mother/sister/brother
Dear aunt/uncle/father/mother/sister/brother
Friends Dear Usha( Dear + name)
My dear Usha (My dear + name)

A friend should be addressed as Dear + first name, not Dear + friend. A comma is always
used after salutation.
Ex: Dear Usha,
Dear Mom,

Body of the Letter

The body of the letter has three main parts:
a. Opening b. message c. closing

(a) The opening of the letter can be as follows:

I am fine and hope the same from you.
I am so happy to inform you that…
I am so glad to hear from you after a long time.
You will be glad to learn that…
Centre for Distance Education 10.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

I just can’t tell you how sorry I was to learn of your husband’s accident

(b) The message is the main part of the letter. In this we can write a letter or write on a topic
of our choice. Short sentences in simple language should be used in a letter.

(c) Closing of a letter can be as follows.

With love,
With best wishes,
Please give my regards to…
Hope to hear from you soon.
I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Subscription:
Some of the forms of subscription are
Yours affectionately,
Your affectionate friend,
Your loving daughter/son/brother,
Yours lovingly,

Points to remember:
Subscription is written at the right hand side at the end of the page.

i. The latest style is to write it at the left hand side but the right hand side is the more
usual one.
ii. it always begins with a capital letter.
iii. a comma is used at the end.
Note: There is no apostrophe in Yours (i.e., not your’s).

Signature
The name is written just below the closing.
Yours affectionately,
Swathi

10.3.2. Model Personal Letter

Given below is a letter to a friend congratulating her on her success in examination.

Vijayawada
19.10.’15

My dear Usha,
Let me first congratulate you on your grand success in the University examination. You
stood as a topper and won a scholarship too.
The news has come to all of us as a pleasant surprise. We all know you as a girl who is
mischievous and easy going. But with this success we understand you as a transformed and matured
girl. My mom, dad and sister are so delighted and happy for you.
May your success open for you all the golden gates of opportunities.
With best wishes,
Your loving friend,
Ramya
Communicative English-I 10.4 Writing Letters…

10.4. OFFICIAL LETTERS

Official letters can be letters of application, letters to newspapers, letters of complaint,

business letters etc.

An official letter too has five parts as in the personal letter.

Heading

It is the same as in personal letters.

a. Place
b. Date

We also add the name of the firm/designation of the official, and the official’s address. It is
written on the left hand side:

The Municipal Commissioner,

Vijayawada.

Note: No comma is used after To. The use of To is optional.

The current trend is not to write To.

Salutation

The forms of salutation are

To Salutation
Officials Sir/Madam
A firm/company Dear Sir, (not Respected Sir/Madam)
Dear Sirs,
Points to remember
1. It is written just below the name of the firm/designation of the official and the
official’s address.
2. A comma is used after salutation.

Body of the Letter

The quality of a good business letter is clarity and precision. Hence business letters need to
be brief and succinct.

Subscription

The forms of subscription are:

To subscription
Officials - Yours faithfully
Firm - Yours faithfully,
Yours truly,
Signature(Name)

Signature is done just below the closing.

Note: Superscription (address on the envelope)
Centre for Distance Education 10.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

It is the same as the inside address.

To address is written at the middle of the envelope.
Letters of Application:

An application for a post falls into three parts:

1. Subject-reference to the advertisement, nature of the appointment, etc.
2. Statement of age, education and experience.
3. Reference to the testimonials etc. Here the applicant should also express his
earnestness to serve.
4. Applicants for posts may write Yours faithfully or Yours sincerely.

Letters to Newspapers:

Letters to newspapers are always addressed to the Editor. The proper form of salutation is
Sir, and not Dear Sir.

10.5. LETTER WRITING FORMATS

While writing a letter we can follow Modified Block method, Block method or
Indented/ semi-Block method.

When you use the block form to write a business letter, all the information is typed
flush left, with one-inch margins all around. First provide your own address, then skip a line
and provide the date, then skip one more line and provide the inside address of the party to
whom the letter is addressed. If you are using letterhead that already provides your address,
do not retype that information; just begin with the date. For formal letters, avoid
abbreviations where possible.

Skip another line before the salutation, which should be followed by a colon. Then
write the body of your letter as illustrated here, with no indentation at the beginnings of
paragraphs. Skip lines between paragraphs.

After writing the body of the letter, type the closing, followed by a comma, leave 3
blank lines, then type your name and title (if applicable), all flush left. Sign the letter in the
blank space above your typed name.
Communicative English-I 10.6 Writing Letters…

10.5.1. Block Method Model Letter

T. Sandhya October 20th , 2015/ 20.10.’15.

P&T Colony
Maheswarpet
Vijayawada.

Mrs. Joshitha
XYZ Corporation
1000 KP Nagar
Vijayawada.

Dear Madam,

Sub: Application for the post of an Office Manager

My former colleague Sudha informed me that you are seeking to hire an office manager. I
worked with ACE at Vijayawada and have 10 years of experience as an administrative
assistant. I have long admired XYZ Corporation and would be honoured to work for your
company.

As you can see from my resume, I have performed many administrative duties in my
previous positions at ACE and ANNE corporations. At ANNE, I facilitated the company's
transition from printed handouts to on-line tests. That work paved the way for my move to
ACE, where I assisted the director of innovation in tracking the development of new
products. I helped introduce the company's workflow management system, which enabled
ACE to cut the average development time of its software upgrades from 18 weeks to 12
weeks.

I would be pleased to speak with you to discuss the details of the office manager position.
Thank you for your consideration of my application.
With regards,
[Link].

The following pictures show what a one-page business letter should look like. There are three
accepted styles. The horizontal lines represent lines of type.

10.5.2. Modified Block Style 10.5.3 Block Style

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7.5.4. Semi Block Style --------------------

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Centre for Distance Education 10.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

10.5.4. Semi Block Style

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10.5.5.. Model Business ------------------------------------------------------------

letter
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Dreamtime Movies Ltd 24th October, 2015.
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54 P&T 4RG-------------------------------------------------------------------
Tel: 0866 2468468
Vijayawada
Email: info@[Link]
-------------------------------------

Lingua Info Services Ltd

69 Volga` Street -----------------
Vijayawada. -----------

Dear Sirs -----------------

-----------
Sub: Translation Brochure request reg.

I should be grateful if you would send us your brochure and price list about
your translation services.

We are currently developing our sales literature and web sites and are
interested in translating these into five languages apart from English.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully
Ananth Koushik
Marketing Manager
Communicative English-I 10.8 Writing Letters…

10.6. REPORT WRITING

A report is a form of communication that analyses, describes, summarizes, criticizes

or praises or makes predictions about a subject based on an analysis of current or past events.
We need to write a report for various reasons:

To record some work or activity done.

To circulate new ideas and information.
To indicate directions for further action.

Reports are supposed to be unbiased. The candidate is expected to write details

keeping aside all his/her emotions. In this example you would see that the student gives her
opinion in the last paragraph which goes against the norms of report writing. However, a
close reading of the question will show that the last rubric demands an opinion from the
observer to write about what went wrong on that day.

Reports often end with a signature of the writer. Thus, the candidate complies with the
format and closes with his signature.

The ‘I’ pronoun is strictly prohibited in report writing because it gives a

subjective/personal touch to what is being reported. This is advised when the reports are to
inform about certain topics like corruption, price hike, growth rate, education, inflation etc.
On the contrary, if some incident is witnessed by the candidate and he/she is asked to report
on it then, the candidate can use the ‘I’ pronoun and in that case it would be appropriate to
use it sparingly and avoid adding any personal emotions .

Try to keep the information simple and precise. Do not plunge in describing unnecessary
details because remember this is not a descriptive essay. Do not get carried away in providing
extra/irrelevant information.

10.7. TYPES OF REPORTS

There are several types of reports.

1. Event reports
2. Book reports
3. Project reports etc.

10.7.1. Event Report

The report that we write on an event such as an Independence day function,

celebration of World Students’ Day, Engineers’ Day etc., is called an event report.

The structure of an event report is as follows:

a. Introduction of the event

b. Body of the report, which describes the entire event in the right sequence.
c. Conclusion: to sum up the event.

Introduction: The introduction tells the reader what the program was, its date, where it was
held and often the names of the main participants.
Centre for Distance Education 10.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

The body of a report: The body of a report briefly describes every item of the event in
the order in which they took place. Each of the items may be described or evaluated in a
sentence.

[Link]. Event Report Sample

Report on Annual Athletic Sports

The annual Athletic sports meet was held from 19 th - 24th October, 2015., in Acharya
Nagarjuna University Campus. It was inaugurated by the Rector of the university, and all the
heads of various departments graced the occasion.
All the events went off well. First we had races - the 100 metres race, the 200 metres race, the
600 metres race, the 1000 metres race, the cycle race, and the hurdle race. Then came the
jumps - the high –jump, the long – jump, and the pole-vault. The pole-vault was hotly
contested between Ganga and Rehman; but Ganga won at last. The tug of war was a great fun
as both the teams were pretty evenly matched. Last of all came the funny events the potato
race, the apple race, the handkerchief – race, the lemon – and – spoon race, the sack- race, and
the three – legged race.
All the winners were congratulated and Prizes and Medals were given to the winners by the
Vice-Chancellor.
Sushma.

10.7.2. Book Report

A book report is a brief review of the contents of a particular book. A book report
provides some background information about the author. A book report evaluates the book
concisely. A book report can simplify a difficult text. A book report should have an
introduction, a body and a conclusion.

Introduction: The first paragraph should introduce the whole report. It must give
information about

1. The title
2. The author
3. The year of publication
4. A brief description of the setting of the story
5. One sentence about the story.

The Body of a Book Report: The body of a book report is the heart of the report. It
introduces all the main characters, describes the conflict in the story, and finally talks of how
the conflict is resolved. This part of the report and the way it is written are critical to the
value of the whole report.

Conclusion: The last or concluding paragraph reveals the reader’s own evaluation or
personal opinion of the book. It must also identify the strengths and weaknesses of the book.
Communicative English-I 10.10 Writing Letters…

[Link]. Model of Book Report

Author: Sudha Murthy

Publisher: Penguin Books
Language: English

Dollar Bahu is the story of the Gauramma, her Dollar Bahu Jamuna and her other simpleton
bahu (bahu being daughter-in-law in Hindi) Vinuta. Gauramma is a greedy little mother of three
children – Chandru, Girish and Surabhi, living in a small house in Bangalore with her husband
Shamanna. Chandru the eldest of her son is settled in America and is married to Jamuna, only
daughter of rich parents. Girish the second, is a bank clerk and married to Vinuta, a sweet
young woman who works hard day and night and never fails to carry out her household duties
and her duties to her mother-in-law. But between Jamuna’s Dollars and Vinuta’s selfless
devotion, Gauramma always finds her favour with the Dollar and ignores what is truly priceless
– Vinuta’s devotion and selfless love.

The story progresses just like a typical Indian soap opera and Vinuta continues to bear
all the brunt of the endless comparisons between her and “Dollar Bahu”. She starts wilting and
losing her health and mind. Soon Gauramma gets a chance to visit her son Chandru and
Dollar Bahu in the American house and stays with them for a long time. But before it’s too late
and before Vinuta is lost forever, she soon realizes that all that glitters is not gold and that
Dollars in the end can’t buy everything. The book ends on a “truth always wins” note and is
likeable to a fable or a moral story which as a child we all may have read as schoolchildren.

The characters are what drives this book apart and add spice and colour to the
otherwise simpleton plot. The typical Kannada household and theme helps the reader
reminisce about the good old Malgudi Days. All of 150 pages, this book provides a short and
sweet read and can be done away in one go. The language and theme kept simple also
relaxes the reader and lets him relish the beauty of Sudha Murty’s writing.

[Link]

10.7.3. Project Report

We need to write the project reports in our studies or profession -

i. To record the progress made in the last three months.
ii. To find out whether the project is progressing according to the plan
iii. To chalk out a plan of work for the next three months.

A project report is more complex than an event report or a book report; its subject matter
usually has great significance and a more detailed layout.

The parts of the project report are:

1. Title page: In a project report, the title page contains the title of the report and the date
when it was presented. It also shows the reference number so that it can be filed in
Centre for Distance Education 10.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

the right sequence. The author’s name has to be clearly mentioned. It should state the
authority, or the name of the person at whose request the report is being written.
2. Foreword.
3. Abstract or Summary: The abstract of a project report is a brief summary of what the
report contains and is generally, about one page long.
4. Contents list: The contents list of a project report provides a list of all the items in the
report.
5. Introduction: The introduction provides the background against which the whole
project is laid out.
6. Body of the report: The body of the report contains several paragraphs that supply the
facts and findings of the work. This may even run into several pages.
7. Conclusion: The purpose of the conclusion is to assemble all the points in the body of
the project report and reach a final judgment about the work. The conclusion should
be carefully planned and substantiated by the facts given in the body.
8. Recommendations: In a project report, the section on recommendations should draw
up a work plan for the next stage of the project. It should be clear, to the point and
must adhere to the goal of the project.
9. Appendices: The appendices contain all the matter or data that is pertinent to the
project but is too bulky or too long to be included in the body of the report.
10. Bibliography: The bibliography gives a list of all the articles, books or other material
that the writer has referred. It helps the readers of the report to get more information
on the subject, if they wish.
11. Glossary: The glossary of a project report contains meanings of subject-specific
terminology, other words, and phrases that may perhaps be understood only to
context.
12. References: The references cite the sources for information given in the text –
perhaps from articles, books, or news papers. They can be placed either at the end of
each section of the body of the report or at the end of the report.
13. Indexes: The indexes of a project report help the reader to locate specific information
in the document. Indexes require very careful preparation.
Project reports could be monthly, quarterly or annual.

10.7.4. Model Project Report:

Given below is an example of a Project Report

Portable Computer Use at Client Sites
Prepared for Freda Smith, General Manager
by Belinda Gibson, Training Coordinator
October 2015
All purpose training company

MEMORANDUM
To: Belinda Gibson, Training Coordinator
From: Freda Smith, General Manager
Subject: Portable Computers
Date: October 24th, 2015.

To make the most of the technologies we discussed the other day to provide a quality service
to our customers, it is essential that our training staff be equipped with portable computers
which can be used at client sites.
Communicative English-I 10.12 Writing Letters…

Over the next couple of weeks, please investigate the portable computers which would be
most appropriate for our staff, and present your findings in the form of a formal management
report. The selected machine needs to be compatible with the Windows software we are
currently using. Other factors which should be considered when comparing the brands and
models include:

 Initial cost;
 Weight and size;
 Screen size;
 Clarity of the screen image;
 RAM and hard disk size;
 Speed of the CPU;
 Battery capability; and
 The availability of on-going service agreements and warranties.

With our training staff so often out at client sites, it would be useful if the machines also had
modern facilities to enable staff to access their email.

Please pass the report to me by the end of the month so I can read it over before discussing
your recommendations with the equipment committee. Let me know if you have any
questions.
Freda

MEMORANDUM
To: Freda Smith, General Manager
From: Belinda Gibson, Training Coordinator
Subject: Portable Computers
Date: October 30th, 2015.

Here is the report you requested on the use of portable computers for our training staff to use
at client sites.

Two portable computers were reviewed for this report: the Micro-pro 8500 Series and the
Hewlett Packard 3000CTX model 5/233, both suitable for business purposes.
The report has analysed standard features on both computers, taking your specifications into
consideration.

I am confident that with the use of portable computers our training staff will produce a higher
standard of training presentations.

I would be happy to assist with the implementation of the computers for our training staff to
use at future courses.

Belinda Gibson

Table of contents
Memo of authorisation i
Memo of transmittal ii
List of tables iv
Centre for Distance Education 10.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Executive summary v
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Purpose 1
1.2 Scope 1
1.3 Method 1
1.4 Limitations 1
1.5 Assumptions 1
1.6 Background 1
2 Findings 2
2.1 Micro-pro 8500 Series 2
2.2 Hewlett Packard 3000CTX 5/233 2
3 Discussion 3
3.1 Comparison of computers 3
3.2 Initial cost 3
3.3 Weight and size 3
3.4 Screen size 3
3.5 Clarity of screen image 3
3.6 RAM and hard disk size 4
3.7 Speed of the CPU 4
3.8 Battery capability 4
3.9 Service agreements and warranties 4
4 Conclusion 4
5 Recommendations and implementation 5
References 7

List of tables
Table 1: Comparison of two portable computers

Executive summary
The purpose of this report was to analyse two portable computers and recommend a suitable
machine for training staff to use at client sites.

This report has considered two machines suitable for corporate use that can accommodate
modern facilities such as e-mail, video conferencing and assist staff with training courses.
The Hewlett Packard Omnibook 3000CTX model 5/233 is a well made portable computer
with a good size screen and keyboard. For the price of this model you would expect to see
more memory, a CD drive and a Windows based power management set up. (Australian PC
Authority, April 1998, 'PCs and Notebooks - Reviews', p.82)

Like the Hewlett Packard model the Micro-pro 8500 Series has a good size screen and
keyboard but also comes with a numeric pad. This machine is ideal for the business user who
wants usability, comfort and performance. (Australian PC Authority, April 1998, 'PCs and
Notebooks - Reviews' , p.81)
Communicative English-I 10.14 Writing Letters…

After taking both machines into consideration, it is recommended that the Micro-pro 8500
Series would be the most suitable computer due to its value for money, durability and
standard features.

1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this report was to analyse two portable computers and recommend a suitable
machine for our training staff to use at client locations.

1.2 Scope
While investigating these two computers it was important to consider their suitability for
corporate use, standard features, optional benefits and warranties.

1.3 Method
The information used in this report was collected by consulting an independent review by the
Australian PC Authority magazine and contacting the individual companies for additional
information on the technical specifications and warranties on the machines.

1.4 Limitations
 Local computer stores did not stock either machine.
 Additional information difficult to locate.
 Software packages included with the machine not specified.

1.5 Assumptions
It has been assumed that the Microsoft Office software package will be installed on the
computers to ensure our training staff have access to PowerPoint. This program will enable
them to present effective teaching media.

As our staff regularly use computer applications it has been assumed that the implementation
of portable computers will cause little delays for the company.

As most computer companies offer clients an extended warranty, it is assumed that All
Purpose Training Company will have the option to purchase an extended warranty for a
period of one year.

1.6 Background
The All Purpose Training Company is a well respected supplier of quality executive training
courses for the business community. The All Purpose Training Company has statewide
representation with plans to expand interstate within the next 12 months.

All Purpose Training Company has a demand to supply new clients with numerous training
courses. With such demands it is crucial that training staff can have computer access for
training presentations and be able to complete day to day operations while mobile.

2. Findings

2.1 Micro-pro 8500 Series

 Cost: $7895 RRP
 Weight: 4.5 Kg
 Size: (W x D x H) 357 x 275 x 50mm
Centre for Distance Education 10.15 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 Screen size: 15.1"

 Clarity of screen image: Resolution could be higher, set at 1,024 x 768 you can see
the pixels, but very easy on your eyes. (Australian PC Authority, April 1998, 'PCs and
Notebooks - Reviews, p. 81)
 RAM: 64 Mb, RAM can be raised to a maximum 128Mb for $1140
 Disk Drive: CD-ROM and 3.5" FDD
 Speed of the CPU: Pentium processor
 Battery capabilities: Lithium-ion battery, smart battery option available. Lithium-ion
battery lasts 2.5 hours without smart battery upgrade. (Australian PC Authority, April
1998, 'PCs and Notebooks - Reviews, p. 81)
 Service agreements and warranties: Two year parts and labour warranty

2.2 Hewlett Packard 3000CTX 5/233

 Cost: $8245 RRP
 Weight: 3.1 Kg
 Size: (W x D x H) 304 x 238 x 47mm
 Screen size: 13.3"
 Clarity of screen image: Resolution is set at 1,024 x 768. Reasonably easy to read...
with normal working conditions. (Australian PC Authority, April 1998, 'PCs and
Notebooks - Reviews, p. 81)
 RAM: 16Mb, upgrade available, $242 for 16Mb.
 Disk drives: 3.5" FDD, CD-ROM available for $570
 Speed of the CPU: Pentium processor
 Battery capabilities: - 2.5 hours from a lithium-ion battery
 Service agreements and warranties: All Hewlett Packard Omnibooks come with a 3
year parts and labour warranty. (Stephen, 7/5/1998, Telephone Interview, Customer
Service Officer, Hewlett Packard Information Centre, Hewlett Packard)

3. Discussion

3.1 Comparison of computers

The following table summarises the important points of comparison between the two portable
computers - Hewlett Packard Omnibook and Micropro 8500 Series.

Table.1 Comparison of two portable computers

Hewlett Packard Omnibook Micropro 8500 Series
Initial cost $8245 $7895
Weight 3.1 Kg 4.5 Kg
Size(Dimensions WxDxH) 304x238x47mm 357x275x50mm
Screen Size 13.3” 15.1”
RAM 16MB 64MB
Battery Time 2.5 Hours 2.5 Hours
Warranty period 3 years 2 years

3.2 Initial cost

There is a RRP difference between the two computers of $350. In order to have the
computers ready for staff use, upgraded memory size would be required on the Hewlett
Packard model.
Communicative English-I 10.16 Writing Letters…

3.3 Weight and size

The Micro-pro computer weighs an extra 1.4 Kg. This is substantially heavier, but the Micro-
pro is a larger machine with each dimension larger than the Hewlett Packard computer.
Micro-pro measures 53W x 37D x 3H mm larger.

3.4 Screen size

There is a notable gap between screen sizes. Micro-pro has a 14.1 inch screen compared with
Hewlett Packards 13.3 inch screen. When using over long periods a larger screen is preferred
to avoid eye strain.

3.5 Clarity of screen image

The resolution on both machines is set a 1,024 x 768. Pixels can be seen on the Micro-pro
model, while the Omnibook is reasonably easy to read. (Australian PC Authority, April 1998,
PCs and Notebooks - Reviews, p. 81 - 82)

3.6 RAM and hard disk size

RAM between the two machines varies greatly. The Australian PC Authority states that the
Micro-pro comes with 64 Mb of RAM standard, with an option of buying the maximum 128
Mb for $1140. They also state Hewlett Packards Omnibook comes with 16 Mb RAM, but as
most computer applications require 32 Mb, this extra memory will cost you $242. Both
machines come with a standard 3.5" FDD. Only the Micro-pro machine comes with a CD-
ROM drive, you must buy this as an extra for the Omnibook for a cost of $570. (Australian
PC Authority, April 1998, PCs and Notebooks - Reviews, p. 81- 82)

3.7 Speed of the CPU

With 32 Mb of RAM fitted the Omnibook is one of the fastest portable computers the
Australian PC Authority magazine has ever seen, They also found that with 64 Mb RAM the
Micro-pro was not exceptionally quick but for word processing and other office tasks it was
quite acceptable.

3.8 Battery capability

Both machines come with a standard lithium-ion battery which can support the computers for
up to 2.5 hours. The computers come with power management tools that will save battery
power. A smart battery option is available on the Micro-pro for $60. (Australian PC
Authority, April 1998, PCs and Notebooks - Reviews, p. 81)

3.9 Service agreements and warranties

Micro-pro supplies their clients with a two year part and labour warranty, while Hewlett
Packard supplies a three year parts and labour warranty. It is assumed that when the machines
are purchased a service agreement will be negotiated with the option to extend the warranty.

4. Conclusion
After investigating the Hewlett Packard Omnibook 3000CTX 5/233 and the Micro-pro 8500
Series portable computers, it was found that both models are suitable for corporate use and
would meet All Purpose Training Company requirements.
It is important to consider the long term benefits to the company when considering which
computer was best suited. Apart from initial purchasing expenses, warranty, speed, size and
memory were some factors which have been taken into account. Software suitability was also
considered.
The computers had to be easily adaptable for new technology such as e-mail, video
conferencing and presentation aids, for future company requirements.
Centre for Distance Education 10.17 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Both computers are distinct from each other and, although both companies have the corporate
user in mind, Micro-pro appears to be offering an exceptional package.

5. Recommendations and implementation

The findings and conclusion in this report support the following recommendations:
1. The Micro-pro 8500 Series portable computer is purchased at a rate of one computer
per training staff member.
2. The smart battery option is purchased with each computer; this will assist with heavy
workloads and long training programs.
3. Staff must have e-mail access on their computers to enable them to be in contact with
the company.
4. All Purpose Training Company should negotiate price, warranty and ongoing service
agreements with Micro-pro direct.
5. To reduce company long term expenses:
o The company could investigate the viability of staff leasing the computers
o A staff option of buying the computers for personal use after the warranty
period expires.
6. Computers should be available to staff after a maximum of 6 weeks.
([Link]

10.8. CONCLUSION

Written communication plays an important role in the academic, business,

management, research and other fields of day of day life. Official (business) and informal
letters and different types of report are the most common types of writing. We need to know
the structure and format of these letters and reports to be effective communicators. fIn this
lesson we discussed the two major types of correspondence. They are letters and reports.
Letter writing can be personal and official. The various formats of the letters like the block
method, semi-block method and modified block method are stated with examples. The other
type of correspondence discussed is report writing. The various types of reports like event
reports, book reports and project reports are discussed and an example of each type is
provided for ease of reference.

10.9. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How many types of letters are there and what are they?
2. What is the difference between Block Method and Semi-block method?
3. How do you write applications? What are the important steps involved in the process
of writing applications?
4. How is modified Block style different from Block style?
5. What are the various types of reports?
6. What is the basic difference between Event reports and Book reports?
7. Which report is the lengthiest of all?
8. Can project report be written in one or two paragraphs?
9. What is the purpose of writing a report?

10.10. EXERCISES

1. Write a letter to your sister advising her to read newspapers.

2. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper complaining about bad roads and drains.
Communicative English-I 10.18 Writing Letters…

3. Write a letter to a book seller, complaining that the books sent by him were not those
that you ordered.
4. Write a letter to a business firm, acknowledging receipt of the goods you had ordered
and complaining about the damage caused in transit on account of bad packing.
5. Write a letter to the Health Officer of your district, requesting him to take immediate
steps against the spread of cholera in your village.
6. Write a report on the book Treasure Island.
7. Report the annual day celebrations at your college
8. Write a report on a ragging incident in your college.
9. Write a status report on your project to your project Manager.
10. Send a feasibility report of establishing an Electric Panel Industry in Amaravathi, the
capital of A.P.

10.11. REFERENCES:

Agarwala, N.K. 1986. A Senior English Grammar and Composition. Pub. [Link] for
Goyal Brothers prakashan. New Delhi.

Allen, David. (2003). Ready for Anything: 52 Productivity Principles for Work and Life.
New York: Viking Books. ISBN 978-0-14-303454-4.

Kane, [Link]. 2003. The Oxford Essential Guide to Writing. Oxford University Press.

Sinha, R.P. 2003. Current English Grammar and Usage with Composition. Oxford
University Press. New York.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

T. Sujani
 LESSON: 11
WRITING INVITATIONS, MINUTES AND
CIRCULARS
OBJECTIVES

 To make the students understand how to write an Invitation, Minutes, Circular etc.
 To present an overview of the types of letters, various formats, types of reports

STRUCTURE

11.1. Introduction
11.2. Invitations
11.2.1. Formal note of invitation to Dinner
11.2.2. Reply to the invitation
11.2.3. Formal Invitation to Fundraising Event: Given below is a model of
formal invitation
11.2.4. Here is another example of a formal or official invitation
11.2.5. Informal Invitation to Dinner
[Link] Invitation to Dinner – Model
11.2.7. Replay to the invitation to Dinner - Model
11.3. Minutes of the Meeting
11.3.1. How to Record Minutes
11.3.2. The Process of Writing Minutes
11.3.3. Formats for Minutes Taking
[Link]. Format 1
[Link]. Format No.2
[Link]. Format No.3
11.3. 4. Sample of Board Meeting Minutes
11.4. Circulars
11.4.1. Model Circular
11.5. Conclusion
11.6. Self-assessment Questions
11.7. Exercises
11.8. References

11.1. INTRODUCTION

In this lesson under the broad category of writing, the topics of Invitations and
Minutes are discussed. Both formal and informal invitations and reply to the invitations
along with examples are presented in this lesson. Similarly the various formats of minutes of
the meetings and a sample of the minutes is given. The last topic of the lesson is how to
write circulars. The definition of a circular and a model is presented.
Communicative English-I 11.2 Writing Invitations…

11.2. INVITATIONS

Invitation can be formal and informal. A formal invitation is generally written in the
third person. It contains no heading, no salutation and no complimentary close. The writer’s
name appears in the body of the letter. The address of the writer and the date are written to
the left below the body of the letter. The reply to such a note of invitation is also written in
the third person and repeats the date and time mentioned in the invitation. Invitations can be
business invitations, party invitations, official meet invitations and various function
invitations.

11.2.1. Formal note of Invitation to Dinner – Model

Mr. and Mrs. Mallikarjuna Rao request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Sundeep’s company at dinner on
Monday, October 26, 2015., in their home at 7.30.p.m.

Bank Colony,
Vijayawada.
20th October, 2015.

11.2.2. Reply to the Invitation – Model

Mr. and Mrs. Sundeep have much pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Mallikarjuna Rao’s kind invitation
to dinner on Monday, , October 26, 2015., in their home at 7.30.p.m.

[Link],
Vijayawada.
23rd October, 2015.

11.2.3. Formal Invitation to Fundraising Event: Given below is a model of formal

invitation

Invitation to attend a Fundraising Event

Aid for Humanity Foundation, New Delhi

You are cordially invited to join the union HRD minister Smriti Irani, and a host of television personalities at
the annual Benefit Ball for the Children's Medical Center. The gala event will begin at 8:00 p.m., November
12th , 2015., in the Viceroy Hotel Ballroom.

Each year the Benefit Ball raises laksh of rupees to provide medical care for children who otherwise would
go without it. Last year over 500 children got benefited from funds donated at the Ball. It is a wonderful
tradition that adds support to the dozens of doctors who donate their services at the Medical Center.

Admission to the Ball is free, but we encourage participants to donate generously to the fund. Your helpful
donations are truly something to dance about. If you are unable to attend but would like to contribute, you
may do so by mail. medicentre@[Link]. You may also pass the invitation to someone else to represent
you at the Ball. We want very much to help these children so one day they, too, may dance.

Your response by November 1st will be appreciated.

Centre for Distance Education 11.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

11.2.4. Here is another example of a formal or official invitation

Letter head of Business/Organization inviting]

Phone Numbers:
(Work): [(xxx) xxx-xxxx]
Date
(Home): [(xxx) xxx-xxxx]
Email: [email address]

Avinash Kumar
Wipro Software Limited
203 Sudhakar Marg.
Wworli, Mumbai, 4000016
India

Reference : Business partners meeting on 21 march 2010

Dear Avinhash,

You are invited to attend the business partners meeting to be held on 21st march 2010, at our
corporate office in Sanjose California.

As already informed and notified to your office, please make arrangements to your travel and
Visa to USA.

We will be making arrangements for your lodging and boarding during your stay in USA.

Our administration office will be in touch with you to coordinate your travel plan.

We will be sending a separate letter addressed to US consulate requesting appropriate visa for
this trip.

Do not hesitate to contact our office if have any questions.

We look forward to see you.

Â
Sincerely.

XYZ
Administration
Xorx Corporation

11.2.5.. Informal Invitation to Dinner

An informal note of invitation is written like a friendly letter, though we use here
more formal language. The formal beginning is- My dear Mrs. Sanjana and the
formal close is – sincerely yours, Yours sincerely, Yours affectionately (to relations or
intimate friends).
Communicative English-I 11.4 Writing Invitations…

11.2.6. Informal Invitation to Dinner - Model

Guru Nanak Colony,

Vijayawada.
20.10.’15.
My dear [Link],
Keeping aside all your busy engagements you have to come with Sundeep to dinner here
on Tuesday 27th, October, 2015.
Only a few friends are invited and of course, you know all of them.
After dinner, we shall be entertained with music by Miss Lasya.

Yours sincerely,
Sumithra

11.2.7. Reply to the Invitation to Dinner – Model

Teachers’ Colony,
Vijayawada.
20.10.’15.
My dear [Link],

How really nice of you to ask to come to dinner on on Tuesday 27th, October, 2015!

Sundeep and I are delighted to accept your invitation.

We are looking forward to a very jolly evening.

Thanking you for your kind invitation.

Yours sincerely,
Sanjana

11.3. MINUTES OF THE MEETING

The record of the proceedings of the meeting of an organization is called Minutes of

the meeting. The minutes of the meeting includes details such as the decisions made, further
activities of development and identification and tracking of action items. Thus the Minutes
act as a record of the meeting and also a source of information for the non-participants of
meeting.

11.3.1. How to Record Minutes

While making a record of the Minutes of the meeting, the following aspects should be
mentioned
 The date and time of the meeting.
Centre for Distance Education 11.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 Names of the participants who attended the meeting and also the names of those who
are not able to attend.
 Modifications or corrections or amendments to earlier meetings.
 Actions taken or agreed to be taken.
 Voting outcomes.
 Motions taken or rejected.
 Next meeting date and time.

11.3.2. The Process of Writing Minutes

 The first step in writing the Minutes is to write the Minutes immediately after the
meeting is over.
 Ensure that there is clarity in the record of decisions, actions and motions.
 Mention briefly the actions taken by the board and a terse explanation of the rationale
behind the decision.
 Recapitulate the major arguments of a motion prior to its approval.

11.3.3. Formats for Minutes Taking

Minutes of the meeting can be jotted down in different styles. A few formats are
given below for ready reference.

[Link]. Format 1

Purpose of the Meeting with time and date :

Chair :
Attendance : 1.
2.
3.
Agenda 1
Background
Discussion
Conclusion/Resolution/Recommendation/Decision
Action – Responsible person

Agenda 2
Background
Discussion
Conclusion/Resolution/Recommendation/Decision
Action – Responsible person

Agenda 3
………………………………….

Closing time :
Communicative English-I 11.6 Writing Invitations…

[Link]. Format No.2

Name of the Organization:
Purpose of Meeting:
Date/ Time :
Chair :
Members Present:

Agenda Discussion Action Person Responsible

/Topic

Closing Time:
[Link]. Format No.3
Meeting Title
Minutes Meeting Date Meeting Time Meeting Location
Meeting called by
Type of meeting
Facilitator
Note taker
Time Keeper
Attendees
Agenda Topics
Time Allotted Agenda Topic Presenter
Discussion

Conclusions

Action Items Person Responsible Dead line

Time Allotted Agenda Topic Presenter

Discussion

Conclusions
Centre for Distance Education 11.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Action Items Person Responsible Dead line

Time Allotted Agenda Topic Presenter

Discussion

Conclusions

Action Items Person Responsible Dead line

Depending on the need and necessity, we can design our own format for the minutes of the
meeting.

11.3.4. Sample of Board Meeting Minutes

Name of Organization
(Board Meeting Minutes: Month Day, Year)
(time and location)

Board Members:

Present: Bhata Bhatacharia, Jon White Bear, Douglas Carver, Elizabeth Drucker, Pat
Kyumoto, Jack Porter, Mary Rifkin and Leslie Zevon
Absent: Melissa Johnson
Quorum present? Yes

Others Present:
Exec. Director: Sheila Swanson
Other: Susan Johns, Consulting Accountant

Proceedings:

· Meeting called to order at 7:00 p.m. by Chair, Elizabeth Drucker

· (Last month's) meeting minutes were amended and approved
· Chief Executive's Report:

Recommends that if we are not able to find a new facility by the end of this month,
the rganization should stay where in the current location over the winter. After brief
discussion, Board agreed.
Communicative English-I 11.8 Writing Invitations…

Staff members, Jackson Browne, and Swanson attended the National Practitioner's
Network meeting in Atlanta last month and gave a brief extemporaneous presentation. Both
are invited back next year to give a longer presentation about our organization. After brief
discussion, Board congratulated Swanson and asked her to pass on their congratulations to
Browne as well.

Drucker asserts that our organization must ensure its name is associated with
whatever materials are distributed at that practitioner's meeting next year. The organization
should generate revenues where possible from the materials, too.

Swanson mentioned that staff member, Sheila Anderson's husband is ill and in the
hospital. MOTION to send a gift to Anderson's husband, expressing the organization's
sympathy and support; seconded and passed.

·Finance Committee report provided by Chair, Elizabeth Drucker:

Drucker explained that consultant, Susan Johns, reviewed the organization's

bookkeeping procedures and found them to be satisfactory, in preparation for the upcoming
yearly financial audit. Funds recommends that our company ensure the auditor provides a
management letter along with the audit financial report.

Drucker reviewed highlights, trends and issues from the balance sheet, income
statement and cash flow statement. Issues include that high accounts receivables require
Finance Committee attention to policies and procedures to ensure our organization receives
more payments on time. After brief discussion of the issues and suggestions about how to
ensure receiving payments on time, MOTION to accept financial statements; seconded and
passed.

Board Development Committee's report provided by Chair, Douglas Carver:

Carver reminded the Board of the scheduled retreat coming up in three months, and provided
a drafted retreat schedule for board review. MOTION to accept the retreat agenda; seconded
and passed.

Carver presented members with a draft of the reworded By-laws paragraph that would
allow members to conduct actions over electronic mail. Carver suggested review and a
resolution to change the By-laws accordingly. Kyumoto suggested that Swanson first seek
legal counsel to verify if the proposed change is consistent with state statute. Swanson agreed
to accept this action and notify members of the outcome in the next Board meeting.

Other Business:

Porter noted that he was working with staff member, Jacob Smith, to help develop an
information management systems plan, and that two weeks ago he (Porter) had mailed
members three resumes from consultants to help with the plan. In the mailing, Porter asked
members for their opinions to help select a consultant. Porter asked members for their
opinions. (NOTE: Zevon noted that she was also a computer consultant and was concerned
about conflict of interest in her Board role regarding this selection, and asked to be
ABSTAINED from this selection. Members agreed.) The majority of members agreed on
Lease-or-Buy Consultants. MOTION to use Lease-or-Buy Consultants; seconded and passed.
Centre for Distance Education 11.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Swanson announced that she had recently hired a new secretary, Karla Writewell.

Assessment of the Meeting:

Kyumoto noted that the past three meetings have run over the intended two-hour time
slot by half an hour. He asked members to be more mindful and focused during discussions,
and suggested that the Board Development Chair take an action to identify solutions to this
issue. Chair, Carver agreed.

Meeting adjourned at 9:30 p.m.

Minutes submitted by Secretary, Bhata Bhatacharia.
Source: ([Link]

11.4. CIRCULARS

A Circular is usually written by a company or an organization to deliver messages,

notices, new policies, new rules, etc so that the recipients are aware of the matters being
delivered. A circular is always formal and never informal. Since it is sent from one person
to another person dissipating news to everyone, it is called circular.

11.4.1. Model Circular

ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY

NAGARJUNA NAGAR, GUNTUR
Circular

ANU/001/2015 20.10.’15

In order to increase the safety and security of our campus, we herewith announce
that all of ANU students should abide by the following rules and obligations :

1. ................
2. ………………….
3. ………………….
4. ………………….
5. ………………….

There will be official staff assigned to make sure all parties obey these rules and
obligations. Firm action will be taken against those who do not obey or violate
obligations mentioned above. If there is something you need to know pertaining to these
new rules and obligations, please contact the official staff on duty at (345) 2234455.

XXXXXXX
Vice Chancellor
Communicative English-I 11.10 Writing Invitations…

Thus in this lesson, the different modules of writing like Invitations, Minutes and
Circulars are discussed with various formats and examples. There is no strict rule as one
specific format. Basing on the need and requirement of the person and organization, we can
frame a format of our own.

11.5. CONCLUSION:

In this lesson, the different modules of writing like Invitations, Minutes and Circulars
are discussed. Examples of invitations like invitation to dinner, reply to the invitation in both
the formal and informal ways and also an invitation to the fund raising event has been
included. An example of the Minutes of the meeting along with different formats is
discussed in this lesson. This lesson also discusses what a circular is and how it can be
written. There is no strict rule as one specific format. Basing on the need and requirement of
the person and organization, we can frame a format of our own.

11.6. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between formal invitations and informal invitations?

2. Should Business invitations be formal or informal?
3. Is it necessary to have a particular format to write minutes of the meeting or can we
frame a format of our own?
4. What is the process of recording the Minutes of a meeting?
5. What is the purpose of sending a circular?

11.7. EXERCISES

1. Send an invitation to your Professor requesting her to attend your class farewell party.
2. Imagine yourself as the host of the business event of Wipro and send invitations to all
its employees.
3. Write minutes of the board meeting of your college by imagining yourself as P.A. of
your college Secretary.
4. Send a circular announcing Dasara Vacation to the students of your college .
5. Send a circular to the Staff of your company asking them to adhere to the changed
timings of your company.

11.8. REFERENCES:

Agarwala, N.K. 1986. A Senior English Grammar and Composition. Pub. [Link] for Goyal
Brothers prakashan. New Delhi.

Allen, David. (2003). Ready for Anything: 52 Productivity Principles for Work and Life. New York:
Viking Books. ISBN 978-0-14-303454-4.

Kane, [Link]. 2003. The Oxford Essential Guide to Writing. Oxford University Press.

Sinha, R.P. 2003. Current English Grammar and Usage with Composition. Oxford University Press.
New York.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
T. Sujani
 LESSON: 12
WORD FORMATION, IDIOMS &PHRASES,
ONE-WORD SUBSTITUTES, SPELLING
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are –

 To facilitate students to learn various techniques to develop vocabulary power.
 To expose students to different types of word formation in English.
 To make learners identify phrases / idioms as groups of words with special meanings
 To create knowledge about words and their definitions
 To provide a list of phrases, idioms and one word substitutes
 To develop phonemic awareness andunderstand phonemic nature of spelling
 To acquire knowledge of spelling patterns and learn supportive guidelines
 To learn to remember specific and ‘tricky’ spellings

STRUCTURE

12.1. Introduction
12.2. Word Formation
12.2.1 Primary Words
12.2.2 Compound Words
12.2.3 Primary Derivatives
12.2.4 Secondary Derivatives
12.2.4.1Prefixes
12.2.4.2Suffixes
[Link] and Phrases
12.3.1 A Phrase
12.3.2 A Clause
12.3.3 Idioms
12.3.4Phrases
12.4. One-word Substitutes
12.4.1. List of words with their meanings for self-study:
12.5. Spelling
12.6. Conclusion
12.7. Self-assessment Questions
12.8. Exercises
12.9. References

12.1. INTRODUCTION:

A speech or a written passage, however short or long, is essentially a group of

sentences and a sentence, in its turn, is a group of words. A rich collection of words thus
becomes quite logically an essential prerequisite of language ability development. All
Communicative English-I 12.2 Word Formation…

competitive examinations take a direct test of vocabulary under items like Synonyms,
Antonyms, Idioms,Phrases,One-word Substitutes, Spelling and Sentence Completion. in
addition to this, comprehension and sentence arrangement require indirectly a competent
understanding of words, their meaning, nuances and usage. Hence, it very essential to be
equipped with good vocabulary power.

12.2. WORD FORMATION

Word formation is the building of a new word. There are a number of techniques of word
[Link] can be classified into four types. Primary Words, compound Words ,
primary derivatives, secondary derivatives . The formation of words has a few rules which
determine the nature of the words formed thus. Now, let us examine how each type of word is
formed.
Source: [Link]

[Link] Words:

Words which are not derived or compounded or developed from other words are called
primary words. They belong to the original collection of the words. Most of the words in
English language are only Primary Words. A Primary Word may be of the type of noun, verb,
adjective, pronoun, adverb etc. Examples: Moon, man, sun, son, day, daddy, night, novel,
month, mass, school, spoon, boy, baby, girl, ground, road, radar, write, go , gown, sit, walk,
net, dash, dot, book, pin, he, she, it, etc.

[Link] Words:

The Compound Words are formed by joining two or more primary words. A
Compound Word may be of the type of noun, verb, adjective, pronoun, adverb, conjunction,
prepositionetc. Examples: Sunlight, undergo, in spite of, state-of-the-art, unscientific
[Link] Words are for the most part nouns, adjectives and verbs .In most Compound
Words, it is the first word which modifies the meaning of the second word. The accent is
placed upon the modifying word when the amalgamation is complete. When the two elements
are only partially blended, a hyphen is put between the two words and the accent fall equally
on both of them.

Let us make out how the Compound Words of Nouns, Adjectives and Verbs are formed.
Compound Words-Nouns may be formed with the following combinations:

i. Noun + Noun: Examples:Sunlight, wheelchair,chairman, roadway, homemaker, textbook,

cabdriver.
ii. Adjective + Noun: Examples: soulmate, nobleman, shorthand ,whiteboard,
iii. Verb + Noun: Examples: spendthrift, breakfast ,pick-pocket ,daredevil
iv. Gerund + Noun: Examples: dining-room, writing-pad, looking-
mirror, running-shoes, blotting-paper ,running-income, spelling-excercises
[Link]+Noun: Examples: outlaw, afternoon ,forethought ,foresight, overcoat, downfall ,
bypass, inmate,inside
vi. Verb + Adverb: Examples: setback, lock-up, go-between,die-
hard, send-off
vii. Adverb + Verb: Examples: outset, upkeep, outcry ,income, outcome
Centre for Distance Education 12.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Compound Words-Adjectives may be formed with the following combinations:

i. Noun + Adjectives (or Participle): Examples: blood-red, sky-blue, snow-white ,pitch-

dark, breast-high ,skin-deep,lifelong, world-wide, headstrong ,homesick ,stone-blind, seasick,
hand-made, bed-ridden ,heart-broken,note-worthy
ii. Adjective + Adjective: Examples: red-hot , blue-black, white-hot, dull-grey ,lukewarm
iii. Adverb + Participle: Examples: longsuffering ,everlasting ,never-ending, thorough-
reading, well-dressed, outspoken,down-hearted ,inborn,in-built.
iv. Noun + Verb:Examples: waylay, backbite ,typewrite , browbeat, earmark
v. Adjective + Verb: Examples: safeguard ,whitewash, fulfil
vi. Adverb + Verb: Examples: overthrow ,overtake, foretell, undertake ,undergo ,overhear

12.2.3. Primary Derivatives:

These words are formed by making some changes in the body of the primary Words
Examples: Bond frombind ,Breachfrom break ,Wrong from wring . The most important
class of words formed by internal changes consists of the past tenses of the Primary Words.
Those past tense-words are not treated as derivatives.

i. Formation of Nouns from Verbs: Examples: choice from choose, bliss from bless , chip
from chop , breach from break, dole from deal, dike from dig, fleet from float ,doom from
deem , bier from bear ,watch from wake, seat from sit, gap from gape, girth from gird ,grief
from grieve, woof from weave
[Link] of Nouns from Adjectives: Examples: dolt from dull, heat from hot ,pride
from proud
iii. Formation of Adjectives from Verbs: Examples: fleet from float, low from lie
iv. Formation of Adjectives from Nouns: Examples: milch from milk, wise from wit
v. Formation of Verbs from Nouns: Examples: bathe from bath ,bleed from blood ,believe
from belief ,breathe from breath, breed from brood, clothe from cloth, drip from drop , feed
from food
vi. Formation of Adjectives from Verbs:Examples: cool from chill, hale from heal
vii. Formation of Nouns from Verbs: Examples:gold from gild, grass from graze, half
from halve ,knot from knit, sale from sell ,sooth from soothe, tale from tell, thief from
thieve, wreath from wreathe

[Link] Derivatives:

Secondary derivatives of a word are formed by adding either a prefix or a suffix to the
word. Examples: Income is a secondary derivative of the word ‘come’. Here the addition
‘in’ is a prefix. Undergo is a secondary derivative of the word ‘go’. Here the addition ‘under’
is a prefix.
Friendship is a secondary derivative of the word friend. Here the addition ‘ship’ is a suffix.
Darkness is a secondary derivative of the word ‘dark’. Here the addition ‘ness’ is a suffix.

As shown in the above examples,there are many Prefixes and Suffixes in English
language. Let us study how they help to enrich one's vocabulary.

Affixes and Roots: Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is
common in academic English.
Communicative English-I 12.4 Word Formation…

[Link] Prefixes:

Prefixs are added to the beginning of a word to make a new word, egmis+take. Some
common prefixes are 'mis', 'dis', 're', 'for', 'anti', 'ante', 'sub', 'un' and 'in'. New words are made
by placing a prefix in front of a word. It is helpful to know the meanings of prefixes.
Prefix 're' means again, therefore reappear means to appear again.
Common prefix meanings: pre – before, mis - bad(ly), sub – under, inter –
between, semi – half
UN + employ + ED = UNEMPLOYED (the verb becomes an adjective with a - ve meaning)
* happy + NESS = HAPPINESS (the adjective becomes a noun)
Pay attention to changes in spelling :- “ Y” often becomes “I” / final “e” often disappears(…)
The following prefixes of 'im', 'ir', 'il', 'in' and 'un' can be added to the beginning of words
to make them into a negative.
Examples: a+theist=atheist; ambi+valent=ambivalent; bi+focal=bifocal

[Link] Suffixes:

Letters added to the end of a main word are called suffixes. Common suffixes are: 'ed', 'ful',
'ly', 'ing', 'able', 'ance', 'ence', 'ness'.
Suffixes can be used to form a verb, a noun, an adjective and an adverb.
*dark (adjective) + ness= darkness (noun)
*strength (noun) +en= strengthen (verb)
*probable (adjective) + (l)y = probably (adverb)
*glory (noun) +ous= glorious (adjective)

Example: harm + less = harmless. When 'full' is added to a word you drop the final 'l'. If you
add 'ly' to any word ending with 'ful' you keep the existing 'l'.

Example: harmful ,beautifully, comfort + able=comfortable ; gold + en = golden; harm + less

= harmless etc.,
Mixed: Words having the base with both prefix and suffix.
E.g.: Adjectives: uncomfortable, unavoidable, unimaginative, inactive, semi-circular
Nouns: disappointment, misinformation, reformulation.

12.3. IDIOMS AND PHRASES

Before we learn Idioms and Phrases, it is important to know about a phrase and a clause.

12.3.1.A Phrase :

A phrase is a group of words which does not contain a finite verb, but which does the
work of a single part of speech. There are three kinds of phrases.

Noun Phrase: A noun phrase is a group of words and it does the work of a noun.
To be negative is miserable.(‘To be negative’ does the work of a noun. It is the subject of the
verb ‘is)

Adjective Phrase: An Adjective phrase is a group of words and it does the work of an
adjective.
Centre for Distance Education 12.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

The President is a man of honor. (‘of honor’ does the work of an adjective. It qualifies the
noun ‘man)

Adverb Phrase: An Adverb phrase is a group of words and it does the work of an adverb.
Rohan walks with speed. (‘with speed’ does the work of an adverb. If modifies the verb
‘walks’)

12.3.2. A Clause: .

A Clause is a group of words, which has a Subject and Predicate of its own, makes
complete sense and forms part of a larger sentence.
E.g. The dog ran up when I whistled.

The sentence contains two groups of words (The dog ran up, when I whistled). Each
has a Subject and Predicate of its own and each makes complete sense and such groups of
words are called clauses. The clause which is independent and can stand by itself is called the
Main or Principal Clause. The clause which depends for its meaning on the other clause and
cannot stand by itself independently is called Dependent or Subordinate Clause. There are
three kinds of Subordinate Clauses: The Noun Clause, The Adjective Clause and The
Adverb Clause.

The Noun Clause:

1. I told him the truth.
2. I told him that he had failed.
3. Ram asked me where I lived.

In sentence I the object of told is ‘truth;. (A Noun) In sentence 2 the object of told is ‘that
hehad failed’ which is a clause that does the work of a Noun. Hence it is called a Noun
Clause. A Noun Clause is a group of words. Which has a Subject and Predicate of its own
and does the work of a Noun.

The Adjective Clause:

1. David is a wealthy man.
2. David is a man who has great wealth.
3. This is the thief who stole the horse.

In sentence I ‘wealthy’ is an Adjective which qualifies ‘man’. In sentence 2 the noun

‘man’ is qualified by the clause ‘who has great wealth’. As the clause does the work of an
Adjective, it is called an Adjective Clause. An Adjective Clause is a group of words, which
has a Subject and Predicate of its own and does the work of an Adjective.

The Adverb Clause:

1. The milkman came at dawn.
2. The milkman came when the sun rose.
3. Grapes won’t grow where there is too much rain.

In sentence I ‘at dawn’ is a phrase which serves as an Adverb of time (When did the
milkman come? At dawn). In sentence 2 the clause ‘when the sun rose’ does the work of an
Adverb and hence it is called an Adverb Clause. An Adverb Clause is a group of words,
which has a Subject and Predicate of its own and does the work of an Adverb.
Communicative English-I 12.6 Word Formation…

Idioms and Phrasal Verbs:Let us understand the definitions of Idioms and Phrasal Verbs
first.

[Link]:Idiomsare usually defined as groups of words whose meaning is different

from the individual words. So, in an idiom,' under the weather' it has nothing to do with the
literal meaning of ‘the weather’; it means ‘feeling ill’. If you sweep something under the
carpet, you try to keep something secret; and if you put someone in the picture, you give
them the information they need to understand a situation. As these examples illustrate, in
some idioms the meaning can be almost impossible to guess out of context, while others are
more transparent.

12.3.4. Phrasal Verbs: Phrasal Verbs consist of two and occasionally three words: a base
verb and at least one particle (preposition or adverb). Many phrasal verbs are idiomatic: in
other words, the meaning of the verb and particle is different from the base verb on its own.
For example, the meanings of give up and give in are quite different from the meaning of
give. As with idioms, some phrasal verbs are more transparent than others, [Link] up and
the most common meaning of stand are very similar in meaning, as are sit down and sit. In
other words, phrasal verbs can be seen as a type of idiom, although they are often singled
out for specific attention in language – teaching [Link] idioms and phrasal verbs
together has a linguistic rationale, but perhaps an even greater pedagogic one.

When people think of idioms, they tend to think of the more imaginative and
colourful examples: kick the bucket,keep the fingers crossed, full of beans, gift of the gab, etc.
These vivid expressions can be extremely difficult to understand, so they are often the ones
that teachers are called upon to explain in the classroom. It is also undeniably true that idioms
– especially the more vivid ones – hold a particular fascination for some learners. However,
there are thousands of idioms, less exotic and often more transparent than the ones above,
which are of a higher frequency and probably greater value to the vast majority of learners.
Here are some typical examples:

Bear something in mind, get your own way, by far, come in handy, fair enough, a
happy medium, have your doubts about something, hours on end, I thought as much, if all
else fails, in all probability, last but not the least, leave it at that, life is too short, little by
little, no wonder, not necessarily, odds and ends, on the surface, play a part in something,
rightly or wrongly, so what? ,Take it personally, that’s life, the sooner the better, to put it
mildly, two years running, use your head, you’ll be lucky..etc.,

Some of these will appear so every day that they often pass unnoticed as idioms. In
some cases the meaning may be quite easy to guess, especially in context, but the same
concept may be expressed in a different way in the learner’s mother tongue, so these
expressions need to be learnt, and are equally deserving of our attention. Important examples
of idioms and phrases are given below:

1. A man of letters: a great scholar. Dr. Samuel Johnson was a man of letters.

2. A man of straw:a worthless fellow; a man of no substance. We cannot respect a man

of straw.

3. Make up one’s mind: [Link] I make up my mind about something nothing can
change it.
Centre for Distance Education 12.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

4. Maiden speech: the first speech of a person in an assembly. His maiden speech was
quite impressive.

5. To mind one’s P’s and Q’s: be especially careful about one’s behavior. If you invite a
VIP to a dinner, you have to mind your P’s and Q’s

6. Null and void: legal without legal effect; invalid. A contract made with a minor
person is null and void. This rule has now become null and void.

7. Off and on: irregularly. I have been learning French off and on.

8. Out of the question:impossible. To control the rise of prices in India, is out of the
question.

9. Out and out:thoroughly; surpassingly. He is a gentleman out and out.

10. Play truant:remain away from school. One day my son decided to play truant and
went for fishing

11. Put off: postpone. The examinations are put off a week.

12. Rank and file: The ordinary working members of an organization. The rank and file
appreciated the activities of their trade union leaders.

13. Read between the lines: look for or discover meanings that are not actually expressed
To understand the holy scripture, one must be able to read between the lines in them.
We must read between the lines of the speeches of political leaders.

14. Rob Peter to pay Paul:take from one person to pay another. When your younger son
needs a bicycle, don’t take it away from your elder son to give it to your younger son-
this amounts to robbing Peter to pay Paul.
His taking bribes to pay the Minister is robbing Peter to pay Paul.

15. Rough and tumble:irregular; without order; violent. Some politicians lead a rough and
tumble life.

16. Scylla and Charybdis: between two equal dangers. The offer made by the British
Government to the Indian national leaders to give independence to our country on the
condition of their agreeing to its division into two, put our leaders between Scylla and
Charybdis.

17. Spick and span: bright, clean and tidy. She keeps the house spick and span.

18. Take after:resemble. Children generally take after their parents.

19. Taken a back: surprised; The thief was utterly taken aback when the police recognized
him.

20. Turn a deaf ear:not to pay any heed; disregard; He turned a deaf ear to the requests of
the beggar.
Communicative English-I 12.8 Word Formation…

21. Turn down: reject, refuse to consider an offer, a proposal, the person who makes it

22. Turn the tables: reverse the position; Pay a person back in his own coin. The Janata
Dal Party won in the recent General Elections to the Lok Sabha by turning the tables
on the ruling Congress Party.

23. Up to the mark: quite satisfactory, His performance in the examinations was not upto
the mark.

24. Wild goose chase:a practically hopeless search or other enterprise, a foolishly useless
[Link] has gone back to the fair to search for his missing brother, but it is
a wild goose chase.

25. With flying colors:victoriously, triumphantly. The soldiers returned from the
battlefield with flying colors. My daughter came out with flying colors in the Medical
Entrance Examinations conducted at Guntur.

26. A wolf in sheep’s clothing: a dangerous person who pretends to be innocent or

harmless. Some Politicians are wolves in sheep’s clothing.

27. Yeoman’s service: excellent work or service, Shakespeare has done Yeoman’s service
to English literature. The World Health Organization has been doing yeoman’s
service to the humanity in eradicating diseases from this world.

28. Achilles’ heel = the weak point; vulnerable point. Drinking is the heel of Achilles in
[Link].

29. An axe to grind = a private purpose to serve; He offers gifts to his manager as he has
an axe to grind.

30. Clear out = tidy up; He cleared out all the cupboards.

31. Bring the house down= receive great applause; [Link]’s speech brought the
house down.

32. Eat humble pie = submit apologetically to blame or humiliation; Sastry had to eat
humble pie as the Principal did not have a good opinion of him.

33. Rule the roost = have full power and authority over others; While the Congress Party
was in power, the middle men and brokers ruled the roost.

34. Between the devil and the deep sea = between two equally serious dangers; The
Central Government is placed between the devil and the deep sea regarding the
implementation of the Fifth pay Commission scales.

35. Look down upon = hate; despise, treat with contempt; Don’t look down upon the so-
called untouchables.

36. Look after = take care of; You most look after your younger brother.
Centre for Distance Education 12.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

37. Run down = become weak; mock at; disparage; I feel absolutely run down, Don’t run
down others.

38. Sit on the fence = be neutral; avoid taking either side; At a critical moment, politicians
sit on the fence before the elections.

39. A black sheep = a worthless fellow; a rogue; There are many black sheep in every
country.

40. Hit below the belt = be unfair; We should never hit the enemy below the belt.

41. Leave no stone unturned = take every possible measure to accomplish an aim; We
leave no stone unturned in improving the discipline of our college.

42. Look up = refer to; search for; Look up the word in the dictionary.

43. Pull up = scold; rebuke; The boy was pulled up by his teacher.

44. Set up on = attack; The robbers set up on the defenseless villagers.

45. Work out = solve; He could work out the problem easily.

46. Work up = excite; Mark Antony was able to work up the Roman mob.

47. Hold out = resist; The army held out for a month.

48. Give in = surrender; The enemies gave in at last.

49. The apple of one’s eye = something very dear or precious; Priyanka is the apple of
everybody’s eye.

50. A bed of roses = a situation of comfort and joy; Life is not a bed of roses.

51. A dog in the manger = a person who prevents others having something which he
cannot get or enjoy; He always follows a dog in the manger policy.

52. Pull the strings = be able to exert influence; She pulled the strings to get the post of a
clerk.

53. A chip of the old block = an inheritor of the characteristics of his father; Indira Gandhi
is a chip of the old block

54. Clear up = brighten; The weather will clear up soon.

55. Get out of = escape from; The boy is lucky to get out of bad company.

56. Give up = leave; stop; Mohan gave up smoking on the advice of the doctor.

57. Fall back = retreat; At the end of the encounter, the robber fell back.
Communicative English-I 12.10 Word Formation…

58. Draw near = approach; Winter is drawing near.

59. Do away with = abolish; We must do away with our caste system.

60. Run away = steal; The girl ran away with her classmate’s money

61. Put up with = tolerate; bear; I cannot put up with his rude behavior.

62. Turn out = prove; He turned out be a cheat.

63. Turn down = refuse; He turned down my request for leave

64. Speak out = express one’s opinion; He has determined to speak out on the issue of
political corruption.

65. Call off = stop; The workers have called off the strike.

66. At sixes and sevens = in great disorder; In Lata’s house, I found everything at sixes
and sevens.

67. Pull down = demolish; It is easier to pull down than to construct. They are pulling
down the old house.

68. Miss the boat: This idiom is used to say that someone missed his or her chance.

69. Once in a blue moon:: Happens very rarely. My son eats cake once in a blue moon.

70. A Picture paints a thousand words: A visual presentation is far more descriptive
than words.

71. Laid up = bedridden; The boy is laid up with fever.

72. Keep up = continue; you must keep up your good relations with others.

73. Lay down = surrender; The naxalites laid down their arms.

74. Look into = examine carefully, investigate; The judge looked into the matter and then
gave his verdict.

75. Break out = begin; War broke out between Iraq and Iran.

76. Turn up = arrive; The chief gust turned up late to the function

77. Spick and span = very clean; Leela keeps the house spick and span.

78. Part and parcel = an important part; Discipline is part and parcel of one’s life.

79. Hue and cry = noisy, angry behavior; People raised a hue and cry over new taxes.
Centre for Distance Education 12.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

80. Ins and outs = the full details; The lawyer should know the ins and outs of every case
he deals with.

81. In the nick of time = just in time; The doctor arrived in the nick of time and saved the
life of the patient

82. Keep abreast of = be well informed; The students must keep abreast of the latest
developments.
83. On the anvil = about to happen or materialize; A new way of taxing the rich is on the
anvil.

84. Out of the woods = safe; He has cleared all his old debts and so he is out of the woods.

85. Pay through the nose = pay a heavy price; In star hotels, we have pay the bills
through the nose.

86. Take to = be attracted to; I took to that girl at once.

87. Take after = resemble; The daughter takes after her mother.

88. Set up = start business; He has set up a publishing house.

89. Pull together = work together; In spite of their differences, the five partners of our
college have been pulling together.

90. Pass for = be accepted as; He passed for a wise man.

91. Put on = wear; assume; The young officer puts on an air of dignity

92. Make up = use cosmetics; She makes up too heavily whenever she goes out

93. Go off = be a success; The function went off very well.

94. Bury the hatchet = make peace; The two enemies buried the hatchet and became
friends again.

95. Lion’s share: (a disproportionately large share) My kid brother receives the lion’s
share of my mother’s love and affection in our family.

96. Make a clean breast of: confess all. In the police station the culprit made a clean
breast of all the crimes he had committed.

97. Make ducks and drakes of: (Squander) Never make ducks and drakes of your money
on unnecessary things. He inherited a vast fortune from his deceased aunt and soon
made ducks and drakes of it.
Communicative English-I 12.12 Word Formation…

12.4. One-word Substitutes

One word may be used in place of several words or phrases. This will help in being
concise. The following list contains some one word substitutions. Study it closely to increase
your vocabulary. Learn to use the words in sentences of your own.

One who is out to subvert a

1. Anarchist
government
2. One who is recovering from illness Convalescent
3. One who is all powerful Omnipotent
4. One who is present everywhere Omnipresent
5. One who knows everything Omniscient
6. One who is easily deceived Gullible
7. One who does not make mistakes Infallible
8. One who can do anything for money Mercenary
9. One who has no money Pauper
10. One who changes sides Turncoat
11. One who works for free Volunteer
12. One who loves books Bibliophile
13. One who can speak two languages Bilingual
14. One who loves mankind Philanthropist
15. One who hates mankind Misanthrope
One who looks on the bright side of
16. Optimist
things
One who looks on the dark side of
17. Pessimist
things
18. One who doubts the existence of god Agnostic
19. One who pretends to be what he is not Hypocrite
20. One incapable of being tired Indefatigable
21. One who helps others Good Samaritan
22. One who copies from other writers Plagiarist
23. One who hates women Misogynist
24. One who knows many languages Polyglot
25. One who is fond of sensuous pleasures Epicure
26. One who thinks only of himself Egoist
One who thinks only of welfare of
27. Feminist.
women
One who is indifferent to pleasure or
28. Stoic
pain
29. One who is quite like a woman Effeminate
30. One who has strange habits Eccentric
31. One who speaks less Reticent
32. One who goes on foot Pedestrian
Centre for Distance Education 12.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

33. One who believes in fate Fatalist

34. One who dies without a Will Intestate
35. One who always thinks himself to be ill Valetudinarian
36. A Government by the people Democracy
37. A Government by a king or queen Monarchy
38. A Government by the officials Bureaucracy
39. A Government by the rich Plutocracy
40. A Government by the few Oligarchy
41. A Government by the Nobles Aristocracy
42. A Government by one Autocracy
43. Rule by the mob Mobocracy
44. That through which light can pass Transparent
45. That through which light cannot pass Opaque
That through which light can partly
46. Translucent
pass
47. A sentence whose meaning is unclear Ambiguous
48. A place where orphans live Orphanage
49. That which cannot be described Indescribable
50. That which cannot be imitated Inimitable
51. That which cannot be avoided Inevitable
52. A position for which no salary is paid Honorary
53. That which cannot be defended Indefensible
54. Practice of having several wives Polygamy
55. Practice of having several husbands Polyandry
56. Practice of having one wife or husband Monogamy
Practice of having two wives or
57. Bigamy
husbands
58. That which is not likely to happen Improbable
59. People living at the same time Contemporaries
A book published after the death of its
60. Posthumous
author
61. A book written by an unknown author Anonymous
62. A life history written by oneself Autobiography
63. A life history written by somebody else Biography
64. People who work together Colleagues
65. One who eats too much Glutton
66. That which cannot be satisfied Insatiable
67. One who questions everything Cynic
68. A flesh eating animal Carnivorous
69. A grass eating animal Herbivorous
70. One who lives in a foreign country Immigrant
71. To transfer one's authority to another Delegate
Communicative English-I 12.14 Word Formation…

72. One who is a newcomer Neophyte

73. That which is lawful Legal
74. That which is against law Illegal
75. One who is unmarried Celibate
76. A game in which no one wins Draw
77. A study of man Anthropology
78. A study of races Ethnology
79. A study of the body Physiology
80. A study of animals Zoology
81. A study of birds Ornithology
82. A study of ancient things Archaeology
83. A study of derivation of words Etymology
84. Murder of a human being Homicide
85. Murder of a father Patricide
86. Murder of a mother Matricide
87. Murder of an brother Fratricide
88. Murder of an infant Infanticide
89. Murder of self Suicide
90. Murder of the king Regicide
91. To free somebody from all blame Exonerate
92. To write under a different name Pseudonym
93. A thing no longer in use Obsolete
94. A handwriting that cannot be read Illegible
95. Words written on the tomb of a person Epitaph
96. One who is greedy for money Avaricious
97. Something that cannot be imitated Inimitable
One who doesn't know how to read and
98. Illiterate
write
99. A person's peculiar habit Idiosyncrasy
100. Violating the sanctity of a church Sacrilege

12.4.1. List of words with their meanings for self-study:

1. Accountable: Liable to being called to account, answerable

3. Amnesty: A general pardon granted by a government
4. Amphibious: Capable of living both on land and in water
4, Animate: Having life
6. Anonymous: Having an unknown or unacknowledged name
7. Antonym: A word having a meaning opposite to that of another word
8. Aquatic: Of animals living in water
9. Aristocracy: Government by the nobles
10. Atheist: One who does not believe in the existence of God
11. Audience: The spectators or listeners assembled at a performance
Centre for Distance Education 12.15 Acharya Nagarjuna University

12. Autobiography: The biography of a person written by that person

13. Autocracy: Government by a single person having unlimited power, despotism
14. Avaricious: Greedy, extremely desirous of wealth
15. Behead: To cut off the head
16. Brittle: Hard but liable to be easily broken
17. Bureaucracy: Government by officials
18. Cannibal: Animal that feeds on its own species
19. Carnivorous: Of animals feeding on flesh
20. Catalogue: An organized, descriptive list of items arranged systematically
21. Centenarian: A person who has attained the ages of 100 years or more
22. Colleagues: A fellow member of a profession
23. Contemporary: Belonging to the same time
24. Convalescence: Gradual return to health and strength after illness
25. Cosmopolitan: Sophisticated so as to be at home in all parts of the world
26. Credulous: Disposed to believe too readily
27. Epitaph: inscription on a tombstone
28. Fatalist: one who believes in the philosophical doctrine of fatalism
29. Aristocracy: people of noble families or the highest social class. Also, government of
a country by a small group of people, especially hereditary nobility
30. Atheist: a person who does not believe in God or deities
31. Amphibian: a land animal that breeds in water
32. Ambiguity: an expression or statement that has more than one meaning
33. Autobiography: an account of somebody's life written by that person
34. Biography: an account of somebody's life written by another person
35. Cannibal: somebody who eats human flesh
36. Mercenary: somebody who works or serves only for personal profit. Also, a
professional soldier paid to fight for an army other than that of his or her country
37. Misogynist: a person who hates women
38. Misogamist: a person who does not believe in the institution of marriage
39. Soporific: a drug or other substance that induces sleep
40. Omniscient: a person who knows everything
41. Omnivorous: an animal or a human being that eats any kind of food
42. Omnipotent: a person who has power over all
43. Panacea: a supposed cure for all diseases or problems
44. Parasite: a person supported by another and giving him/her nothing in return
45. Impervious: a person who remains unmoved and unaffected by other people's
opinions, arguments or suggestions
46. Illiterate: a person who cannot read or write
47. Infallible: incapable of making a mistake
48. Infanticide: the killing of an infant
49. Honorary: holding an office awarded as an honour and receiving no payment for
services provided in that office
50. Idolatry: the worship of idols or false gods
51. Inflammable: something that is quickly and easily set on fire and burned
52. Epicure: somebody who is dedicated to sensual pleasure and luxury
53. Epidemic: an outbreak of a disease that spreads among a group of people quickly and
extensively
54. Fanatic: somebody who has extreme and sometimes irrational enthusiasms or beliefs,
especially in religion or politics
55. Feminist: a believer in women's rights
Communicative English-I 12.16 Word Formation…

56. Herbivorous: an animal that eats only grass or other plants

57. Fratricide: the crime in which somebody kills his or her own brother
58. Matricide: the act of murdering one's own mother
59. Patricide: the act of murdering one's own father
60. Convalescence: the gradual return to good health after a period or illness or medical
treatment
61. Endemic: a disease that occurs within a specified area, region or locale
62. Anarchist: a person who rejects the need for a system of government in society and
proposes its abolition
63. Ambidextrous: a person who is able to use both hands with equal skill
64. Alimony: financial support to ex-wife
65. Amateur: a person who does something for pleasure rather than for pay
66. Aborigines: original inhabitants of a place
67. Circumlocution: the indirect way of saying something
68. Arbitrator: somebody designated to hear both sides of a dispute and make a
judgment
69. Autocracy: rule by one person who holds unlimited power
70. Edible: fit for eating
71. Potable: fit for drinking
72. Belligerents: nations engaged in war
73. Fastidious: a person who is concerned that even the smallest details should be just
right
74. Somnambulism: sleepwalking
75. Stoic: a person who is unaffected by emotions
76. Theist: a person who believes in the existence of God
77. Transparent: a substance that allows light to pass through with little or no
interruption so that objects on the other side can be clearly seen
78. Verbatim: corresponding word for word translation
79. Prosecute: take legal action against somebody
80. Pugnacity: inclined to fight or be aggressive
81. Valetudinarian: somebody who is excessively concerned with his or her own health
82. Widower: a man whose wife has died
83. Widow: a woman whose husband has died
84. Polygamy: the custom of having more than one spouse at the same time
85. Polyandry: the custom of having more than one husband at the same time
86. Triennial: taking place once every three years
87. Usurer: somebody who loans money to other people and charges them exorbitant or
unlawful interest on it
88. Usurper: a person who seizes something without the right to do so
89. Philanthropist: a person who helps others, especially those who are poor and in
trouble
90. Plutocracy: the rule of a society by its wealthiest people
[Link]:one who always looks at the dark side of life.

12.5. SPELLING

Everyone who has difficulty with spelling words correctly can derive some comfort from
knowing that some very good writers have been extremely bad spellers. It's also comforting
to bad spellers to know that this business of spelling seems to have little to do with
intelligence. It has more to do with how we remember things. Some people, once they've seen
 Centre for Distance Education 12.17 Acharya Nagarjuna University

a word spelled correctly, will never misspell that word again. Those are the people who, if
you ask them how to spell a word, will first say, "Wait a second. Let me write it down." If
you are not a strong visual learner, but learn in other ways, you will have to learn some other
tricks to become a strong speller.

Improving Spelling Skills: Improving your spelling skills is largely a matter of personal
commitment: looking up a word you're not sure of, keeping the dictionary at hand, keeping a
list of words you know you have trouble with. The following suggestions about spelling are
only that—suggestions. Spelling, like vocabulary building, is ultimately a personal matter,
and only a planned and sustained effort to improve spelling will have the desired results.

British Spellings:Writers who grow up in England, Canada, the Barbados, or any place
where spelling habits conform to British preferences will be perplexed when the
word colour comes back from an American instructor with a slash mark through the u. When
Noah Webster started putting his dictionary together, he thought it would be a good idea to
simplify some English spelling and that -our was one ending he thought Americans could do
without. Standard American spelling, ever since then, has been sometimes different from
British, and it extends to other words as well. A good dictionary, even a good American
dictionary, should account for these differences. For example:

BritishSpelling:cancelled,centre,cheque,colour,criticise,grey,humour,judgement,labour,
licence,realise,theatre,valour,tyre..etc.,
AmericanSpelling:canceled,center,check,color,criticize,gray,humor,judgment,labor,
license,realize,theater,valor,tire,etc.,

Some rules to learn correct spelling:

(From the Source: [Link]

1.i before e except after c :This rule, designed to help us remember how to spell words such
as receive and chief, seems so promising in its simplicity at first.

 achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend, grieve, chief, fiend,
patience, pierce, priest
 ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit, conceit

But then things get complicated: it doesn't work with words pronounced "ay" as
in neighbour, freight, beige, sleigh, weight, vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to
the rule: either, neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.

[Link] final e: When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the
final e if the ending begins with a vowel: [Link], [Link], if the ending
begins with a consonant, keep the final e: [Link], [Link], if the
silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e when adding any ending: argument,
argued, truly.

Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is kept in words such
as mileage and words where the final e is preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous,
manageable, management, noticeable. (The word management, for example, without
that e after the g, would be pronounced with a hard g sound.)
Communicative English-I 12.18 Word Formation…

3. Dropping final y: When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change
the y to i when it is preceded by a consonant. E.g. supply becomes supplies, worry becomes
worried, merry becomes merrier. This does not apply to the ending -ing, however.
[Link], studying. Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel. [Link],
saying.

[Link] final Consonants: When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant,
we double that consonant in many situations. First, we have to determine the number of
syllables in the word. Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a
vowel when the last syllable of the word is accented and that syllable ends in a single vowel
followed by a single consonant.

I. submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant is preceded by a vowel,
so we double the t before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: submitting, submitted.
II. flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always accented. Again, the last
consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double it before adding, for instance, an -
ing or -ed: flapping, flapped. This rule does not apply to verbs that end with "x," "w,"
"v," and "y," consonants that cannot be doubled (such as "box" [boxing] and "snow"
[snowing]).
III. open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by a single vowel, but the
accent falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable, so we don't double the n before
adding an ending: opening, opened.
IV. refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last syllable and a single vowel
precedes the final consonant, so we will double the r before adding an ending, as
in referring, referral. The same would apply tobegin, as in beginner, beginning.
V. relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is preceded by another
consonant, not a vowel, so we do not double the t before adding an ending: relented,
relenting.
VI. deal looks like ‘flap’ (above), but the syllable ends in a consonant preceded not by a
single vowel, but by two vowels, so we do not double the final l as
in dealer and dealing. The same would apply, then, to despair: despairing, despaired.

[Link] Prefixes:Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change its spelling. For
some reason, the word misspelling is one of the most often misspelled words in English.
:[Link], dissatisfied, disinterested, misinform.

Note:The following list of words has been collected from the Internet source -
[Link]/words/common-misspellings
Spelling Advice Common Misspelling
Correct Spelling
accomodate,
accommodate,accommodation two cs, two ms
accomodation
achieve i before e acheive
across one c accross
aggressive, aggression two gs agressive, agression
apparently -ent not -ant apparantly
appearance ends with -ance appearence
argument no e after the u arguement
assassination two double s’s assasination
Centre for Distance Education 12.19 Acharya Nagarjuna University

basically ends with -ally basicly

beginning double n before the -ing begining
believe i before e beleive, belive
bizarre one z, double -r bizzare
business begins with busi- buisness
calendar -ar not -er calender
Caribbean one r, two bs Carribean
cemetery ends with -ery cemetary
chauffeur ends with -eur chauffer
colleague -ea- in the middle collegue
coming one m comming
committee double m, double t, double e commitee
completely ends with -ely completly
conscious -sc- in the middle concious
curiosity -os- in the middle curiousity
definitely -ite- not –ate- definately
dilemma -mm- not -mn- dilemna
disappear one s, two ps dissapear
disappoint one s, two ps dissapoint
ecstasy ends with –sy ecstacy
embarrass two rs, two s’s embarass
environment n before the m enviroment
existence ends with -ence existance
Fahrenheit begins with Fahr- Farenheit
familiar ends with -iar familar
finally two ls finaly
fluorescent begins with fluor- florescent
foreign e before i foriegn
foreseeable begins with fore- forseeable
forty begins with for- fourty
forward begins with for- foward
friend i before e freind
further begins with fur- futher
gist begins with g- jist
glamorous -mor- in the middle glamourous
government n before the m goverment
guard begins with gua- gaurd
happened ends with -ened happend
harass, harassment one r, two s’s harrass, harrassment
honorary -nor- in the middle honourary
humorous -mor- in the middle humourous
idiosyncrasy ends with -asy idiosyncracy
immediately ends with -ely immediatly
incidentally ends with -ally incidently
Communicative English-I 12.20 Word Formation…

independent ends with -ent independant

interrupt two rs interupt
irresistible ends with -ible irresistable
knowledge remember the d knowlege
liaise, liaison remember the second i: liais- liase, liason
lollipop i in the middle lollypop
millennium, millennia double l, double n millenium, millenia
Neanderthal ends with -thal Neandertal
necessary one c, two s’s neccessary
noticeable remember the middle e noticable
occasion two cs, one s ocassion, occassion
occurred, occurring two cs, two rs occured, occuring
occurrence two cs, two rs, -ence not -ance occurance, occurence
pavilion one l pavillion
persistent ends with -ent persistant
pharaoh ends with -aoh pharoah
piece i before e peice
politician ends with -cian politican
Portuguese ends with –guese Portugese
two s’s in the middle and two at
possession posession
the end
preferred, preferring two rs prefered, prefering
propaganda begins with propa- propoganda
publicly ends with –cly publically
really two ls realy
receive e before i recieve
referred, referring two rs refered, refering
religious ends with -gious religous
remember -mem- in the middle rember, remeber
resistance ends with -ance resistence
sense ends with -se sence
separate -par- in the middle seperate
siege i before e seige
successful two cs, two s’s succesful
supersede ends with -sede supercede
surprise begins with sur- suprise
tattoo two ts, two os tatoo
tendency ends with -ency tendancy
therefore ends with -fore therefor
threshold one h in the middle threshhold
tomorrow one m, two rs tommorow, tommorrow
tongue begins with ton-, ends with -gue tounge
truly no e truely
unforeseen remember the e after the r unforseen
Centre for Distance Education 12.21 Acharya Nagarjuna University

unfortunately ends with -ely unfortunatly

until one l at the end untill
weird e before i wierd
wherever one e in the middle whereever
which begins with wh- wich

12.6. CONCLUSION:

A key to effective verbal communication is having command of vocabulary. One of

the ways of increasing vocabulary is to know the different methods of word formation. This
lesson tried to familiarize students with various approaches to word formation that enables
them to relate these approaches in enhancing word power. Knowing the one-word substitutes
also helps us in improving our word power. Idioms make our language vital while Phrasal
verbs are very common is the spoken language. We need to know spellings also to make a
connection with pronunciation and writing of words.

12.7. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

[Link] strategies would you like to follow to improve your vocabulary power?
[Link] are the four types of words? Explain each with suitable examples.
[Link] is the difference between a Phrase and a Clause?Explain.
[Link] a note on secondary derivatives.
[Link] do you classify primary derivatives?
[Link] about the rules to be followed for learning correct spelling.

12.8 .EXCERCISES:

Task 1:Complete each of the following sentences using one of the three phrases given
below it.

1. If you ‘blow hot and cold’ you are ______

(A) not well (B) very short-tempered
(C) undecided
2. An irritated person is said to be_________
(A) hot under the collar (B) in a hot seat
(C) in hot water
3. A person with a lot of experience can be called as an ___________
(A) old man (B) old hand
(C) old flame
4. An offspring much like the father in the character is called _________
(A) a closed book (B) a dark horse
(C) a chip off the old block
5. A person without much hair is said to be _______
(A) on thin ice (B) thick- skinned
(C) thin on top
6. Somebody who is giving excessive praise or criticism is ____________
(A) laying it on thick (B) thick and fast
(C) thick on the ground
7. A place that is clean and tidy is said to be ___________
Communicative English-I 12.22 Word Formation…

(A) spic and span (B) in the raw

(C) in the limelight
8. A substantial meal of good food is _________
(A) a square deal (B) a square meal
(C) a round meal
9. When you pay more money for something, you ________
(A) pay someone off (B) pay through the nose
(C) pay from your pocket
10. I expect the meeting to ___________ by 4.30 p.m.
(A) break down (B) break into
(c) break up

Task 2: In each of the following questions choose the meaning of the given idiomatic
expression from the alternatives given.

1. Anand is always building castles in the air.

(A) making tall promises (B) making impossible plans
(C) building skyscrapers (D) structures without strong foundation
2. You are asking for it if you leave your house unlocked at all times.
(A) inviting trouble (B) being careful
(C) asking people for help (D) being unpleasant
3. I was going to take the last chocolate, but my friend beat me to it.
(A) first to hit me (B) first to attain
(C) made a bet (D) rushed ahead
4. My uncletosses and turns for hours before he goes to sleep.
(A) to act out a play (B) play a game
(C) not sleep peacefully (D) jump up and down
5. If you asked my sister to accompany you to the theatre, I know she would do so at the
drop of a hat.
(A) willingly and immediately (B) willingly and slowly
(C) willingly and silently (D) slowly and silently
6. Our Chemistry teacher has goteyes in the back of her head.
(A) is double faced (B) has a pair of spectacles
(C) is very wise (D) is very alert
7. Most men say that women can talk a mile a minute.
(A) talk a lot (B) chatter continuously and quickly
(C) talk nonsense (D) chatter anywhere
8. My father said, “We would be glad to put you up for a few days if you would like to
stay.”
(A) tolerate someone (B) build something
(C) provide accommodation (D) contribute something
9. I am sure that friends will notlet you down.
(A) disappoint (B) forgive
(C) throw you down (D) decrease

10. Das learnt about poverty and hardship at a tender age.

(A) while a teenager (B) while a new born
(C) when 10 years old (D) at a young age
Centre for Distance Education 12.23 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Task 3: In each of the following questions a part of the sentence is in bold. Choose the
alternative meaning that is correct.

1. He faced the music for reaching home late.

(A) faced pleasure (B) faced reprimand
(C) faced entertainment (D) faced punishment
2. If we give them this concession, it will be the thin end of the wedge.
(A) the least we could do for them (B) the beginning of further
concessions
(C) inadequate for their needs (D) a compromise on principles
3. Enemy soldiers fell upon the platoon as soon as it crossed the border.
(A) attacked (B) happened to see
(C) accidently met (D) warmly greeted
4. Rahul fought tooth and nail to save his factory.
(A) with weapons (B) using unfair means
(C) as best as he could (D) with strength and fury
5. She turned up her nose at him.
(A) admired openly (B) smiled happily
(C) looked contemptuously (D) seemed unhappy
6. For his alleged involvement in espionage, he is under a cloud these days.
(A) experiencing cloudy weather (B) enjoying favourable luck
(C) under suspicion (D) under observation
7. It is evident from the minister’s statement that heads will roll in the Secretariat.
(A) transfers will take place (B) heads will be cut off
(C) people will die (D) dismissals will occur
8. We shouldn’t look down upon the wretched of the earth.
(A) sympathise with (B) hate intensely
(C) be indifferent to (D) regard with contempt
9. Very ambitious people do not like to rest on their laurels.
(A) to be unhappy (B) to be motivated
(C) to be impatient (D) to be complacent

Task 4: Put the word in brackets into the correct form. You will have to use prefixes
and/or suffixes.

1. He was sitting __________________ in his seat on the train. (comfort)

2. There was a __________________ light coming from the window. (green)
3. He was acting in a very __________________ way. (child)
4. This word is very difficult to spell, and even worse with it's __________________.
(pronounce)
5. He's lost his book again. I don't know where he has __________________ it this time.
(place)
6. You shouldn't have done that! It was __________________ of you. (think)
7 . He didn't pass his exam. He was __________________ for the second time. (succeed)
8. Some of the shanty towns are dreadfully __________________ . (crowd)
9. The team that he supported were able to win the__________________ . (champion)
10. The leader is ______________of doing service to people.(capable)
11. I couldn't find any __________________ in his theory. (weak)
12. He wants to be a __________________ when he grows up. (mathematics)
13. You need to be a highly trained __________________ to understand this report.
Communicative English-I 12.24 Word Formation…

(economy)
14. There were only a __________________ of people at the match. (hand)
15. She arrived late at work because she had__________________ . (sleep)
16. The road was too narrow, so they had to __________________ it. (wide)
17. He was accused of __________________ documents. (false)
18. They had to __________________ the lion before they could catch it. (tranquil)
19. He needed to __________________ the temperature. (regular)
20. I think that you should __________________ . It may not be the best thing to do.
(consider)
21. The officer was prosecuted for ______________ the funds.(using)
22. You need a _______________of motivation, organization and revision to learn
English.(combine)
23. I try not to go to the supermarket at 5pm because it's __________________. (practice)
24. I am ___________to contact him on telephone.(able)
25. His __________________ has been expected for the last half an hour. (arrive)
26. She looked at her __________________ in the mirror. (reflect)
27. The committee has ______________the chairman’s decision(approved)
28. She had no __________________ of going to see him. (intend)
29. The principal ______________the flag and hoisted it. (furled)
30. Failing her driving test was a great __________________ to her. (appoint)
31. He decided to study __________________ at university. (journal)
32. The film was __________________ good. (surprise)
33. The band ________________the crowd with its music.(rock)
34. I don't like him at all. He's so __________________ . (satisfy)
35. The company has over 500 __________________ . (employ)
36. The new manager was very efficient and __________________ . (business)
37. It really isn't mine. I think that you are __________________ . (take)
38. The rate of __________________ in Brazil has been rising steadily. (employ)
39. With the real plan, the rate of __________________ in Brazil has fallen. (inflate)
40. She looked at him __________________ , and started to cry. (happy)
41. The party was __________________ , everything went wrong. (disaster)
42. The film was so __________________ that we left before the end. (bore)

Answer Key:

1. Un+comfort+ably=Uncomfortably 2. Green + ish=greenish

3. child+ish=childish 4. Pronounce+iation= pronunciation
5. place+ed=placed 6. un+think+able=unthinkable
7. unsuccessful 8. crowd+ed=crowded
[Link]+ship=championship 10. in+capable=incapable
[Link]+ness=weakness 12. Mathematician
[Link] 14. Hand+ful=handful
15. sleep+t=Slept 16. Wide+n=widen
[Link] affixation 18. Tranquil+ise=tranquilise
[Link]+ate=regulate 20. Re+consider=reconsider
[Link]+using=misusing 22. combine+tion=combination
23. im+practical=impractical 24. un+able=unable
[Link]+al=arrival 26. reflect+tion=reflection
[Link]+approved=disapproved 28. Intend+tion=intention
[Link]+furled=unfurled [Link]+appoint+ment=disappointment
Centre for Distance Education 12.25 Acharya Nagarjuna University

[Link]+ism=journalism 32. surprise+ingly=surprisingly

[Link]+ed=rocked 34. un+satisfy+ied=unsatisfied
[Link]+ees=employees 36. business+like=businesslike
[Link]+take+n=mistaken 38 employ+ment=employment
[Link]+ion=inflation 40. happy+ily=happily
[Link]+rous=disastrous 42. bore+ing+boring

Task 5: Fill in the blanks using the words suitably given in bracket or with the clue
given :

1. I get paid on a _____________ basis. (month)

2. __________ mature: not yet completely frown or developed.
3. She ___________ (leave) the place long ago.
4. When I met him last, he __________ (learn) Spanish for ten months
5. My father is -------- bank officer. He goes to--------- bank at 9’0 clock in the
morning.
6. I saw her standing -------------- the bus stop.
7. She gave him a long ______ (stair/ stare) but didn’t answer his question.
8. We have just bought some new garden furnitures.(correct the sentence)
9. Amicable (antonym)
10. Fear of dead bodies(one word substitution)

Answer Key:

1. Monthly
2. Immature
3. Left
4. Has been learning
5. A, the
6. At
7. Stare
8. Furniture
9. Bitter
10. Necrophobia

Task 6 : Fill in the blanks using the words suitably given in bracket or with the clue
given.

1. I like your new clothes, they’re very ______________ . (FASHION)

2. _________ personal : lacking human warmth and interest.
3. If I am informed, I __________ (help) the poor.
4. John’s answers ______________ (reflect) his attitude.
5. He met ____ one eyed man in the street.
6. A bird flew ----------the room through the door.
7. The police arrived to find a ________ (scene/ seen) of horrifying destruction.
8. He carried all his luggages to the clock room.(correct the sentence)
9. Paucity (Synonym)
10. Custom of marrying only within the clan(one word substitution)
Communicative English-I 12.26 Word Formation…

Answer Key:

1. Fashionable
2. Impersonal
3. Will help
4. Reflects
5. An
6. Into
7. Scene
8. Luggage
9. Scarcity
10. Endogamy

12.9. REFERENCES

1. Hari Mohan Prasad and Uma Rani, Objective English, Tata Mc Graw Hill Publication,
New Delhi,2008.
2. Krishna Mohan and Meera Banerji, Developing Communication Skills, Macmillan
Publishers, , New Delhi,1990.
3. David Green, Contemporary English Grammar Structures & Composition, Macmillan
Publishers India Limited, 2000.
4. John Eastwood, Oxford Guide to English Grammar, Oxford University Press, 2005.
5. Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad, English Grammar for
Today, Palgrave, 2005.
6. From the Web Source: [Link]
7. From the Web Source: [Link]
8. From the Web Source: [Link]/words/common-misspellings

V. Parvati
 LESSON: 13
DENOTATIVE & CONNOTATIVE MEANING,
SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are –

 To encourage students' application of vocabulary knowledge for communication
 To explore strategies to promote the development of vocabulary building skills
 To understand and identify that words have similar and opposite meanings
 To explain what a synonym and an antonym are and use them effectively
 To use denotative and connotative meanings effectively.
 To come up with a synonym or an antonym to accurately correspond with a word.
 To apply the knowledge of synonyms and antonyms to establish the connotation of
words/phrases

STRUCTURE

13.1. Introduction
13.2. Building Vocabulary Power
13.3. Denotative & Connotative Meaning
13.4. Synonyms
13.4.1. Techniques to answer in tests on synonyms
13.5. Antonyms
13.5.1. Techniques to answer in tests on antonyms
13.6. Conclusion
13.7. Self-assessment Questions
13.8. Exercises
13.9. References

13.1. INTRODUCTION

Learning a good number of words is a challenging task. We can devise several methods in
accordance with our habits, living conditions and time availability. However, the basic factor
that remains germane in every case is repetition or recalling of words at short intervals, so
that they are imprinted deep in our memory. It is advisable to learn words from newspapers,
speeches, magazines and good books because through sentences you can have an idea of their
use and variations rather than simple denotations. Words change their nuances according to
the context. For example, we can frame two sentences from the word "expose".

1. Several leaders have been exposed for their involvement in scams.

2. If you go to a good institute you will expose yourself to a better academic atmosphere.

While in the first sentence it has a negative nuance, in the second it has a positive
connotation. Thus both memorization of words and understanding of their nuances and usage
Communicative English-I 13.2 Denotative & Conn…

are necessary to develop a rich treasure of vocabulary. In order to enrich our vocabulary, we
may adopt the following methods.

 Card system: Make cards of a manageable size. Learn 15 new words everyday from
newspapers and magazines and write them on the card along with their meanings.
Gradually, cards will pile up. Keep them on your reading table. Spare five minutes
every day anytime during the day. Shuffle them, give a look at the top card and revise
the words. Next time another card will be on the top. Thus you will go on adding and
revising. More and more words will become your possession.

 Word profile: Making a word profile may work as a powerful and enduring
technique to master words. Make a separate profile of every important word on a
separate card. Write its meaning, its synonyms, its antonyms, its other parts of speech,
its usage and its differences from other synonyms. We may use some private symbols
for our understanding.

13.2. BUILDING VOCABULARY POWER

Hari Mohan Prasad and Uma Rani suggest the following:

P- Positive:A word which should always be preferably used in a negative sense is a P

word.
Example :Alacrity, aplomb, benign.

N-Negative : A word which should always be preferably used in a negative sense is a N

word.
Example :Cahoots (in collaboration). We cannot say ‘in cahoots with and honest person’,
but we can say ‘in cahoots with a dishonest person’.

NT- Neutral : A word which can be used in both senses according to the need of the
context.
Example: Catalyst. Tyranny acts as a catalyst for terrorism. A challenge acts as a
catalyst for a brave man to show his worth.

C- Concrete: There are certain words which have a definite shape and size, a physical
entity. Such a word is a C word. Example: Kindness, hiatus, aplomb.

O- Open: There are certain words which can be used in both concrete and abstract
senses. Such a word is an O word. Example: Fetter. Fetter means a chain of iron the
prisoner is in fetters. Fetter also means some kind of bondage. India is in fetters of
poverty and unemployment. Fan. A fan in the concrete sense means a device to give air.

In the abstract sense it means to enhance. For example, it is a new fan, suppression
fans protest.

S-Specific: There are certain words which have a specific meaning. Such a word is a S
word.
Example: Ablution. It means cleaning of body or a part of body before doing a ritual.
Franchise. It means the right to vote.
Centre for Distance Education 13.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

L- Living: There are certain words which can be used only for living things. Example:
Gregarious. Man is gregarious. Such a word is a L Word.

NL-Not living :There are certain words which can used only for non-living things.
Example: Cogent. We can say that it is a cogent argument. We cannot say that Ramesh
is a cogent man.

U- Universal: There are certain words which can be used for both living and non-living.
Example :Excellent. [Link] is an excellent man. It is an excellent idea or proposal.
Both sentences are correct. Such a word is a U word. These are the symbols we created
for our understanding. We can make symbols according to our choice. The idea is to
catalogue more and more usage of words.

Creating a Profile of Words: In the above manner we can make profiles of words.
Words which are learnt in such details will remain in memory for ever or at least for a
long time.

Example : Fantastic. Profile of this Word is:

Part of speech : Adjective

Other parts : Fantastically
Other part : (Adverb)
Synonyms : Excellent, large, wonderful, strange, unlikely,
unbelievable.
Antonyms : Common, ordinary, small, familiar.
Usage : 1. Something very good and exciting.
This painting is fantastic
2. A very large amount of something. This business
has brought me a fantastic profit.
3. Strange. This bird is fantastic because its colour is
unusual.
4. Unbelievable. This story is too fantastic to believe.
Symbols
NT : It has both positive and negative nuances.
O : It can be used in both concrete and abstract senses.
U : It can be used both for human beings and non
livingthings.

This way, you can create your own profile of words by using categories of words.

13.3. DENOTATIVE & CONNOTATIVE MEANINGS:

When you look up a word in the dictionary, you will find its literal that
meansdenotative meaning. However, the emotions and associations connected to a word is
known as its connotative meaning. Depending on our experiences, certain words have a
positive, negative, or neutral connotation.
Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition."¨ For example,
if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of
its denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous reptiles,
having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate regions."
Communicative English-I 13.4 Denotative & Conn…

Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a certain
word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. The connotative meanings of a word
exist together with the denotative meanings. The connotations for the word snake could
include evil or danger. Denotation is when you mean what you say, literally. Connotation is
created when you mean something else, something that might be initially hidden.

Importance of Connotation: Understanding a word's literal (denotative) and suggestive

(connotative) meanings is important for every speaker and writer. There are certain
circumstances when you might want to deliberately use a word that carries less than a
positive connotation; however, you may want to avoid mistakenly using a word with a
negative or misleading connotation. Depending on the context, the connotation of a word
choice can change the meaning of a sentence considerably. For example, using the words
"chick" or "babe" to refer to a woman often carry a negative connotation, especially if women
are part of the audience. Those same words, however, may not cause much offence amongst a
group of men talking about Angelina Jolie.

Words are not limited to one single meaning. Most words have multiple meanings,
which are categorized as either denotative or connotative. The denotation of a word is its
explicit definition as listed in a dictionary. Let’s use the word “home” as an example. The
denotative or literal meaning of “home” is “ a place where one lives; a residence.” The
expressiveness of language, however, comes from the other type of word meaning—
connotation, or the association or set of associations that a word usually brings to mind . The
connotative meaning of “home” is a place of security, comfort, and family. When Dorothy in
The Wizard of Oz says, “There’s no place like home,” she’s not referring to its denotation,
but the emotions “home” evokes for her and most people.

The connotative and denotative meanings of words are both correct, but a word’s
connotation determines when it is used. By definition, synonyms have the same denotation or
literal meaning, but almost always have different connotations, or shades of meaning. For
example, the synonyms of “boat” include ship, yacht, dinghy, and ferry. All these words refer
to the same thing, but each brings out a different association in the reader’s mind.

Connotative and denotative vocabulary exercises test your understanding of how word
choice affects the meaning of what you say and write. A quiz may ask you to select words or
write sentences that convey positive, neutral, or negative connotations. Create your own
connotative, or shades of meaning, activity worksheet. Make three columns on a sheet of
paper with the headings “positive,” “neutral,” and “negative.” Select a paragraph from a
reading assignment and record words of differing connotation. Next, rewrite sentences from
the paragraph, substituting synonyms that have different connotations. Observe how the
intent of each sentence changes.

[Link], thin, and slender. These three words all mean being underweight. But the
connotations differ since the suggested meanings of skinny and thin are more negative
than slender, with skinny even more negative than thin. childlike and childish both mean
characteristic of a child; however, childlike suggests innocence, meekness and wide-eyed
wonder, while childish suggests immaturity, pettiness, and wilfulness. New denotes of recent
origin, but the connotation can suggest better, improved .Cheap and inexpensive both denote
not costly, but the connotation of cheap suggests something is of poor quality
whereas inexpensive does not. Often connotation is a result of the context of a word. For
Centre for Distance Education 13.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

instance, if one says that the dog barked, the connotation is neutral, but if one says that the
manager barked orders at his staff, the connotation is clearly negative.

13.4. SYNONYMS

A synonym is a word which has the same, or nearly the same meaning which another word
has. Let us look at some such words.

1. Abandon……..desert, forsake, quit, leave

2. Abate…………decrease, lessen, mitigate
3. Abbreviate……bridge, shorten, compress, curtail
4. Abhor…………detest, hate, despise, loathe, abominate
5. Abolish ………annul, cancel, nullify, remove
6. Abstain ………forbear, refrain
7. Abundant ……copious, ample, plentiful, profuse, bounteous,
8. Accomplish …fulfil, perform, do, complete, achieve, attain, effect
9. Accurate ……exact, precise, correct
10. Accuse ……..charge, impeach, indict, arraign
11. Affliction ……trouble, distress, pain, misery, sorrow, grief, calamity,
misfortune, disease
12. Agitation ……disturbance, perturbation, commotion, excitement
13. Allure ……….attract, charm, fascinate, entice, inveigle, tempt, lure
14. Amend ……..improve, reform, rectify, mend
15. Anxiety ……..worry, distress, trouble, care, concern, uneasiness
16. Appease ……pacify, assuage, mitigate, allay, calm
17. Assent ………consent, agree, acquiesce, concur, accede
18. Aversion ……dislike, hatred, repulsion, antipathy, repugnance
19. Beautiful ……lovely, pretty, handsome, comely, beauteous, graceful
20. Behaviour….conduct, demeanour, bearing, deportment
21. Benevolent ….charitable, kind, kindly, philanthropic, good-natured
22. Bold …………brave courageous, daring, forward, audacious
23. Bright ……….brilliant, radiant, lustrous, splendid, lucid, glaring, gay,
intelligent
24. Candid ……..frank, straightforward, out-spoken, open, ingenunous
25. Choose …….select, elect, pick
26. Capricious …….fickle, inconstant, unsteady, freakish, whimsical.
27. Clever …………smart, intelligent, ingenious, adroit
28. Confess …………admit, acknowledge, own
29. Confuse …………confound, perplex, muddle, bewilder, fluster
30. Conspicuous ……prominent, salient, striking, notable, noticeable,
remarkable, outstanding
31. Cordial ………warm, sincere, sweetened
32. Dangerous ……risky, perilous, hazardous, precarious
33. Decide …………determine, resolve, settle, diminish
34. Decrease ………reduce, lessen, curtail, diminish
35. Difficult …………hard, troublesome, laborious, painful, intricate
36. Deliberate ………intentional, premeditated, planned
37. Diligent …………industrious, hard-working, assiduous, studious
38. Disaster …………misfortune, distress, calamity, catastrophe, adversity
39. Discourse …………conversation, talk, lecture, composition, dissertation
Communicative English-I 13.6 Denotative & Conn…

40. Disease ……………ailment, malady, sickness, discriminate

41. Distinguish …………differentiate, separate, discriminate
42. Eager ………………keen, anxious, zealous, enthusiastic
43. Effort ………………attempt, endeavour
44. Elevate ……………raise, lift, exalt, advance, promote, ennoble
45. Emancipate ………free, liberate, release
46. Encourage ………animate, hearten, inspirit, embolden, urge, incite,
stimulate
47. Encroach …………advance, infringe, trespass, intrude
48. Endure ……………bear, tolerate, sustain, suffer, undergo, stand, withstand
49. Enemy ……………foe, opponent, adversary, antagonist, rival
50. Enormous ……….large, huge, immense, vast, prodigious
51. Entertain …………amuse, cheer, divert, delight, recreate
52. Eradicate …………eliminate, exterminate, destroy, remove
53. Esteem ……………respect, regard, honour, admire, value, appreciate
54. Eternal ……………perpetual, infinite, endless, everlasting, timeless
55. Evidence …………proof, testimony, attestation, token
56. Exaggerate ………magnify, overstate, enhance, heighten
57. Extravagant ………profuse, lavish, prodigal, spendthrift, wasteful, profligate,
excessive
58. Famous ………….celebrated, renowned, glorious, distinguished, noted,notable
59. Fear ……………….terror, dread, alarm, misgiving, fright, horror, awe, scare,
apprehension
60. Fight ……………….contest, conflict, struggle, encounter, battle, brawl, quarrel
61. Firm ………………hard, fixed, stable, steady, stiff, strong, tight, secure, fast
62. Forbid …………….prohibit, debar, ban, inhibit; interdict, disallow, proscribe
63. Formidable ……….fearful, dreadful, dangerous, difficult, impassable
64. Frugal …………….thrifty, economical, sparing
65. Furnish ……………supply, provide, yield, produce, give
66. Generous ……….liberal, lavish, benevolent, munificent, bountiful,
bounteous, magnanimous
67. Greedy …………covetous, avid, avaricious, ravenous, rapacious, gluttonous
68. Habit …………….custom, usage, practice, rule
69. Harmony ……….accord, agreement, concord, smoothness, cadence
70. Haughty ………….arrogant, proud, supercilious
71. Hinder ………….retard, obstruct, impede, thwart, hamper, restrain, bar
72. Honest ………….upright, righteous, conscientious, sincere, virtuous
73. Imitate ………….reproduce, copy, mimic, mock, counterfeit
74. Impair …………..deteriorate, damage, weaken
75. Impetuous …….violent, ardent, vehement, ferocious, frantic, furious
76. Impostor ………...humbug, swindler, counterfeiter, quack, charlatan
77. Impudent ……….impertinent, bold, saucy, arrogant, insolent, defiant,
contemptuous
78. Insolvent ………..bankrupt, defaulter, debtor
79. Invasion ………..attack, raid, intrusion, incursion, encroachment
80. Irritate …………..excite, provoke, nag, tease, annoy, worry
81. Judgement .........decision, adjudication, decree, arbitration
82. Lazy ……………idle, inactive, indolent, inert, slothful, slack, sluggish
83. Laudable …………..praiseworthy, commendatory, complimentary,
panegyrical, eulogistic
Centre for Distance Education 13.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

84. Malevolent ………malign, malignant, rancorous, virulent, hateful, evil,

malicious
85. Matrimonial ……….marital, conjugal, connubial, spousal
86. Melodious ……….harmonious, euphonious, mellifluent, mellifluous, musical,
sweet
87. Mischievous ……..appease, alleviate, soften, soothe, subdue, allay, relileve
88. Monotonous……….. boring, dull, flat, wearisome, dreary, drearisome
89. Monstrous ………….enormous, gigantic, colossal, prodigious, abnormal,
unnatural, freaky
90. Necessary ………..needful, indispensable, essential, requisite
91. Obedient …………..submissive, respectful, compliant, dutiful, obeisant,
subservient
92. Obscure ………….dark, hidden, perplexing, humble, unknown, nameless,
inglorious
93. Omit …………….exclude, miss, drop, eliminate, elide, overlook
94. Pacify …………..appease, propitiate, soothe, mollify, placate
95.
96. Polite …………….courteous, civil, genteel, gentle, urbane, respectful,
affable
97. Predict …………...forecast, foretell, presage, augur, forebode, prophesy
98. Pretend …………..feign, simulate, affect, counterfeit, profess
99. Prudent …………..discreet, sagacious, thoughtful, judicious, careful
100. Quiet ……………….calm, silent, tranquil, placid, peaceful
101. Rapid …………….quick, fast, swift, speedy, brisk
102. Rash …………….reckless, careless, hasty, indiscreet
103. Recede ………….retreat, return, retire, retrograde, regress
104. Rectify ………….correct, amend, adjust
105. Ridicule …………mockery, derision, irony
106. Rigid …………….stiff, firm, hard, inflexible, unyielding
107. Rule ……………...govern, reign, control, manage, supervise
108. Safe ………………secure, sure, guarded, protected, harmless
109. Scanty ……………meagre, scant, spare, sparing, deficient
110. Severe ……………stern, hard, rigorous, strict, strenuous, austere
111. Skilful ……………skilled, capable, proficient, expert, clever ,dexterous
112. Sluggish ………….dull, inactive, slack, slow, inert, sluggard
113. Small …………….little, tiny, puny, diminutive, slender
114. Smooth …………..level, even, flat, polished, agreeable, soft
115. Spacious ………….wide, broad, roomy, vast, extensive
116. Spread ……………stretch, scatter, diffuse, disperse
117. Straight …………..direct, right, erect, upright
118. Subdue …………overcome, suppress, conquer, subject, subjugate
119. Subsidy …………grant, aid, allowance, contribution
120. Sullen …………..glum, sulky, morose, moody, unsociable
121. Surpass ……….exceed, excel, transcend, outdo
122. Tactful ………….skilful, diplomatic, qdroit
123. Thrift …………..frugality, economy, parsimony, husbandry
124. Triumphant ……successful, victorious, exulting
125. Try …………….attempt, endeavour, strive
126. Villain ………………rascal, scoundrel, blackguard, ruffian, scamp
127. Violate ………………dishonour, profane, abuse, infringe, transgress
Communicative English-I 13.8 Denotative & Conn…

128. Virtuous ……………..good, honourable, moral, upright, chaste

129. Voracious……………ravenous, rapacious, devouring
130. Wander ……………roam, ramble, straggle, range, stroll
131. Weak ………………feeble, infirm, decrepit, frail
132. Yield ………………give, budge, surrender, succumb, submit, stoop
133. Zest ………………….piquancy, flavour, gusto, relish

13.4.1. Techniques to answer in tests on synonyms:

When the test is made through a sentence to identify the answer, try to find the
key word and then use the technique of elimination. Example: He had the nerve to suggest
that I was cheating. Options are

(a) Strength (b) capacity (c) audacity (d) courage

The key word here is cheating and the sense therefore is negative. Now strength,
capacity and courage – all these have a positive nuance. Thus they have to be eliminated.
Audacity is therefore the right answer. Suppose we have been given this sentence: He had
nerve to face the robbers all alone.

(a) Strength (b) capacity (c) audacity (d) courage

Here the key word is face and the sense is positive. Thus courage, becomes the right
choice. The same word nerve has different nuances in different contexts. Thus one should
try to locate the sense behind the italicized word.
If the test is made directly, try to use the same form of word and tense. Example: Wane-

(a) Decline (b) tired (c) dead (d) shine

Now wane is used here as a verb. Tired and dead are not in the verb form but in the
- adjective form and thus they can be eliminated. The correct answer is decline which
is also a verb here.
Another Example: Baptize:

(a) christen (b) holy (c) dehumanize (d) something that had been ostracized.

The correct answer is christen which is also a verb here.

One of the frequent tricks used by the examiner is to include an antonym in choices given
as answers for a synonym’s question.

Hence be careful whether you are looking for an antonym or a synonym

Example: Benediction

(a) rise (b) blessing (c) curse (d) prayer

The alternative (c), curse, is an antonym here. One should be alert in such a case.
Centre for Distance Education 13.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

13.5. ANTONYMS

Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning. Learn the following Antonyms.

Above below big small

Absent present bless curse
Abstract concrete bless timid
Abundance scarcity bold cowardice
Accept reject bravery dim, dull
Acquit convict bright sell
Active passive cheap dear
Advance recede cheerful gloomy
Adversity prosperity clean dirty
Affirm deny clever stupid
Affirmative negative coarse fine
Affluence poverty common rare
Aggravate alleviate compulsory optional
Agree differ conceal reveal
Alien native concise diffuse
Allow forbid concord discord
Amateur professional condemn approve
Ample scanty confident diffident
Ancestor descendant convex concave
Ancient modern dead alive
Appear vanish debit credit
Appoint dismiss debtor creditor
Arrive depart decrease increase
Ascend descend deduction induction
Assent dissent defendant plaintiff
Attract repel deficit surplus
Awake asleep democracy autocracy
Barren fertile difficult easy
Beautiful ugly diligent idle
Before behind dilute concentrated
Beginning end dry wet
Benevolent malevolent early late
Economical extravagant harmony discord
Elevation depression hate love
Encourage discourage haughty meek
Excess shortage heavy light
Exclude include hide show
Exhibit inhibit high low
Exit entrance hit miss
Expand contract homogeneous heterogeneous
Explicit implicit honour shame
Exterior interior hope despair
External internal host guest
Extravagant frugal, thrifty hot cold
Fact fiction humble proud
False true imagination reality
Communicative English-I 13.10 Denotative & Conn…

Famous obscure male female

Far near many few
Fast slow marriage celibacy
Fat lean masculine feminine
Fictitious real master servant
Float sink material spiritual
Foreign native maximum minimum
Forget remember memory oblivion
Freedom slavery mild stern, severe
Frequent rare miser spendthrift
Fresh stale monogamy polygamy
Friendly hostile monotheism polytheism
Full empty monotony variety
Gain loss multiply divide
General particular narrow broad
Gentle rough new old
Genuine spurious odd even
Giant dwarf open shut
Good bad optimistic pessimistic
Guilty innocent oral written
Hard soft order chaos
Oriental occidental simple complex
Orthodox heterodox slender stout
Pardon punish straight crooked
Peace war strange familiar
Permanent temporary strict lenient
Permit prohibit strong weak
Philanthropist misanthropist subjective objective
Pleasure pain sure doubtful
Poor rich surplus deficit
Pragmatic idealistic sympathy antipathy
Praise blame tall short
Precede succeed tense relaxed
Pride humility terrestrial celestial
Profit loss thick thin
Progress regression tight loose
Prologue epilogue top bottom
Promote demote transparent opaque
Public private trivial important
Queer normal true false
Quiet noisy upper lower
Rash careful, cautions urbane rural
Rapid slow vague definite, clear
Rejoice grieve verbal written
Religious secular vertical horizontal
Remember forget victory defeat
Resist submit virtue vice
Retail wholesale voluntary compulsory
Right wrong warm cool
Rigid flexible wealth poverty
Centre for Distance Education 13.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Rise fall wet dry

Robust feeble wild tame
Rough smooth win lose
Rude polite work rest
Sacred secular young old
Sharp blunt

13.5.1 Techniques to answer in tests on antonyms:

A. Note that the given word and the answer must belong to the same parts of speech.
Pragmatic:

(a) Angry (b) quixotic (c) colorful (d) pungent

Here the choice (c) colorful, is a noun while the word pragmatic is an adjective
and thus this alternative may be rejected. The correct answer is (b), quixotic.

B. Note that the given word and the answer must belong to the same tense form.
Perceived:

(a) Ignored (b) created (c) apprehend (d) conceive

Here the alternatives apprehend and conceive are in the present tense and thus
they can be rejected. Ignored gives an opposite meaning and it is also in the past
tense as the word perceived is. Thus it is the correct answer.

C. Make sure that the given word and the answer are in the same voice. Contraction:

(a) Reduction (b) something which is being expanded (c) increase (d) expansive

The word contraction is a noun in the active voice. The alternative reduction is
similar in meaning. (b) is in the passive voice. Expansive is an adjective. Thus all
these three alternatives are incorrect. The word increase is a noun and is in the active
voice and matches with the given word contraction. This is, therefore, the correct
answer.

D. A favourite trick of the examiner is mix a synonym in the alternatives to confuse the
[Link]:

(a) respect (b) condemn (c) inculcate (d) initiate (e) severe

The alternative (a), respect, is a synonym. One needs to be alert in such cases. The
correct answer is (b) condemn.

Examples
A. Choose the word opposite in meaning to the given word.

1. Profane
(a) beautiful (b) sacred (c) glorious (d) insane
The answer is (b), sacred.
Communicative English-I 13.12 Denotative & Conn…

The test can be given directly as shown above or at times through a sentence.

B. Choose the word opposite in meaning to the word in italics in the given sentence.

1. He led an ascetic life but his wife had her ________________________ ways.

(a) self – indulgent (b) austere (c) artificial (d) pompous

The answer is (a), self – indulgent.

2. There is something repulsive about the way he handles people.

(a) Attractive (b) smooth (c) reflective (d) distinctive

The answer is (a), attractive.

13.6. CONCLUSION

English has become an international language in the modern world. To gain fluency in
the language one should know as many words as possible along with their meanings,
synonyms and antonyms. One should also know the denotative and connotative meanings of
the words to be able to express oneself precisely and accurately. This is because many words
have different shades of meaning and seemingly similar words also have slightly different
meanings.

13.7. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What methods would you like to adopt to enrich your vocabulary power?
2. What are the different categories of words? Give examples for each.
3 How do you create a profile of words? Explain with one example.
4. Define denotative and connotative meanings?
5. What techniques do you follow to answer the question given on synonyms and antonyms?

13.8. EXERCIESES

Choose the right alternative:

1. He tried to ascertain the identity of the writer of the anonymous letter.
(A) desperate (B) defined (C) expert (D) nameless
2. His atheistic remarks shocked the religious worshippers.
(A) unbelieving (B) sincere (C) certain (D) anesthetic
3. Unlike the common cold, flu tends to start abruptly.
(A) mysteriously (B) seasonally (C) repeatedly (D) suddenly
4. Abstain from doing something harmful.
(A) keep oneself (B) abate (C) abolish (D) absolve
5. Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element on earth.
(A) irregular (B) artificial (C) popular (D) plentiful
6. People who work at night have to adapt themselves to sleeping in the daytime.
(A) adjust (B) admonish (C) advocate (D) attribute
7. His ambivalence made it difficult for us to reach a decision.
contrariness (B) absurdity (C)conflictingfeelings (D) unreasonableness
8. Doctors rushed an antidote to the boy who had been bitten by the snake.
Centre for Distance Education 13.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

(A) antibody (B) antiseptic (C) aptitude (D) antitoxin

9. The benign old lady sent us a kind and warm smile.
(A) numb (B) generous (C) ticklish (D) silly
10. The priest pronounced a benediction over the happy pair.
(A) a motto (B) an advice (C) a blessing (D) an admiration
11. Every point on the circumference of a circle is at the same distance from the center.
(A) conjecture (B) allusion (C) perimeter (D) contradiction
12. What he said was contrariwise to what we expected.
(A) ironic (B) innate (C) opposite (C) circumspect
13. We have to decelerate the engine.
(A) decrease the speed of (B) let down the wheels of (C) propel (D) aggregate
14. Sudden illness deranged our plan for a trip.
(A) delayed (B) amended (C) disturbed (D) influenced
15. When the fire broke out, the students showed good discipline.
(A) effort (B) order (C) courage (D) service
16. The expression, “He passed away,” is a euphemism for “He died.”
(A) direct expression (B) instant phrase (C) mild expression (D)representative
word
17. Your comment is actually extraneous to the topic.
(A) essential (B) illustrated (C) pertaining (D) irrelevant
18. Words that are similar in sound but different in meaning and spelling, like “bare” and
“bear” are called homonyms of each other.
(A) homologues (B) homeomorphisms (C) homophiles (D) homophones
19. The Civil War provided an impetus to Michigan’s growth.
(A) an incentive to (B) an obstacle to (C) a reason for (D) a delay in
20. Parental example is the best means of instilling social responsibility in children.
(A) ignoring (B) practising (C) moderating (D) implanting
21. She was the victim of a malicious rumor.
(A) manifest (B) harmful (C) beneficent (D) demoniac
22. Your remittance is overdue.
(A) too large (B) late (C) canceled (D) in the mail
23. He used it as a pretext for not going.
(A) reprisal (B) feat (C) clan (D) excuse
24. The attacking forces quickly subdued the country.
(A) captured (B) observed (C) surrounded (D) conquered
25. He made a superfluous remark on the subject.
(A) supreme (B) unnecessary (C) fluent (D) notorious
26. His qualifications surpass the job requirements.
(A) encompass (B) ascend (C) exceed (D) aid
27. He may come, but it is very unlikely.
(A) improbable (B) pathological (C) patient (D) umpteen
28. The speaker underscored his words by banging his fist on the table.
(A) emphasized (B) subdivided (C) analyzed (D) acclaimed
29. Her plans were upset by the change in the weather.
(A) ignored (B) recovered (C) disorganized (D) integrated
30. If you have something to say withhold your comment until I have finished speaking.
(A) hold back (B) resist (C) give up (D) spread out
Communicative English-I 13.14 Denotative & Conn…

2. Below are groups of words which are often used to describe people. What are the
connotations of the words?
1. Childlike, Youthful, Childish, Young
2. Disabled, Crippled, Handicapped, Retarded
3. Relaxed, Laid-back, Lackadaisical, Easy-going
4. Slim, Skinny, Slender, Thin
5. Cheap, Frugal, Miserly, Economical
6. Young, Immature, Juvenile, Youthful
7. Inquisitive, Interested, Curious, Convivial
8. Confident, Secure, Proud, Egotistical
9. Lovely, Knockout, Beautiful, Stunning
10. Talkative, Conversational, Chatty, Nosy

Answer Key:

1. Childish and childlike implies that someone is immature, but youthful infers that
someone is lively and energetic.
2. Crippled, handicapped, and retarded have negative connotations and are no longer used
because they are considered offensive.
3. Lackadaisical means that someone is not interested and is lacking life.
4. Skinny implies that someone is too thin.
5. Cheap, frugal, and miserly infers that someone is not generous and is very stingy with
their money.
6. Immature and juvenile suggest that someone is childish.
7. Inquisitive can mean that someone asks too many questions.
8. Proud and egotistical mean that someone thinks very highly of themselves.
9. Although knockout can be taken as a compliment, it can also be considered sexist when
referring to a woman.
10. Talkative and chatty can mean that someone talks too much; and nosy that someone asks
too many questions.

[Link] the sentences below. Can you identify the words that have a negative
connotation?

1. Bedford is an uppity neighborhood, but the rents are cheap.

2. On my flight to Los Angeles, I sat next to this babe. She was absolutely stunning.
3. Every morning my neighbor takes his mutt to the park. It always barks loudly when
leaving the building.
4. You need to be pushy when you are looking for a job.
5. Bob is quite vocal at every staff meeting. He always speaks.

Answer Key: 1. Uppity; 2. Babe; 3. Mutt; 4. Pushy; 5. Vocal

13.9. REFERENCES

1. Hari Mohan Prasad and Uma Rani.2008. Objective English, Tata Mc Graw Hill
Publication, New Delhi.
2. Krishna Mohan and Meera Benerji.1990. Developing Communication Skills,
Macmillan Publishers, , New Delhi.
Centre for Distance Education 13.15 Acharya Nagarjuna University

3. David Green.2000. Contemporary English Grammar Structures & Composition,

Macmillan Publishers India Limited.
4. John Eastwood.2005. Oxford Guide to English Grammar, Oxford University Press.
5. Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad.2005. English Grammar
for Today, Palgrave.
6. Meenakshi Raman , Sangeeta Sharma ,Technical Communication: Principles and
Practice, OUP.
7. From the Web Source: [Link]
8. From the Web Source: [Link]
[Link]#ja1hrvAhABJ0JDyG.99
9. From the Web Source: [Link]/words/common-misspellings

Dr. V. Parvati
 LESSON: 14
USING WORDS AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH,
CONTEXTUAL MEANING
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are –

 To develop appropriate learning materials to improve the vocabulary awareness.
 To use words as different parts of speech in various contexts.
 To improve reading skills by learning new words.
 To comprehend the contextual meaning of the word in the given situation.
 To understand that words have different meanings in different contexts.
 To enhance the competence and confidence of students in vocabulary building .

STRUCTURE

14.1. Introduction
14.2. Using words as Different Parts of Speech
14.2. [Link] same word used as different part of speech
14.3. Contextual Meaning
14.3.1. Understanding and Interpreting Ideas
14.4. Conclusion
14.5. Self Assessment Questions
14.6. Exercises
14.7. References

14.1. INTRODUCTION

In this lesson we focus on how the same word can occur as different parts of speech,
in a sentence. When we read we may encounter some new or difficult words but their
meaning can be grasped from the context or the situation in which they are used. If a person
reads extensively, he gets acquainted with different words and their meanings. Vocabulary
extension reduces any scope of possible errors and adds vigour and variety to the language.

14.2. USING WORDS AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of Speech :All words belong to categories called word classes (or parts of speech)
according to the part they play in a sentence. The main word classes in English are: Noun,
Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Pronoun, Preposition, Conjunction, and Exclamation.

Noun: A noun is a word that identifies:

a person (man, girl, engineer, friend)
a thing (horse, wall, flower, country)
an idea, quality, or state (anger, courage, life, luckiness)

Verb: A verb describes what a person or thing does or what happens. For example, verbs
describe:
Communicative English-I 14.2 Using Words as Diff…

an action – jump, stop, explore

an event – snow, happen
a situation – be, seem, have
a change – evolve, shrink, widen

Adjective: An adjective is a word that describes a noun, giving extra information about it.
For example: an exciting adventure, a green apple, a tidy room

Adverb: An adverb is a word that’s used to give information about a verb, adjective, or other
adverb. They can make the meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb stronger or weaker,
and often appear between the subject and its verb (She nearly lost everything.)

Pronoun: Pronouns are used in place of a noun that is already known or has already
been mentioned. This is often done in order to avoid repeating the noun. For example:

Laura left early because she was tired.

Anthony brought the avocados with him.
That is the only option left.
Something will have to change.

Personal pronouns are used in place of nouns referring to specific people or things, for
example I, me, mine, you, yours, his, her, hers, we, they, or them. They can be divided into
various different categories according to their role in a sentence, as follows:

 subjective pronouns
 objective pronouns
 possessive pronouns
 reflexive pronouns

Preposition: A preposition is a word such as after, in, to, on, and with. Prepositions are
usually used in front of nouns or pronouns and they show the relationship between the noun
or pronoun and other words in a sentence. They describe, for example, the position of
something, the time when something happens, or the way in which something is done.
Read more about prepositions.

Conjunction: A conjunction (also called a connective) is a word such

as and, because, but, for, if, or, and when. Conjunctions are used to connect phrases, clauses,
and sentences. The two main kinds are known as coordinating
Conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

Exclamation: An exclamation (also called an interjection) is a word or phrase that expresses

strong emotion, such as surprise, pleasure, or anger. Exclamations often stand on their own,
and in writing they are usually followed by an exclamation mark rather than a full stop.

Let us first try to understand the fact that a word has two aspects to it: meaning and function.
What a word means is one aspect and what it does is the other aspect. For example, in the
sentence "He will head the team", the word 'head' means 'lead'. This is the meaning of 'head'
in that sentence. The other aspect relates to its duty of denoting an action. Denoting an action
is the function of a verb. So we say 'head' in the above sentence is a verb. In other words, the
Centre for Distance Education 14.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

function of a word in a sentence is the criterion to determine the part of speech of a

word. Consider these sentences.

1. He looks better.
2. He has a better idea.

In the first sentence, 'better' is an adverb and in the second sentence it is an adjective. It is
difficult to identify the function of a word if you do not find it in a sentence because its
function is not clear. If you are asked to identify the part of speech of a word, you can make a
guess but you can be sure of the part of speech only when that particular word is used in a
sentence. So you can conclusively describe any word as belonging to any particular part of
speech only if you know its function in a sentence .There are many words which can be used
as different parts of [Link] the following sets of sentences to understand this fact
better.

1. He is a fast bowler. (Adjective)

He runs fast. (Adverb)
2. He scored many runs. (Noun)
That college runs many such programmes. (Verb)
3. The children ran round and completed the task. (Adverb)
There was a round table in the room. (Adjective)
4. He came there after me. (Preposition)
Meet me after the bell rings. ( Conjunction)
This is what the traditional grammar of English says about parts of speech.

14.2. [Link] same word used as different part of speech:

Here is a list of some of the most important words which belong to different parts of
speech. Note that it is the function or use which determines which part of speech a particular
word belongs to.

Some words belong to more than one part of speech. We can’t know what part of
speech a word is until we see what work it is doing in a sentence. A word can do different
jobs in different sentences.

Look at the following sentences. Example: Give me some water. They water the
plants daily.

In the first sentence the word WATER names something. So it is a noun. In the second
sentence the same word WATER expresses an action. It tells what they do. Here it is a verb.

Study the word FAST in the following sentences.

1. He didn’t take anything during the fast. (It names something. So it is a noun.)
2. Muslims FAST during Ramazan. (It expresses an action. It tells what Muslims do. So, it is
a verb.)
3. I missed the FAST train. (It adds to the meaning of the noun train. What kind of a train? A
fast train. So, it is an adjective.)
4. She speaks fast. (It adds to the meaning of the verb SPEAKS and tells how she speaks. So,
it is an adverb.)
Communicative English-I 14.4 Using Words as Diff…

The word FAST is a noun in 1, a verb in 2, an adjective in 3 and an adverb in 4.

Here are some more examples.

About:About can be used as an adverb or a preposition. As an adverb, about modifies the

verb. As a preposition, it connects a noun or pronoun with some other word in the sentence.
Study the examples given [Link] wandered about the town. (Here the word about
modifies the verb wandered and hence it acts as an adverb.)There was something
affable about him. (Preposition)

Above: The word above can be used as an adverb, a preposition, an adjective or a [Link]
the examples given below.
The heavens are above. (Adverb)
The moral code of conduct is above the civil code of conduct. (Preposition)
Read the sentence given above. (Adjective)
Our blessings come from above. (Noun)
We flew above the clouds. (Preposition)
Have you read the above sentence? (Adjective)
See above. (Adverb)

After: The word ‘after’ can be used as an adverb, a preposition, an adjective and a
conjunction.
He left soon after. (Adverb)
She takes after her mother. (Preposition)
I went to bed after I had dinner. (Conjunction)

All: All children need love. (Adjective)

She lives all alone in a small hut. (Adverb)
She lost all she owned. (Noun)

Any: Have you got any pens? (Adjective)

Is he any better? (Adverb)
‘Did you get any strawberries?’ ‘There wasn’t any left.’ (Pronoun)

As: We walked as fast as we could. (Adverb)

As he was late, we went without him. (Conjunction)
She likes the same color as I do. (Relative pronoun)

Back : I have a pain in the back. (Noun)

I will come back in five minutes. (Adverb)
Have you closed the back door? (Adjective)
He backed his car throguth the gate. (Verb)

Better : This watch is better than that. (Adjective)

He singes better than you. (Adverb)
You should respect your betters. (Noun)
Living conditions have bettered a great deal. (Verb)

Down : The little girl feels down. (Adverb)

He ran down the hill. (Preposition)
Centre for Distance Education 14.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

We caught the down train. (Adjective)

The government downed the opposition. (Verb)

Like : Children like sweets. (Verb)

He climbs like a cat. (Preposition)
You won’t see his like again. (Noun)
Ravindra and his brother are very like. (Adjective)

Near : He lives near the station. (Preposition)

Most of my near relatives live abroad. (Adjective)
He got nervous as the examinations neared. (Verb)
I went near enough to see over it. (Adverb)

Right : You are quite right. (Adjective)

Keep to the right. (Noun)
Go right to the end of the road. (Adverb)
They were able to right the boat. (Verb)

Round : The earth is round. (Adjective)

The boys ran round the tree. (Preposition)
Will you come round to our house this evening? (Adverb)
We won the first round of the tennis cup. (Noun)
The child’s eyes rounded with excitement. (Verb)

Up : You should stand up when the teacher comes in. (adverb)

He climbed up the hill. (Preposition)
What time is the next up train? (Adjective)
He hit the ball on the up. (noun)

14.3. CONTEXTUAL MEANING

Inferring Meanings – Lexical and Contextual: Enhancing your vocabulary can boost
your reading speed and comprehension, as you can recognize or intelligently guess and infer
the meaning of a particular word in a context. In addition, good vocabulary enables you to
detect subtle differences in sentence meaning that may hold the key to the meaning of an
entire paragraph or passage. We can categorize word knowledge into four levels:

1. I never saw it before.

2. I have heard of it but do not know what it means.
3. I recognize it in context – it has something to do with…
4. I know it.

When you encounter a word you do not know, you tend to skip it if you do not need
the word to make sense of what you are reading. But you remember something about the
word you skip such as where you saw it and the context in which it appeared. As you
encounter a word repeatedly, more and information about the word accumulates until you
have a vague notion of what it means. As you get more information, you are able to define
that word. You also connect the information about its orthography (spelling) to information
from the context, so that often on exposure, you may have a general sense of the context in
which it appeared (it has something to do with..), or a memory of the specific context (I
Communicative English-I 14.6 Using Words as Diff…

remember seeing it in….), but not a generalized sense of the meaning of the [Link]
requires you to make inferences that depend on prior knowledge. Inferring lexical (word) and
contextual meanings is the first step towards understanding a written message. You need to
perceive the words and phrases used and recognize their definitions to follow what you read.
You may find the following suggestions helpful in developing skills pertaining to recognizing
the word meaning in the contexts in which they appear in your reading assignment.

1. Remember that words in isolation convey one meaning and integrated word groups convey
another. So, word groups need to be perceived as thought units or sense groups. These units
hold together to give special meaning. For example:

This method has now been augmented by molecular biology techniques that allow
introduction into plants and animals entirely new characteristics, including genes originally
found in unrelated plants, animals, or microorganisms.

The following way of reading will not result in proper grasp of meaning of the passage shown
above:

2. Domain knowledge is necessary to give meaning to otherwise confusing sentences. You

may know the meaning of individual words. Yet it may so happen that you may not
understand the meaning of complete sentences or the text. For instance, read the following
sentence: Gigantic and luminous, the earliest star formed like a pearl inside shells of swirling
gas.

Most readers, drawing on their knowledge of the Big Bang theory, pearl formation, and
gases, can comprehend this sentence. But you may not, not just because of the words used but
because of the lack of extensive domain knowledge these words represent.

3. Do not stop reading if you are not able to recall the meaning of a certain word or phrase.
Rather, continue reading till you complete a reasonable portion of the message.

4. Analyse the word structure to guess the meaning of unknown words and identify the
context clues and signal words to understand the meaning of unknown words. Word roots,
prefixes, and suffixes, give clues to the meaning of words. Suffixes, give clues to the
meaning of unknown words. Suppose you encounter the word gregarious and you have never
heard the word before but know the meaning of the root word greg, which is crowd/flock.
You can easily guess the meaning of this word, which is liking to be with other people or
sociable, and place it in context to grasp the meaning of the sentence.

5. You can also get a clue to the meaning of a word from the context. For example, take the
following sentence: During a period of protracted illness, the sick can become infirm, losing
both the strength to work and many of the specific skills they once possessed.

In this sentence, you may be able to understand the meaning of the word protracted by
understanding the conditions mentioned as an effect of illness. If you have perceived the
meaning as an adjective for illness, you are closer to the correct meaning, which is lasting
longer than expected or longer than usual.
Centre for Distance Education 14.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

6. At times, you may infer the meaning of an unknown word through its extended definition
or stated qualities. Try to understand the meaning of the word glib from the sentence given
below:

Keeping up a steady patter to entertain his customers, the kitchen gadget salesman was a glib
speaker, never at a loss for a word.

You may guess the meaning of the word glib (smooth talk of fluent talk) by understanding
the salesman’s quality stated in the sentence.

7. If you come across an antonym of the unknown word, you will be able to guess the
meaning. For instance, the meaning of dwindling in the following sentence can easily be
guessed by its antonym increasing as given in the following sentence:

A few years ago, the University was wondering how to provide accommodation for the
increasing number of girls but now it is concerned about the dwindling number or girls.

As you may have guessed, it means becoming gradually less or smaller.

8. Remembering the words through the appropriate phrases is another excellent way of
getting the meaning though you may not know the meaning of those words in isolation.

The phrases ‘to whet your appetite’, ‘incorrigible liar’, ‘the hallowed halls of academia’,
‘consummate artist’, and the like may immediately enable you to recall the meaning of the
words. In such cases, you associate the words whet,incorrigible, hallowed, and consummate
with the associated phrases, and hence are able to understand their meanings, which are,
respectively, ‘to increase your desire for or interest in something’, ‘having bad habits which
cannot be changed or improved, respected and important’, and ‘extremely skilled or perfect’.

9. Even if you guess the meaning through some other method, ensure that you have guessed it
right. This must be done because at times the unknown word might have been used in its
special or technical meaning, or it might have had a deceptive resemblance to a known word
as shown in the examples below:

He threw the pot in an hour. The wheel turned busily, and the shape grew quickly as his
fingers worked the wet, spinning clay.

In this context, the word threw means to shape on potter’s wheels.

He fell senseless to the ground.

Here, the word senseless is not the opposite of sensible but means unconscious.

14.3.1. Understanding and Interpreting Ideas: In order to understand and interpret written
material we need to read it with a critical eye. The following guidelines may help you in
developing a critical eye:

 Identify the type of passage (specific science, general science, or non- science)
 Pay attention to the first one-third of the text that gives you an idea about the topic
and scope, author’s purpose and structure of the passage
Communicative English-I 14.8 Using Words as Diff…

 Look for author’s intention – to discuss, to argue, to compare and contrast, to explain,
or to persuade
 Find out the author’s tone – opinionated, argumentative, descriptive, factual, or even-
handed
 Identify the main and supporting ideas
 Get to the gist of each paragraph
 Do not get obsessed with too many specific details
 Attack the text; do not just read it
 Think about what you are reading
 Paraphrase the complicated parts in order to understand them
 Ask yourself questions to understand
 Jot down notes or underline important parts
 Do not let unfamiliar topics puzzle you. Once you read the text and infer meaning
from context, you may be able to understand and interpret
 Read for structure; ignore details

(a) Let us look at the following passage and try to apply the guidelines given above to
understand and interpret the ideas:

The universe is fifteen billion years old, and the geological underpinnings of the earth
were formed long before the first sea creatures slithered out of slime. But it is only in
the last 6000 years or so that men have descended into mines to chop and scratch at
the earth’s crust. Human history is, as Carl Sagan put it, the equivalent of a few
seconds in the fifteen billion year life of the planet. What alarms those that keep track
of the earth’s crust is that since 1950 human beings have managed to consume more
minerals than were mined in all previous history, a splurge of a millisecond in
geologic time that cannot be long repeated without using up the finite riches of the
earth.

Now read carefully the following table in order to check your understanding and
interpretation of this short passage.

Question Answer

What type of passage is this? General science

What is the topic and scope? Earth’s crust and consumption of minerals
What is the main idea? There is true cause for concern at the escalating
consumption of the earth’s minerals in recent
years
What does the author do? Informs and explains
(discuss/argue/explain/inform/persuade)
What are the supporting details for the Human history is equal to few seconds in main
idea?
the fifteen billion year life of earth and human
beings have consumed more minerals than ever
before.
What is the author’s tone? Factual
 Centre for Distance Education 14.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

What do the words underpinnings, Underpinnings=formation, slithered=moved,

slithered, slithered, slime, splurge mean in the
slime-dirt splurge=large amount
context of their sentences?
How can you paraphrase the last sentence? Researchers are alarmed to observe that there is
an alarming increase in the consumption of
minerals and earth will soon run out of minerals
What is the structure of the passage? The author gives specific details in order to
finally arrive at the main idea – there is true
cause for concern at the escalating consumption
of the earth’s minerals in recent years.

(b) Read the following paragraph. Using the guidelines and the solved example shown above,
complete the second column in the table given thereafter:

Vegetarians have a variety of reasons for their beliefs. Some refuse to eat meat because they
believe that killing of animals is unnecessary or barbaric. They feel that processes such as
butchering are degrading to the people who practise them and cruel to the animals
slaughtered. Others believe that meat is harmful to the human body and that a purely
vegetable diet is more nutritious. Still others choose vegetarianism because they believe that
raising animals for meat is an inefficient use of land. They say that farmland could be put to
better use growing crops for human consumption.

Question Answer
What type of passage is this?
What is the topic and scope?
What is the main idea?
What does the author do?
(discuss/argue/explain /inform/persuade)
What are the supporting details for the main
idea?
What is the author’s tone?
What do the words barbaric, slaughtered, and
raising, mean in the context of their
sentences?
How can you paraphrase the last sentence?
What is the structure of the passage?

14.4. CONCLUSION

In order to get a good command of a language, vocabulary plays an important role,

along with its grammatical rules. For extending vocabulary, extensive reading is the most
useful and effective method. By this the person grasps the word and its meaning more easily
and clearly. At the same time he learns the usage of the word from the context in which it is
used. He can improve his vocabulary by learning to infer meanings from the context.

14.5. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How is a word used as different parts of speech? Give examples.

2. How do we know the part of speech of a given word in a sentence?
Communicative English-I 14.10 Using Words as Diff…

3. What is meant by contextual meaning?

4. Do words have different meanings in different contexts? Give examples.
5. How can we infer the meaning of a new word in a passage?

14.6. EXERCISES

1. Complete the following sentences by choosing the most appropriate part from the
alternatives given below.
1. One has to exercise regularly_________________
(A) if he wants to be healthy (B) to develop muscles
(C) to maintain a healthy body (D) to lead a happy life
2. I was really worried about his results_____________
(A) as he did terrifically in the exam (B) as I was sure he would fail
(C) as he did terribly in the exam (D) although he did terribly
in the exam
3. The team could have won the match ___________________
(A) had they batted properly (B) if they had batted properly
(C) should they have batted properly (D) in case they batted properly
4. She kept her purse near the window last night ___________________
(A) and found it robbed in the morning
(B) and saw that it was stolen in the morning
(C) and found it stolen in the morning
(D) and in the morning found it stolen
5. They hung him by the neck __________________
(A) until he were dead (B) till death
(C) until he was dead (D) till he died
6. I would have been here ____________________
(A) if you would have told me you were coming
(B) if you would tell me you were coming
(C) if you had told me you were coming
(D) if you had tell me you were coming
7. If she had gone to London, _______________________
(A) she would have had a good time
(B) she should have had a good time
(C) she had a good time
(D) she would have a good time
8. The girls in the village were _______________
(A) neither friendly nor they were shy
(B) neither friendly nor shy
(C) neither friendly or shy
(D) neither friendly but also shy

2. Read the following passage and answer the questions the follow:

After inventing dynamite, Swedish – born Alfred Nobel became a very rich man.
However, he foresaw its universally destructive powers too late. Nobel preferred not to be
remembered as the inventor of dynamite. So in November 1895, in his will he left much of
his wealth for the creation of a fund to be used for awarding prizes to people who had made
worthwhile contributions to humanity. Originally, there were five awards: literature, physics,
chemistry, medicine, and peace. Economics was added in 1968, just sixty – seven years after
Centre for Distance Education 14.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

the first awards ceremony in [Link]’s original legacy of nine million dollars was
invested, and the interest on this sum is used for the awards, which varies from $30,000 to $
125,[Link] year on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death, the awards (gold
medal, illuminated diploma, and money) are presented to the winners. Sometimes, politics
plays an important role in the judges’ decisions. Americans have won numerous science
awards, but relatively few literature [Link] award was presented from 1940 to 1942 at the
beginning of World War II. Some people have won two prizes, but this is rare; others have
shared their prizes.

Questions
1. The word ‘foresaw’ in line 2 is nearest in meaning to
(a) prevailed (b) postponed (c) prevented (d) predicted
2. In line 4, ‘worthwhile’ is closest in meaning to
(a) economic (b) prestigious (c) trivial (d) valuable
3. Match the prefixes on the left with their meanings on the right:

Prefix Meaning
bi-(biweekly, bilingual) Very small
Multi – (multiple, multistoreyed) Eight
Octo – (octopus, octogenarian) Two/twice
Micro – (uniform, unicellular) One/the same
Uni – (uniform, unicellular) Many/several

4. The Nobel Prize was established in order to:

(a) Recognize worthwhile contributions to humanity
(b) Resolve political differences
(c) Honour the inventor of dynamite
(d) Spend money

5. In which area have Americans received the most awards?

(a) Literature (b) Peace (c) Economics (d) Science

6. All of the following statements are true EXCEPT

(a) Awards vary in monetary value
(b) Ceremonies are held on December 10 to commemorate Nobel’s invention
(c) Politics plays an important role in selecting the winners
(d) A few individuals have won two awards

7. In how many fields are prizes bestowed?

(a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 10

8. It is implied that Nobel’s profession was in

(a) Economics (b) Medicine (c) Literature (d) Science

9. How much money did Nobel leave for the prizes?

(a) $30,000 (b) $125,000 (c) $155,000 (d) $9,000,000
10. What is the main idea of this passage?
(a) Alfred Nobel became very rich when he invented dynamite.
(b) Alfred Nobel created awards in six categories for contributions to humanity
(c) Alfred Nobel left all of his money to science.
Communicative English-I 14.12 Using Words as Diff…

(d) Alfred Noble made a lasting contribution to humanity.

14.7. REFERENCES

1. Hari Mohan Prasad and Uma Rani.2008. Objective English, Tata Mc Graw Hill
Publication, New Delhi.

2. Krishna Mohan and Meera Benerji.1990. Developing Communication Skills,

Macmillan Publishers, , New Delhi.

3. David Green.2000. Contemporary English Grammar Structures & Composition,

Macmillan Publishers India Limited.

4. John Eastwood.2005. Oxford Guide to English Grammar, Oxford University Press.

5. Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad.2005. English Grammar

for Today, Palgrave.

6. Meenakshi Raman , Sangeeta Sharma ,Technical Communication: Principles and

Practice, OUP.

7. From the Web Source: [Link]

8. From the Web Source: [Link]

[Link]#ja1hrvAhABJ0JDyG.99

9. From the Web Source: [Link]/words/common-misspellings

Dr. V. Parvati
 LESSON: 15
BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURES AND
TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES

OBJECTIVES:

The objectives of this lesson are –

 To discuss the importance of sentence structure
 To enable the learner to understand basic sentence structures and their constituents
 To provide the learner with the understanding of non-finite verbs and their function in
sentence structures.
 To familiarize the learner with the essentials of Voice and Speech
 To facilitate the learner to transform the sentences by applying the rules of conversion.

STRUCTURE

15.1. Introduction
15.2. Basic Sentence Structures
15.3. Structures with Non - finite Verbs
15.4. Transformation of sentences
15.5. Active Voice and Passive Voice
15.6. Direct and Indirect Speech
15.7. Conclusion
15.8. Self-assessment Questions
15.9. Exercises
15.10. Reference Books

15.1. INTRODUCTION:

Syntax is one of the crucial parameters of language study. The structure of a

sentence is a combination of different constituents arranged in a sequence as per the rules of a
grammar. In the present lesson an effort is made to explain the basic structures of English
language besides other sentence patterns. Combinations of structures (transitive and
intransitive) are discussed to familiarize the learner with the pattern of construction with a
focus on the verbs used in each structure. The explanatory note with illustrations for
grammatical terms has been provided. Further the lesson endeavors to introduce
transformation of sentences which is quite essential for the learner to gain proficiency in
framing a variety of sentences with the help of explicit grammar. The underlying principles
pertaining to transformation of sentences from Active Voice to Passive voice and Direct to
Indirect Speech have been explained.

15.2 BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURES

Fundamentally, a sentence is a group of meaningful words which makes complete

sense. It is a combination of different words which are aligned and assorted structurally to
provide the intended meaning. Therefore a sentence has to be correct in two respects, i.e.,
Communicative English-I 15.2 Basic Sentence…

Syntax (structural correctness) and Semantics (appropriate meaning). The structure of the
sentence is based on certain governing principles of grammar. The rules of grammar clearly
define and prescribe the constituents and their sequence which leads to the formation of a
meaningful sentence. A Sentence, has two structures namely, the deep structure and the
surface structure. Look at the following example;

John wrote a letter

In the above sentence on the peripheral level we find a subject ( naming part of the
sentence, John ) and a predicate ( telling part of the sentence wrote a letter ), further it is
combination of Subject , Verb and an Object ( Noun or noun equivalent influenced by a verb
or a preposition) . It is in the framework of Subject + Verb + Object. The sentence has a
deep structure too. The sentence is a combination of the following constituents:

Noun Phrase ---------------- Noun ------------------ John ,Verb Phrase -------------------

Tense -------------------- Past ------------------------ Wrote ---------------------------- Article-
---------------------Indefinite ------------------a-------------------- Noun phrase -----------------
---- letter.

The terms like subject, object, complement, adjunct , etc are functional labels or
names . Terms like noun phrase , adjective phrase , preposition phrase , adverb phrase ,
verb phrase etc are formal labels or names.

(Source: An Interactive Grammar of Modern English, Shivendra K. Verma and Hemalatha

Nagarajan, Frank Bros & Co Publishers, New Delhi, 1999)
Note-: Adjunct is the omissible part of the sentence.

In this particular lesson we examine the following sentence structures :

1. Subject + Verb ( Intransitive)
2. SVCs( Linking) ---Subject + Verb + Subject Complement
3. SVO-( Mono Transitive) -- Subject + Verb + Object
4. SVOIOd— ( DI transititive )Subject + Verb + Object ( direct) Oi + Object ( direct)
d

5. Subject + Verb + Object + Preposition + Prepositional Object

6. SVOCo ( Complex Transitive) –--- Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (
Noun. Adjective )
7. SVTI --Subject + Verb + to Infinitive
8. SVOTI- Subject + Verb + Object + To Infinitive
9. SVOPI----Subject + Verb + Object + Plain Infinitive
10. Subject + Verb + Gerund
11. SVOPrP ---Subject + Verb + Object+ Present Participle
12. SVOPaP----- Subject + Verb + Object + Past Participle.

Note: 1. Transitive verb is a verb which has an object or which takes an object ,
Intransitive verb has no [Link] verb is a main verb which needs an
object to complete its meaning. A verb that doesn’t require any object,
complement or other element to complete its meaning is an intransitive verb.
A verb that takes two objects is called Di transitive verb.
E.g. give, show.
Centre for Distance Education 15.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

2. An element of a clause which typically follows a the verb be and which

consists either of an adjective phrase or a noun phrase.
e.g, His ideas are weird.( Adjective) , He is the Principal Secretary( Noun)

Complement completes the meaning of the sentence. ( Source: English

Grammar, A Glossary of Terms: Geoffrey Leech)

The following structures are considered basic sentence types :

Subject + Verb
Subject + Verb + Complement
Subject+ Verb + Object,
Subject+ Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object,
Subject + Verb + Object+ Object Complement

Now let us take a look at the structures:

Subject Verb
Birds fly
Lions soar
John is playing
The Sun sets
Kavitha was singing

In the above structure the subject is followed by an intransitive verb which expresses
complete sense without the help of any other words.

Subject Verb Subject Complement

Here is the file
My brother joined the army
Sandhya grew furious
The Students remained calm
Aravind seems busy
That car is mine

In the above structure notice the subject complement where in we have noun, pronoun
adjective.

Subject Verb Subject Complement

Sarah plays Tennis
The Chairman reprimanded the employees
Mr. Samson purchased a car
The Government have issued orders
He deserves a treat

In the above structure the verbs take an object and hence they are transitive verbs.
This is in contrast to most of the Indian Languages which follow the Subject + Object + Verb
Pattern.
Communicative English-I 15.4 Basic Sentence…

Subject Verb Indirect Direct Object

Object
Suresh gifted me a pen
The lawyer gave us advice
You must tell me the truth
The President awarded Arjun a medal
My mother wished Jahnavi all success

In the above structure direct object is noun and indirect object is either noun or
pronoun. The answer to the question to whom or for whom is indirect object and the answer
to the question what is direct object.

Subject + Verb Object Preposition Prepositional

Object
The tribunal issued a memo to the government
I bought a camera for my niece
The nurse prepared a lotion for the patient
Srikanth sold his car to an NRI

Subject Verb Object Object Complement

(N)
We elected Ramesh the Secretary of the
club
The Committee choose the boy the Chairman
They named the boy Karthik
We made him spokesman
You may call me Jr. John

In the above structure the complement of the object is noun . Sometimes it could be a
noun equivalent. E.g You may call it what you will . The preposition as or for is sometimes
used with Verbs elect and choose but not with the others.

e.g: I wonder whom they will elect as Treasurer. ( Source: David Green)

Subject Verb Object Object Complement

(Adjective)
They painted the house green
We found it strange
The Board considered the issue serious
We thought the strategy ridiculous
The brawl drove him crazy

In the above structure, the complement of the object is an adjective. Sometimes to be

is used before the complement.
Centre for Distance Education 15.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

15.3 STRUCTURES WITH NON- FINITE VERBS

Subject Verb To+Infnitive

Sarath wants to contest for the post
Bharat intends to meet his cousin
Vishal tried to sabotage the plan
Naveed proposes to launch a new office
Deepa forgot to sign the document

In the above structure the object of the verb is to + Infinitive i.e., to Infinitive which
is a non-finite verb , not limited by number and person. Irrespective of the number and
subject, the verb remains unchanged.

Subject Verb Object To+ Infinitive

The professor advised me to join law
My sister asked me to stay
The panel persuaded him to withdraw
My nephew taught me To swim
The judge ordered the police to arrest

In the above structure the verb is followed by indirect object which is followed by to+
infinitive

Subject Verb Object Present participle

We saw him hitting the boy
Kamala watched the maid stealing the watch
He observed them distributing
chocolates
I heard him yelling to the pitch of
his voice
Did you see any one moving?
We noticed her gathering papers

In the above structure the object is followed by present participle which indicates an
action in progress and not completed.

Subject Verb Object Past Participle

I heard my number called
Kishen found the place vacated
I want this papers mailed
You should get him transferred
He had his hair cut

In the above structure the object is followed by past participle which denotes action
completed.

Subject Verb Object Plain Infinitive

Himanshu watched the boy light the fire
We Made him sign the papers
Communicative English-I 15.6 Basic Sentence…

They Heard the boy sing a song

Did you notice the child come in?
I felt someone touch my hand

In the above structure plain infinitive indicates completed action.

Subject Verb Gerund

Bindu likes painting
Karthik loves singing
Charan gave up smoking
Vishal prefers swimming to horse riding
Nisha hates having lunch so late

In the above structure the verb is followed by gerund , v+Ing form used as noun.

Note: Refer also to your grammar lessons in P.I – Structure of Modern English,
II Semester.

15.4 TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES

It is significant to note that sentences can be transformed without changing their

meaning and by adhering to grammatical rules. The activity of conversion/ transformation of
sentences from one form to another provides the learner good practice and enables the
learner to use the language grammatically and more effectively. In the present lesson we will
take a look at two modes of Transformation of sentences , from Active Voice to Passive
Voice, from Direct Speech to Indirect/Reported Speech.

15.5. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Let us begin with Active Voice and Passive Voice . Geoffery Leech defines Voice as
the grammatical category which involves the choice between passive and active forms of the
verb phrase. The definition sounds a bit complicated without the awareness of the terms
active and passive. Look at the following sentences.

1. Ramesh wrote a novel.

2. A novel was written by Ramesh.

Both the sentences mean the same. In the first sentence the subject Ramesh is the doer
of the action and is active , where as in the second sentence the subject Ramesh ( of the first
sentence) is passive as it does nothing.

A sentence is said to be in the active voice if the subject is active and does something.
A sentence is said to be in the passive voice because its subject does nothing.

David Green suggests that “the Passive Voice has an impersonal effect and is hence
commonly used in scientific writing and objective reporting. When the subject who is the
doer of the action is to be made prominent , the active voice should be preferred”.
Centre for Distance Education 15.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Notice the changes in the second sentence 1. The subject is replaced by the object.
[Link] past participle of the verb is used which is preceded by be form of past tense 3. The
preposition ‘by’ is used to indicate the agent.4. Object is replaced by the subject .

Precisely the following is the normal structure of Passive Voice.

Object + be form+ past participle + by + Subject
‘Be’ form depends on the tense of the verb. The following is the list of be-forms:

Present Tense- is/am/are

Continuous- being
Past Tense - was/were
Perfect Tense- been ( has/have)
Future Tense – be ( will/shall)

Conversion Chart
Tense Active Voice Passive Voice
Simple Present gives is given
Present Continuous is giving is being given
Present Perfect has given has been given
Simple Past gave was given
Past Continuous was giving was being given
Past perfect had given had been given
Simple future will give will be given
Present infinitive to give to be given
Perfect infinitive to have given to have been given
Gerund , Present Participle giving being given
Perfect Participle having given having been given
Conditional would give would be given
All modals [Link] might might be given

(Source: Applied Grammar and Composition by M.L. Bhatia , M.L. Pubs., Agra)

Examine the following sentences.

1. Active Voice: Krishna writes a letter
Passive Voice: A letter is written by Krishna .( The verb is in the simple present
tense).

2. Active Voice: Kavitha is singing a song

Passive Voice: A song is being sung by Kavitha. ( the verb is the present continuous
tense)

3. Active Voice: The watchman was ringing the bell.

Passive Voice: The bell was being rung by the watchman.

4. Active Voice: The Director has received the orders.

Passive Voice: The orders have been received by the director.( the verb is in the
perfect tense)

5. Active Voice: The Board will transfer the accountant.

Communicative English-I 15.8 Basic Sentence…

Passive Voice: The accountant will be transferred by the board. ( Verb is in the simple
future tense)

6. Active Voice: Someone has stolen my purse.

Passive Voice: My purse has been stolen. by someone is implied and can be omitted.)

7. Active Voice: Open the door. ( Imperative sentence with the object, in imperative
sentences the subject is implied)
Passive Voice: Let the door be opened.

8. Active Voice: People believe that all snakes are venomous.

Passive Voice: It is believed that all snakes are poisonous. (It is hoped that, It is said ,
it is generally agreed ,are some of the common passive sentence openings).

9. Active Voice: Go away (imperative sentence without an object)

Passive Voice: You are ordered to go away.

10. Active Voice: Who wrote this poem?

Passive Voice: By whom was this poem written?. ( Asking questions in passive voice
should be avoided as they sound awkward)

15.6. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Having discussed the transformation of sentences from Active voice to Passive voice,
let us proceed to Speech , Direct and Reported , another pattern, wherein the learner gets
enough practice and awareness of grammatical rules. Examine the following sentences:

Ravi said,’’ I met my sister yesterday’.’

Ravi said that he had met his sister the previous day .

Both the sentences mean the same, in the first sentence the exact words of the subject
are quoted whereas in the second sentence what is said by the subject is reported without
quoting his exact words.

A sentence is said to be in the direct speech if we quote the exact words of the person. A
sentence is said to be in the indirect /reported speech when we report what the subject
said without quoting his/her exact words.

In reported speech (of the given example) notice the following changes:
1. The comma after the verb said and the punctuation marks are removed.
2. The conjunction that is introduced between the main clause and the subordinate clause.
3. The pronoun I ( first person ) is changed to he.
4. The verb which is in simple past tense is changed past perfect, as per the rule of
sequence of the tenses.

Note-: Main clause or principal clause states the main fact. Subordinate clause is a part of the
other clause and it depends on the main clause.

Look at the corresponding changes in respect of verbs, tense, adverbs of times and other
expressions.
Centre for Distance Education 15.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

[Link]
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
is/am was
are were
has/have had
can could
may might
shall should
will would

[Link]:
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Simple Present Simple Past
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

Reporting Verbs:
Direct Speech Reported Speech
Said to told
Say to tell
Says to tells
will say will say
says say

Other Expressions:
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
today that day
tomorrow the next day/the following day
yesterday the previous day
last night the previous night
hither thither
here there
these those
now then
ago before
thus so
hence thence
this that

Notice the following examples :

1. Direct: Vamsi said, ‘I like Tennis’.
Indirect Speech: Vamsi said that he liked Tennis. ( Simple Present is changed to
Simple Past)
2. Direct Speech: Manisha said to me ,’ I am buying a new flat’
Reported Speech: Manisha told me that she was buying a new flat. .( present
continuous is changed to past continuous)
3. Direct Speech: Srikar said,’ I have read this book twice’
Communicative English-I 15.10 Basic Sentence…

Reported Speech: Srikar said that he had read that book twice.( Present Perfect is
changed to Past Perfect)
4. Direct Speech: Kishore said,’ I have been waiting here for two hours’.
Reported Speech: Kishore said that he had been waiting there for two hours. (Present
Perfect Continuous is changed to Past Perfect Continuous)
5. Direct Speech: Soma said to me,’ I was singing this song’.
Reported Speech: Soma said that he had been singing that song.( Past continuous is
changed to past perfect continuous)
6. Direct Speech: I said’ I am suffering from fever’.
Reported Speech: I said that I was suffering from fever.
7. Direct Speech:He said to me, ‘ You can pay my fee’.
Reported Speech: He told me that I could pay his fee.
8. Direct Speech :He said,’ Sushma, I am going to the clinic now.’
Reported Speech: He told sushma that he was going to the clinic then.
9. Direct Speech: He will say,’ I am busy’.
Reported Speech: He will say that he is busy.
10. Direct Speech: The teacher said,’The earth revolves round the sun’.
Reported Speech: The teacher said that the earth revolves round the sun. (universal
and general truths remain unchanged) .

Reporting Interrogative Sentences:

Interrogative sentences pose a question and seek information. At the end of the sentenced
question mark (?)is placed. Notice how they are reported:

1. Direct Speech: Ramya said to me’ What are you doing now’?
Reported Speech: Ramya asked me what I was doing then.
Here the reporting verb is asked and notice in the direct speech the verb comes
before the subject whereas in reported/indirect speech it comes after the subject.
Depending on the nature of the question , the reporting verbs such as asked, enquired
or questioned. Take a note, that is not used after the reporting verb.

2. We have another type of questions which seek confirmation, while reporting such
questions the reporting verb is followed by if/ whether.

E.g Direct Speech: He said to me,’ Will you lend me your book’.
Reported Speech: He asked me if or whether I would lend my book.

Reporting Imperative Sentences.

An imperative sentence expresses a command/ request/ advice. While reporting it to+

infinitive ( To + VERB) is used.

E.g
1. Direct Speech: The judge said to the CBI ,’ Seize the documents.’
Reported Speech: The judge ordered the CBI to seize the documents.
2. Direct Speech: Sarath said to me,’ Please help the old man’.
Reported Speech: Sarath requested me to help the old man.
Centre for Distance Education 15.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Reporting Exclamatory Sentences

An exclamatory sentence expresses a sudden strong feeling . At the end of the

sentence we find exclamation mark(!). While reporting exclamatory sentences ,
reporting verbs such as exclaimed, wondered, or cried out or are used .

E.g
[Link] Speech : Naren said, ’What a beautiful painting it is!’
Reported Speech: Naren exclaimed that it was a beautiful painting. ( Notice the
introduction of that)

2. Direct Speech: Hima said’, Alas! the poor woman succumbed to wounds.’
Reported Speech: Hima exclaimed with sorrow that the poor woman succumbed to
wounds.

Reporting Statements followed by reply

Example:
Direct Speech: Naveen said to me, ‘ Will you post this letter today?’,’Yes’, I said.
Reported Speech: Naveen asked me if I would post that letter that day and I replied in the
affirmative.

15.7. CONCLUSION

The lesson discussed the fundamental aspects of sentence and its structure. Emphasis
is laid on the rules of sentence structure which provide awareness about the sequence and
assortment of various constituents which makes the sentence intelligible. Further the lesson
focused on transformation of sentences and dealt with rules of conversion of sentences from
Active Voice to Passive Voice and from Direct to Indirect Speech. Self- assessment questions
have also been provided.

15.8. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean by the structure of the sentence? Illustrate

2. Define the terms Deep Structure and Surface Structure.
3. What is meant by voice?
4. What grammatical changes are involved in changing sentences from Active to
Passive Voice?
5. Distinguish between Direct and Reported Speech.
6. How are Interrogative sentences rendered in Reported Speech?
7. Distinguish Imperative sentences from Exclamatory sentences.

15.9. EXERCISES

I. Frame three meaningful sentences based on the following structures:

Subject + Verb, Subject+ Verb + Object, Subject+ Verb + Indirect Object + Direct
Object, Subject + Verb + Object Complement ( Noun), Subject + Verb + Object
+ Object Complement
Communicative English-I 15.12 Basic Sentence…

II. Change the Verbs in the following sentences into the passive form.

1. Akhil painted the car.

2. Mr. Sarath opposed the proposal in the meeting.
3. Give the order.
4. All candidate must write the hallticket number legibly.
5. My mother sends a gift.
6. Kishen has endorsed the plan.
7. They will contact you over phone.
8. Arun was teaching Geography.
9. Ms. Tanvir is to clarify our doubts in grammar.
10. The committee will have taken a decision.

III. Change the Verbs in the following sentences into the passive form.

1. I was not informed about it.

2. A message was being sent by the corporate office.
3. Let the issue be closed.
4. You are requested to help the needy.
5. The business is looked after
6. A beautiful gift was given to me.
7. He was refused audience.
8. The old woman is being cheated by the shopkeeper.
9. Many accidents are caused by drunken driving.
10. By whom were you taught Physics?

IV Turn the following into Indirect Speech:

1. The Manager said,’ We are working today’.

2. Kamal said’ , I plan to visit Finland next month’.
3. Radesh said to me,’ We are meeting tonight at the church’.
4. Vimal said’, I have signed these papers’.
5. Catherine said to me,’ I have been living there since 2001’.
6. Gopi said,’ I saw this film last week’.
7. Jai said’, I was painting this picture for my sister ‘.
8. The owner said, ‘ I shall pay your arrears next week’.
9. Tanvi said,’ Mother, I am ill’.
10. The Collector said to the police , ‘ Clear the traffic’.
11. My cousin said’ , What is the score now’?
12. Pavan said to me, ‘Will I join you for lunch’ ? ‘Yes ‘ I said.
13. Bhanu said,’ What a clean city’!
14. Murthy said to me’ Please join us for dinner tonight’.
15. Naresh said,’ How foolish you are’!

15.10. REFERENCE BOOKS :

1. Leech, Geoffery, A Glossary of Terms , Viva Pubishers, 2007

2. Green, David , Contemporary English Grammar , Structures and Composition ,
Macmillan Publishers , Latest Edition
Centre for Distance Education 15.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

3. Wren P.C., Martin. H , High School English Grammar and Composition , S. Chand
& Company, New Delhi, Latest Edition
4. Bhatia, M.L, Applied Grammar and Composition , M.L. Pubs , Agra, Fifth Edition
5. Shivendra K. Verma and Hemalatha Nagarajan, An Interactive Grammar of Modern
English Frank Bros & Co Publishers, New Delhi, 1999
6. Thompson and Martinet, A Practical English Grammar , Oxford University Press ,
New Delhi, 1986.
7. Eastwood, John , Oxford Practice Grammar , Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
2009.
8. Krishna Swamy, N , Modern English , Macmillan Publishers, 2009.
9. Tickoo M.L , Subramanian A.E, A Functional Grammar with Usage and
Composition , Frank Brothers, Noida 2010
10. Murphy Raymond , Essential English Grammar , Cambridge University Press,
London , Latest Edition

R.V. Jayanth Kasyap

 LESSON-16
ARTICLES
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are to enable the students to

 understand the different types of Articles
 understand how and where to use Articles
 make them aware of different rules and exemptions in usage of Articles
 know where Articles are omitted

STRUCTURE

16.1. Introduction
16.2. Articles
16.2.1. Definite Article: THE
16.2.2. Indefinite Article: A/An
16.2.3. No article or Zero article
16.2.4. Special rules and exceptions
16.3. Conclusion
16.4. Self-Assessment Questions
16.5. Exercises
16.6. References

16.1. INTRODUCTION

“Article” as a general term has several dictionary meanings: ‘a piece of writing about
a particular subject’, ‘a separate item in a contract or deed’, ‘a particular item or a separate
thing in a set of things’, but here in grammar, articles have an important referential role.

The ‘Articles’ in English grammar are: a or an and the

Articles are small words that are often used at the beginning of noun phrases. There
are two: the (the ‘definite article’) and a/an (the ‘indefinite article’). They belong to a group
of words called ‘determiners’.

Articles show whether we are talking about the things that are known both to the
speaker/writer and to the listener/reader (‘definite’) or that are not known to them both
(‘indefinite’). The correct use of the articles is one of the most difficult points in English
Grammar.

16.2. ARTICLES

The words ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’ are called articles. They always come before a
noun/noun phrase and help to identify the person, place, animal or thing referred to by them.
The articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ are called indefinite articles, and they come before singular
Communicative English-I 16.2 Articles

countable nouns. Indefinite articles identify the person or thing they represent in a general
way.

16.2.1. Definite Article: THE

Definite means to be clear, exact or obvious about something. It is called definite

because it is used in relation to a particular thing or person. “The” is the definite article in
English, which is used to refer to particular nouns, the identities of which are known. The
definite article indicates that the noun is specific. The speaker talks about a particular thing.
For example:

The cat sat on the couch.

The dog attacked me and ran away.

Notice how the reference is not left indefinite in both the sentences. It is clear that a
particular cat sat on the couch in the first sentence and a specific dog that attacked the
speaker is being spoken about in the second example.

 The usually means something like ‘you know which I mean’. Article ‘The’ is
commonly used before a noun. (singular, plural or uncountable) when the listener/
reader knows which person or the thing is referred to.

Example:
I am going to the post office. (the usual one which the listener knows)
Is there a post office near here? (any post office)

Here the listener or the reader may know which one is referred to because

a. We have mentioned it/them before

Example:
She has got two children. The boy is fourteen and the girl is eight.

b. We say which one(s) we mean.

Example:
Who are the girls over there with John?

c. It is clear from the situation which one(s) we mean

Example:
Could you close the door? (only one door is open)

 The (only ones around)

The listener may know which one we mean because there is no choice – there is only
one. (e.g. the sun, the moon, the earth, the universe, the future) or there is only one in
our part of the world. (e.g. the government).

Example:
I haven’t seen the sun for days.
Do you trust the government?

 Superlatives
Centre for Distance Education 16.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

The is normally used with superlatives because there is normally only one best,
biggest etc. and hence it is very clear which one we are talking about. For the same
reason, we usually use the with first, next, last, same and only.

Example:
She is the wisest in the class.
We went to the same school.

 The meaning of ‘the well known’

After a name, an identifying expression with the is often used to make it clear that the
person referred to is ‘the well-known one’.

Example:
She married Leonard, the actor.
I would like you to meet, Cathy Parker, the novelist.

 Possessives and demonstratives

We do not use the with possessives or demonstratives.

Example:
This is my uncle. (not…the my uncle)
Is that Rita’s car? (not…the Rita’s car)

 Proper nouns
We do not usually use the with proper nouns.

Example:
Mary lives in Switzerland. (not.. The Mary)

 Things in general
We usually use no article to talk about things in general—the does not mean all.

Example:
Books are expensive. (not..The books are expensive)
Life is hard. (not..The life is hard)

 Pronunciation
The is normally pronounced / thi / before a vowel sound and / the / before a consonant
sound.

Example:
the ice
the snow
the hour
the university

Article: the (difficult cases)

It is sometimes difficult to know whether or not to use the. We use no article to generalize
with uncountable and plural words; but we use the to show that the listener/reader knows
Communicative English-I 16.4 Articles

which people or things we are talking about. Sometimes both these meanings come together,
and it is difficult to know which form is correct. Often the same idea can be expressed both
with the and with no article.

 Groups
When we generalize about members of a group, we usually use no article. But if we
talk about the group as a whole- as if it was a well-known unit – we are likely to use
the. This often happens when we talk about nationalities.

Example:
1. Nurses mostly work very hard.
The nurses have never gone on strike.
2. Stars vary greatly in size.
The stars are really bright tonight.
3. New Zealanders don’t like to be mistaken for Australians.
The Australians suffered heavy losses in the First World War.

 Some expressions are ‘half-general’ – in the middle between general and particular. In
these ‘half-general’ expressions, we usually use no article. However, the is often used
when the noun is followed by a limiting, defining phrase, especially one with of.

Example:
1990s music ----- the music of 1990s
African butterflies---- the butterflies of Africa

 the is used with a number of rather general expressions referring to our physical
environment—the world around us and its climate. In this context, the suggests that
everybody is familiar with what we are talking about.

the town, the country, the mountains, the sea, the seaside, the wind, the rain, the
weather, the sunshine, the night.

Example:
My wife likes the seaside, but I prefer the mountains.
I love listening to the wind.

 We use the when we talk about some kinds of things that are part of everybody’s
lives.

Example:
I have some of my best ideas when I am on the bus.
I’ve stopped reading the newspaper because it’s too depressing.

 We sometimes use the even when it is not exactly clear which of several particular
persons or things we are talking about. This can happen when there are several similar
possibilities, and it is necessary to be more definite.

Example:
Lying by the side of the road we saw the wheel of a car.
(not…a wheel of a car)
Centre for Distance Education 16.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Deepak is the son of a rich banker.

(who may have more than one son)

16.2.2. Indefinite Article: A/An

Indefinite means something which is not clear, obvious or exact. They are called
indefinite because the identity of the thing or person being spoken about is left unclear or
indefinite. The indefinite article indicates that the noun is not someone or something in
particular. The speaker talks about any one of that type of things. The indefinite article in
English is "a" or "an." There is actually only one indefinite article: a is used before
consonants and an is used before vowels.

For example:
Do you have a pencil?
I want to have an apple.

Notice how the speaker is not asking for a particular pencil or apple, but any pencil or apple
in the above sentences.

 This article is normally used only with singular countable nouns.

Example:
a secretary an office

 a/an does not add much to the meaning of a noun—it is like a weak form of ‘one’. It
has several common uses.

a. One person or thing

We can use a/an when we talk about one person or thing.

Example:
There’s a police car outside.
My brother is married to a doctor.
Any lives in an old house.

b. Any one member of a class

We can use a/an when we talk about any one member of a class.

Example:
A doctor must be kind to people. (any doctor)
I would like to live in an old house. (any old house)

c. Classifying and defining.

We can use a/an when we classify or define people and things—when we say
what they are, what job they do. Or what they are used for.

Example:
She is an engineer.
A glider is a plane with no engine.

I’m looking forward to being a grandmother.

Communicative English-I 16.6 Articles

d. Descriptions
A/an is common before nouns that are used in descriptions.

Example:
That was a lovely evening.
He’s got a friendly face.
It’s an extremely hot day.
She’s a nice person.

 We do not normally leave out a/an in negative expressions, after prepositions or after
fractions.

Example:
Lend me your pen. I haven’t got a pen. (not… I haven’t got pen)
You must not go out without a coat. (not...without coat)
three-quarters of a pound. (not…three quarters of pound)

 A/an cannot normally be used with an adjective alone (without a noun).

Example:
It’s a good car.
It’s good. (not… It’s a good)

 a/an cannot be used together with a possessive. Instead, we can use the structure a…of
mine/yours, etc.

Example:
He’s a friend of mine. (not..He’s a my friend.)

 We do not normally pronounce the sound /ei / before a vowel. So before a vowel, the
article a changes to an.(/æn/ or /ǝn/)

Example:
a rabbit a lemon an elephant an orange

 The choice between a and an depends on pronunciation, not spelling. We use an

before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant.

Example:
an hour, an M.P

 We use a before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel.

Example:
a university, a one-pound coin

 Some people say an, not a, before words beginning with h if the first syllable is
unstressed.

Example:
Centre for Distance Education 16.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

An hotel (a hotel is more common)

An historic occasion (a historic occasion is more common)

 A is sometimes pronounced /ei/ before a hesitation, when we want to emphasize the

following word, or when we want to make a contrast with the.

Example:
I think I’ll have a // -- chocolate ice cream.
It’s a // reason—it’s not the only reason.

16.2.3. Articles: no article

 Plural and uncountable nouns cannot normally be used with a/an . instead, we most
often use no article.

Example:
There were cats in every room.
Doctors generally work long hours.
Her coat is made of pure wool.

 Some nouns that are countable in some other languages are uncountable in English.

Example:
I need information and advice. (not…an information and an advice)
You’ve made very good progress. (not…a very good progress)

 We also never use a/an with weather or English.

Example:
We‘re having terrible weather. (not…a terrible weather)
She speaks very good English. (not…a very good English)

 Uncountable and plural nouns can often be used either with some/any or with no
article. There is not always a great difference of meaning.

Example:
We need (some) Cheese.
I didn’t buy any eggs.
Some is used especially in affirmative sentences: any is more common in questions
and negatives.

 We prefer some/any when we are thinking about limited but rather indefinite numbers
or quantities and no article when we are thinking about unlimited numbers or
quantities, or not thinking about numbers/quantities at all.

Example:
1. We have planted some roses in the garden. ( a limited number)
I like roses. ( no idea of number)
2. I’ve just bought some books on computing. ( a limited number)
There were books on the desk. ( a large number)
Communicative English-I 16.8 Articles

3. Is there any water in the fridge?

Is there water on the moon?

16.2.4. Articles: Special rules and exceptions

 Common expressions without articles

In some common fixed expressions to do with place, time and movement normally
countable nouns are treated as uncountable, without articles.

Example:
To/at/in/from school/university/college
To/in/from town
By day at night on foot

 With place nouns, expressions, with or without articles may have different meanings.

Example:
1. I met her at college. (when we were students)
I’ll meet you at the college. (the college is just a meeting place)
2. Jane’s in hospital. (as a patient)
I left my coat in the hospital when I was visiting Jane.

 Double expressions
Articles are often dropped in double expressions, particularly with prepositions.

Example:
With knife and fork on land and sea day after day
With hat and coat arm in arm husband and wife
From top to bottom inch by inch

 Possessives
Nouns lose their articles after possessives.

Example:
The coat that belongs to John = John’s coat (not..the John’s coat)
The economic problems of America = America’s economic problems.
(not..the America’s economic problems)

 But the possessive noun itself may have an article.

Example:
The wife of the boss = the boss’s wife

 Noun modifiers
When a noun modifies another noun, the first noun’s article is dropped.
Lessons in how to play the guitar = guitar lessons
A spot on the sun = a sunspot

 Both and all

We leave out the after both.
Centre for Distance Education 16.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Example:
Both (the) children are good at Mathematics.

 We also leave out the between all and a number.

Example:
All (the) three brothers were arrested.

 We usually leave out the after all in all day, all night, all week, all year, all winter and
all summer.

Example:
He’s been away all week.
I haven’t seen her all day.

 We usually leave out a/an after kind of, sort of, type of and similar expressions.

Example:
What kind of person is she?
Have you got a cheaper sort of radio?
They have developed a new variety of sheep.

 The is dropped after the amount/ number of

Example:
I was surprised at the amount of money collected.
The number of unemployed is rising steadily.

 Unlike other singular countable nouns, man and woman can be used in a general
sense without articles.

Example:
Man and woman were created equal.

 But we more often use a woman and a man, or men and women.

Example:
A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.
Men and women have similar abilities and needs.

 We drop the when we mean ‘the day/month before or after this one’.

Example:
Where were you last Saturday?
I was away in April.
See you on Thursday.

 When we talk about our use of these forms of entertainment, we generally say the
radio, the cinema, the theatre but television or TV.
Communicative English-I 16.10 Articles

Example:
I always listen to the radio while I’m driving.

 The is often dropped in all four cases when we talk about these institutions as art
forms or professions.
Example:
Cinema is different from theatre in several ways.
He’s worked in radio and television all his life.

 The is not used in titles like Queen Elizabeth, President Lincoln.

Example:
Queen Elizabeth had dinner with President Kennedy.
The Queen had dinner with the President.

 The is not usually used in the complement of a sentence, when we say that somebody
has or gains a unique position.

Example:
1. They appointed him Head Librarian.
Where is the Librarian?
2. He was elected President in 2010.
I want to see the President.

 We use a/an with singular countable nouns in exclamations after what.

Example:
What a lovely dress!

 Also note that a/an cannot be used in exclamations with uncountable nouns.

Example:
What nonsense! (not..what a nonsense!)
What luck! (not..what a luck!)

 The names of illness and pains are usually uncountable, with no article.

Example:
Have you had appendicitis?
I’ve got toothache again.

 a/an is used in a few cases such as a cold, a head ache.

Example:
I’ve got a horrible cold.
Have you got a headache?

 The can be used informally with a few common illnesses.

Centre for Distance Education 16.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Example:
I think I’ve got (the) flu.
She’s never had (the) measles.

 When talking about parts of someone’s body, or about their possessions, we usually
use possessives, not the.

Example:
Kate broke her arm climbing

 But the is common after prepositions, especially when we are talking about blows,
pains and other things that often happen to parts of people’s bodies.

Example:
1. She hit him in the stomach.
2. Can’t you look me in the eye?

 We use the in measuring expressions beginning with by.

Example:
1. Do you sell the mangoes by the kilo or by the dozen?
2. Can I pay by the month?

 A/an is used to relate one measuring unit to another.

Example:
Sixty pence a kilo thirty miles an hour twice a week

 We use the with seas (the Atlantic), mountain groups (the Himalayas), island groups
(the West Indies), rivers (the Ganges), deserts (the Sahara), most hotels (the Grand
Hotel), museums and art galleries (the Salarzung Museum).

We usually use no article with continents, countries, states, departments, towns,

streets and lakes. But places whose name is a common noun like republic, state, union
(the United Kingdom, the United States).

 The is unusual in the titles of the principal public buildings and organizations of a
town, when the title begins with the town name.
Example:
Oxford University (not...the Oxford University)
Hull Station (not...the Hull Station)
Birmingham Airport (not...the Birmingham Airport)
Manchester City Council (not…the Manchester City Council)

 The names of newspapers usually have the.

The Times The Hindu
The names of magazines do not always have the.
New Scientist
Communicative English-I 16.12 Articles

16.3. CONCLUSION

Though articles look simple, it is very difficult to use them correctly. It is observed
that people of South Asian countries use articles before every noun, without adhering to
the grammar rules. Articles must be used very carefully and tactfully. A proper article –
definite or indefinite – must be used wherever required and shouldn’t be used wherever
they are not at all required. Hence learners are expected to master how to omit articles
also.

16.4. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is a definite article? Explain with examples.

2. What is an indefinite article and what is the difference between definite article and
indefinite article?
3. How are the definite and indefinite articles pronounced?

4. Write a short note on special rules and exemptions in usage of Articles.

16.5. EXERCISES

I. Complete the story with a/an/the or no article.

Many years ago, this ________ train was approaching a bridge across ________ river.
Suddenly ________ driver saw ________ strange figure ahead. ________ person seemed
to be trying to make the train stop.

________ noise of the brakes was terrible. When the train had stopped, the driver got out
to ask the strange person what was wrong, but there was nobody around. He took his -
________ lamp and walked a few steps along ________ track. Then he stopped suddenly-
-- ________bridge they had been about to cross had fallen into the river.

The man ran back to the train and found ________ large dead moth on th train’s
________ lamp. When he lit the lamp, he saw that the moth’s shadow looked exactly like
the strange figure he had seen. The moth had saved the driver and all ________other
people on the train.

II. Make sentences by putting the words in the correct order. Add a/an/the if necessary.

1. Smile/got/She’s/nice
___________________________________________
2. Dr Joe/ good/me/gave/advice
____________________________________________
3. country/like/you/living/Do/in
____________________________________________
4. house/What/untidy
____________________________________________
5. We/school/planets/about/at/are/learning
____________________________________________
6. moon/earth/round/why/go/does
____________________________________________
Centre for Distance Education 16.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

7. This/runs/electricity/car/on
____________________________________________
8. bed/on/your/Put/coat
____________________________________________

III. Combine the pairs of sentences to complete one new sentence. Think carefully about
articles and determiners.

1. I saw a man. You were talking about him earlier.

I saw ______________________________________________________.
2. She had a mobile phone. It was a really thin one—I’m sure you know
[Link] had one ____________________________________________.
3. I heard a sound. It was a dog barking in the distance.
Iheard ______________________________________________________.
4. Some of you have finished. If so, you can go home.
Those of ________________________________________________.
5. She was driving down a road. It went to London.
She was ________________________________________________.
6. It was a terrible meal. He’s never cooked a worse one.
It was __________________________________________________.
7. In his pocket I could see a handle. It was part of a gun.
In his ___________________________________________________.
8. I stayed in a hotel. You recommended it.
I stayed ________________________________________________.

IV. Put a/an/the wherever necessary.

1. Would you like apple?

_______________________________
2. How often do you go to dentist?
_______________________________
3. Could you close door, please?
_______________________________
4. I’m sorry. I didn’t mean to do that. It was mistake.
_______________________________
5. Excuse me, where is bus station, please?
_______________________________
6. I have problem. Can you help me?
_______________________________
7. I’m just going to post office. I won’t be long.
_______________________________
8. There were no chairs, so we sat on floor.
_______________________________
9. We live in small apartment in city centre.
_______________________________
10. There’s a supermarket at end of street I live in.
________________________________

V. Put in a/an/the in the given blanks.

Communicative English-I 16.14 Articles

1. a. This house is very nice. Has it got _____ garden?

b. It’s a beautiful day. Let’s sit in _____ garden.
c. I like living in this house, but it’s a shame that ______garden is so small.

2. a. Can you recommend ______ good restaurant?

b. We had dinner in _____ very nice restaurant.
c. We had dinner in _____best restaurant in town.

3. a. She has ______French name, but in fact she’s English, not

French.
b. What’s _____ name of that man we met yesterday?
c. We stayed at a very nice hotel—I can’t remember _____ name
now.

4. a. There isn’t _______ airport near where I live. _____ nearest airport
is 70 miles away.
b. Our flight was delayed. We had to wait at _____ airport for three
hours.
c. Excuse me please. Can you tell me how to get to ____airport?

5. a. ‘Are you going away next week?’ ‘No, _____ week after next’.
b. I’m going away for _______ week in September.
c. Gary has a part-time job. He works three mornings _____ week.

VI. Identify the correct form.

1. I like to read in bed/in the bed before I go to sleep.

2. Shall we meet after work/after the work tomorrow evening?
3. I love swimming in sea/in the sea.
4. It’s nice to travel around, but there’s no place like home/like the home!
5. I didn’t sleep well in the hotel. Bed/The bed was uncomfortable.
6. How long did it take to cross the ocean? How long were you at sea/at the sea?
7. What time do you usually start work/the work in the morning?
8. Sam likes to go to bed/ go to the bed early, and get up early.

16.6. REFERENCES

1. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum. (2009). A University Grammar of English.

Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd.
2. Michael Swan(2015). Practical English Usage, Third Edition. Oxford University
Press.
3. Raymond Murphy(2013). English Grammar in Use, Fourth Edition. Cambridge
University Press.
4. Mark Lloyd, Jeremy Day(2013). Active Grammar, Level 3. Cambridge University
Press.
5. Mark Lloyd, Jeremy Day(2013). Active Grammar, Level 4. Cambridge University
Press.

K. Sai Krishna
 LESSON-17
PREPOSITIONS
OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lesson are to enable the students to

 understand the functions of prepositions
 understand different categories of prepositions
 make them aware of the omission of prepositions, wherever required.
STRUCTURE
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Prepositions
17.2.1. Placement of preposition
17.2.2 Types of Prepositions
17.3. Prepositions of Place
17.4. Prepositions of time
17.5. Prepositions of Direction and Movement
17.6. Prepositions with Special Uses
17.7. Appropriate Prepositions
17.8. Omission of prepositions
17.9. Conclusion
17.10. Self-Assessment Questions
17.11. Exercises
17.12. References

17.1. INTRODUCTION

Prepositions are words that appear in front of nouns, noun phrases, pronouns and
gerunds (-ing forms of verbs that behave like nouns, for e.g. ‘walking’ in ‘Walking keeps you
fit’) and link them to other nouns, verbs and adjectives in the sentence. The words that follow
prepositions are called their objects or prepositional complement, and the prepositions are
said to govern them. The preposition together with its object or complement forms a
prepositional phrase.

Example: The bottle is on the table

A preposition expresses a relationship between two entities. The word or a phrase that
a preposition introduces is called the object of a preposition. Usually, the preposition is
placed before the object. Sometimes, however, it comes after the object.
Communicative English-I 17.2 Prepositions

17.2. PREPOSITIONS

17.2.1. Placement of preposition

A preposition is a word that is placed before a noun or a pronoun in a sentence to show

how that word is related to some other word in the sentence. The noun or pronoun is called
the object of the sentence and is governed by it.

 A preposition indicates where a person, thing or place is.

Eg: The book is in the shelf.

 A preposition also indicates where someone does something or where something

happens.

Eg: The eagle flew above the clouds.

 A preposition indicates where a person or thing is coming from or going to. It

indicates the direction.

Eg: They walked towards the gate.

In the above examples in, above and towards are prepositions and the objects of the
prepositions are shelf, clouds and gate respectively.

Although prepositions are usually placed before a noun or a pronoun there are some
exceptions to this rule either because the complement has to take first position in the clause,
or because it is absent.

In some structures the prepositional object can be placed at or near the beginning of a
clause. In this case, the preposition does not always go with it. It may stay together with its
noun, adjective or verb at the end of the clause. This usually happens in four cases.

 Sometimes, the preposition is placed at the end of the sentence when the object is the
relative pronoun that.

Example: [Link] is the book that I was searching for.

That is the object of the preposition for in the sentence
2. That’s what I’m afraid of.

 The preposition is often placed at the end of the sentence when the object is an
interrogative pronoun.

Example: [Link] are you talking about?

Whom is the object of the preposition about, placed at the end of the sentence.
2. What are you looking at?
3. What a lot of trouble I’m in!
Centre for Distance Education 17.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 The preposition is placed at the end of the sentence when the relative pronoun is
understood in the sentence.

Example: 1. He is the man (whom) I was searching for.

The relative pronoun whom is understood in the sentence and hence omitted.
The preposition for is placed at the end of the sentence.
2. This is the house (that) I told you about.
3. She is the only woman (who) I’ve ever really been in love with.

 Sometimes a preposition is placed at the end of the sentence when its object is placed
before it to emphasize.

Example: 1. She travelled the world over.

 In passive structures, prepositions go with their verbs.

Example: 1. She likes to be looked at.

2. I don’t know where he is—his bed hasn’t been slept in.

 Infinitive complements have prepositions with them.

Example: 1. The village is pleasant to live in.

2. She needs other children to play with.

17.2.2. Types of prepositions

Simple prepositions are: at, with, by, in, an, up, to, for, off, of, from, through, till, after, never,
down, round, since, etc.
Complex or phrase prepositions consist of two or more words.
For example:
along with away from because of due to
except together with instead of in comparison to
in spite of according to in view of up to
but for next to on account of apart from

There are other words that look like adjectives or verbs but they are used as prepositions.
These include:
barring concerning excepting following including
like minus near plus unlike
A preposition can be used to show time, place, direction, movement, purpose or means.
Communicative English-I 17.4 Prepositions

17.3. PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

We use prepositions of place in front of a noun or a pronoun to say where something or

someone is.

Some prepositions of place are in, at and on.

 In can be used to say that something is inside a larger space. It can be used with a
room, building, a street, a town, a country.
Example: 1. The pen is in the box.
2. They live in Paris.
3. There are a lot of shops in the center of the town.

 On can be used for a surface, a floor etc.

Example: 1. The present is on the top shelf of the cupboard.
2. His apartment is on the first floor.
3. There is a good programme on TV tonight.

 At is used with a place or a point. It can be used for places where one works at, for
events, for objects that one is next to etc.
Example: 1. I was at home yesterday.
2. Several people are waiting at the bus stop.
3. The post office is at the end of the street.

Some more prepositions of place are: under, above, below, opposite, in front of, behind, next
to, between, outside, near, by, underneath, inside etc.

Example: Sally was sitting under a tree.

There’s a wooden floor underneath the carpet.
Some geese flew over their house.
John and Sarah were hiding inside the wardrobe.
There was a tree beside the river.
A big truck parked in front of their car.

17.4. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

Some of the prepositions show when something happens. In, on and at can also be used to
indicate time.

 In can be used with parts of the day, seasons, months, years and centuries. In can also
mean ‘after’ a future time interval.

Example: 1. It’s much cooler in the night.

2. It happened in the month of June.
3. I’ll speak to you in an hour.
Centre for Distance Education 17.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

 At is used for a point in time such as a clock time, meal time and short holidays.
Example: 1. I’ll see you at breakfast.
2. There are flights at New Year.
3. She’s busy at the moment.

 On is used with days and dates.

Example: 1. The T-20 match began on 8 Oct.
2. She was born on Friday.
3. On weekdays, I get up at 7.

The preposition since suggests when an action began while for suggests the duration
of an action.

Example: 1. He has been waiting since 6 o’ clock in the morning.

2. I studied for three hours.
Note:

 We do not use at, in or on, before this/that/some/each/every/last/next.

Example: We go home every New Year. NOT… at every New Year
It will finish next Friday. NOT… on next Friday

 We do not usually use at, in or on before the adverb phrases

later/tonight/tomorrow/the day after tomorrow/yesterday/the day before yesterday.
Example: He arrived the day before yesterday. NOT… on the day before
yesterday
We’re going to Paris tomorrow. NOT… on tomorrow

17.5. PREPOSITIONS OF DIRECTION AND MOVEMENT

Into, through, across, along, between, by, down, from, in, off, on, onto, out of, over,
past, round, towards, to, under, up are prepositions of direction. They show where somebody
or something is going.

Example: They walked into the forest.

She’s driving along the bridge.
Get off the horse carefully.
They ran over a big hill.
The dog came towards me.
Walk up Oxford Street for 10 minutes.
We got onto the ship.
You will pass by some shops.

17.5.1. To/towards

The preposition to indicates movement with the aim of a specific destination, which
can be a place or an event, e.g:
Communicative English-I 17.6 Prepositions

I’m travelling to France tomorrow.

I need to go to the Post Office.
Can you tell me the way to the station?
Are you going to the party?
I’ve never been to a football match.
What time did you go to work?

Note that up to is often used to express movement to a person, e.g:

He came up to me and asked me what the time was.

The preposition to is sometimes used to indicate a specific position, especially if a

person or object is facing something, e.g:
There’s a door to your left.
He stood with his back to the window.

The preposition towards indicates movement in a particular direction, e.g:

She was carrying a suitcase and walking towards him.
He kicked the ball towards the goal.
Anna pointed towards the window.
Everyone sitting at the table turned towards me.

Note the contrast in the following two examples:

I’m going to Oxford for a meeting.

I think we’re heading towards Oxford now, we must have gone wrong.
In the first example, to introduces a specific destination. In the second example with
towards, the direction of movement is a more important part of the meaning than the idea of a
particular destination.

Note that occasionally, towards is also used to indicate position, but this is a position
in relation to a particular direction from the point of view of the speaker, e.g:

She was sitting towards the back of the room.

Tom stood with his back towards the door.

17.5.2. Through and into

The preposition through refers to movement within a space which can be thought of
as three-dimensional, e.g:
They couldn’t get the new sofa through the door.
We drove through some spectacular countryside.
The canal flows through the city centre.
You won’t be able to see it unless you look through the binoculars.
Through usually suggests movement across an entire space, from one side of something to
another,
e.g: He cut through the wire.
The preposition into refers to movement from the outside to the inside of a three dimensional
space,
Centre for Distance Education 17.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

e.g: We got into the back of the car.

She reached into her bag and found the keys.
With certain verbs into can be used to express the idea of movement in the direction of
something, often resulting in actually hitting it, as in the second example below,

e.g: He looked straight into her eyes.

She swerved and crashed into the fence

17.5.3. Across, over and along

The prepositions across and over are used to talk about movement from one side of a
place to another. They usually refer to movement in relation to places which can be thought
of as two-dimensional, such as surfaces (e.g: a lawn) or lines (e.g: a river), for example:

I’ll jump over the wall and open the gate.

The aircraft flew low over the lake.

How are we going to get across the stream?

It’s the first time I’ve flown across the Atlantic.

Over also functions as a preposition expressing position. It often has a similar meaning to the
preposition above, e.g: There was a mirror above / over the sink.

One of its core uses however is to express position in relation to a two-dimensional surface,
e.g: A white tablecloth was spread over the table.

Or to show when something is positioned on the opposite side of a ‘line’, e.g: road, bridge,
etc. The hotel is over the bridge.

Across is sometimes used to express position in relation to something which stretches from
one side of a place to another, e.g: There was a barrier across the road.

Across, like over, is also used to show when something is positioned on the opposite side of a
place in relation to the speaker, e.g:
The bank is across the street.

The preposition along is used to show movement following a line, e.g:

We walked along the river.
I followed Mr. Jackson along the corridor.
Well-wishers began placing flowers along the railings.

It is also sometimes used to show a specific position in relation to a line, e.g:

Somewhere along the path there’s a signpost.

Or to show when a group of things are positioned in a line next to something, e.g:
There were plenty of restaurants along the riverfront.
Communicative English-I 17.8 Prepositions

17.5.4. In and on as prepositions of movement

The core function of the preposition in is as an indicator of the position of something in

relation to the three-dimensional space that surrounds it, e.g:
They were having a picnic in the park.
I’ve left my bag in the office.
The money is in the top drawer of my desk.

However, in can also be used to express movement towards the inside of a container, place or
area:
Can you put the milk in the fridge?
The farmer fired a few shots in the air.

This use is triggered by verbs which express actions rather than states. Compare the
following two examples:
I’ll keep the letter in my briefcase.
I’ll put the letter in my briefcase.

In the second example, in is functioning as a preposition of movement, and has the same
meaning as the preposition into, as described in through and into.

The core function of the preposition on is as an indicator of position in relation to a two

dimensional surface, e.g:
The letter is on my desk.
There was a beautiful painting on the wall.

However on can also be used to show movement in the direction of a surface, e.g:
We could hear the rain falling on the roof.
I dropped my bags on the floor.

As with the preposition in, this use is triggered by verbs which express actions rather than
states. Compare the following two examples:
The vase was lying on the kitchen floor.
The vase fell on the kitchen floor.

In the second example, on is functioning as a preposition of movement, and has the same
meaning as the preposition onto, which is usually used to show movement towards a two
dimensional surface, e.g:
Let’s get back onto the path.
She stepped onto the platform.

Some words are used as adverbs and prepositions. E.g.

1. The car came down the hill. (Preposition)
2. The temperature came down. (Adverb)
3. Please come in. (Adverb)
4. He is in the garden. (Preposition)

An adverb and a preposition may be used together.

Centre for Distance Education 17.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

The adverb is always used before the preposition.

Eg. 1. The cashier ran away with the money.
2. The old woman was run over by a lorry.

Prepositions in use – Some hints:

In- is used with name of large areas.
At- is used with name of small areas.
In and at – are used in speaking of things at rest.
To and into- are used in speaking of things in rest.
In- expresses the place where something is or can be found.
Into- is often used after the verb ‘to go’ to express a change of state. Into cannot be
used if there is no movement involved.

17.6. PREPOSITIONS WITH SPECIAL USES

Many prepositions are used to convey different meanings. Some of them are:
time, place, purpose, direction, movement, means/instrumentality, concession, comparison,
source and manner.
Look at the following sentences where the prepositions have these functions.
Sudha sits between Saroj and Ravi (position)
Vijay went from Kanpur to Ahmedabad. (movement and direction)
Father returned at 6 o’ clock. (time)
The road has been blocked because of the wedding procession. (reason)
We went to the market for vegetables. (purpose)
Jaya cut the lemon with a knife. (instrument)
Let’s go to Mumbai by bus. (means)
In spite of the heat, the children are playing outdoors. (concession)
The bird looks like a koel. (comparison)
Leela does all her work with great care. (manner)
They got water from the river. (source)
I made this bookmark for Mom. (purpose)
Would you like to come with us to the arcade? (accompaniment)
Everyone likes chocolate except Tom. (exception)
More examples:
Agency:
My racket was broken by Mohan.
Send the letter by post.
The news came through a friend.
Communicative English-I 17.10 Prepositions

Cause:
The boy died of cholera.
The old labourer died from fatigue.
He concealed the truth through shame.
Purpose:
He worked for the good of his country.
It is the best place for a picnic.
Possession:
There is no other book by this writer.
He is a man of position.
The man with dark moustache looks impressive.
Manner:
The soldier fought with courage.
The battle was won with ease.

17.7. APPROPRIATE PREPOSITIONS

Certain verbs, nouns and adjectives are followed by certain prepositions. These
appropriate prepositions should be learnt to use language effectively.

Example: I do not believe in you. I do not believe of you.

 Some of the verbs and their appropriate prepositions are agree to, believe in, blame
for, charge with, congratulate on, depend on, depend upon, insist on, part from,
accept to, appoint to, object to, prefer to, abstain from, recover from, comply with,.

Example: 1. We agree to participate in the event.

2. Rahul has recovered from malaria.
3. We must comply with the leader’s instructions.
4. The old man was blamed for everything.
5. I must congratulate you on your performance.

 Examples of certain nouns and their appropriate prepositions are confidence in, limit
to, objection to, opportunity for, pity for, alliance with, assurance of, allegiance to,
obedience to, disgrace to, deliverance from, respite from etc.

Example: 1. This is an opportunity for growth.

2. We have assurance of their continued support.
3. Always have confidence in yourself.
4. This is a disgrace to our kingdom.

 Certain adjectives and their corresponding appropriate prepositions are ashamed of,
blind to, charitable to/towards, deaf to, different from, grateful to/for, parallel to,
proud of, acceptable to, accustomed to, adjacent to, accomplished in, acquainted
with, conscious of etc.

Example: 1. The boys are accustomed to loud music.

Centre for Distance Education 17.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

2. I am grateful for your help.

3. This is different from other books.
4. They were astounded to find the ring.
5. He is grateful to you.

 A noun, a verb or an adjective sometimes take another appropriate preposition when it

is placed in a different context.

Example: 1. I differ with you on this matter.

Your thoughts differ from mine.
2. She does not have influence with the director.
He has tremendous influence on her.
3. Jim was proud of his son.
They were proud to announce the winner.

17.8. OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions help establish relations between a noun or a pronoun and other parts of the
sentence. However, sometimes, a preposition is omitted.

 Certain verbs discuss, enter, marry, lack, resemble and approach are normally
followed by direct objects without prepositions.
Example: 1. We must discuss our plans.
We must discuss about our plans.
2. She married a friend of her sister’s.
She married with a friend of her sister’s.
3. Conversation stopped as we entered the church.
Conversation stopped as we entered into the church.
4. He’s clever but he lacks experience.
He’s clever but he lacks of experience.
5. The child does not resemble either of its parents.
The child does not resemble to either of its parents.

 Prepositions are often omitted with the verbs of command, request, advice and
invitation.
Example: 1. He asked me to come. He asked to me to come.
2. Jill requested Bob to attend the concert.
Jill requested toBob to attend the concert.

 Prepositions are not used between a transitive verb and its object.
Example: 1. She carried the basket.
2. Tom resembles his brother.

 Prepositions are not used before certain expressions. Some examples are
Example: 1. I drink juice every night. I drink juice at every night.
Communicative English-I 17.12 Prepositions

2. He met them last week. He met them in last week.

3. Wait a second now! Wait for a second now!
4. Her house faces west. Her house faces to west.

 The Preposition is omitted when two or more words require the same preposition.
Example: 1. The general was confident and proud of his regiment.
The general was confident of and proud of his regiment.
2. She was ready and prepared for it all.
She was ready for and prepared for it all.

 However, the preposition cannot be omitted if the words require different

prepositions.
Example: 1. I was scared of and nervous about the findings.

 Prepositions are not used with adverbs of place such as here, there, everywhere,
outside, inside.
Example: 1. Come inside. Come to inside.
2. Ram went there. Ram went to there.

 Prepositions are not used with adverbs of time such as days of the week, yesterday,
today, now, then, soon etc.
Example: 1. See you next Monday. See you on next Monday.
2. She met him yesterday. She met him on yesterday.
3. He arrived now. He arrived in now.

 Expressions containing words like height, weight, length, size, shape, age, color, are
usually connected to the subject of the clause by the verb be, without a preposition.
Example: 1. She is the same age as me.
2. What colour are her eyes?
3. He is just the right height to be a policeman.

 We do not use to before home. In informal style, to can be dropped in some

expressions with the word place.
Example: 1. I’m going home.
2. Let’s go (to) some place where it’s quiet.

17.9. CONCLUSION

Though most prepositions are single and short words, their uses demand a high
awareness of what and how to choose a specific preposition in a specific context to
accomplish the required and intended meaning; otherwise, misleading or incorrect output
would be resulted. Definitely, the existence of preposition provides a variety in meaning and
presenting more than one idea that ensures language to be a tool of communication among
human beings for achieving mutual understanding. In addition, in general cases, prepositions
Centre for Distance Education 17.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

express relations between two entities or items and these relations characterize the resultant
component which contributes to sentences and/or clauses differently. In this lesson we have
discussed the different prepositions along with their meanings.

17.10. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is a preposition and how does it function in the sentence?

2. What are the different categories of prepositions. Explain them with suitable
examples.
3. What is a prepositional complement?
4. What is the structure of a prepositional phrase?

17.11. EXERCISES

I. Complete the text with the most suitable prepositions.

____ the opinion of many people, William Shakespeare is the greatest writer in the
English language. He wrote 154 love poems known ______ sonnets, but he is most
famous ___ his 38 plays which have been translated ____ hundreds of languages and
performed worldwide. We can divide the plays _____ four main types: ‘histories’ based
_____ real historical events; ‘comedies’ like A Midsummer Night’s Dream and As You
Like It, ‘tragedies’ such _____ Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet, and ‘tragicomedies’ like
The Tempest. The plays are known _____ their exciting stories and interesting characters,
but they are also full _____ interesting ideas and some of the most beautiful poetry ever
written in English. People all ____ the world know Shakespeare’s plays, but the funny
thing is, ___ spite of his fame, we have very little information ___ the man himself. We
know that he probably lived _____ 1564 to 1616, that he got married ___ Anne Hathaway
_____ the age of 18 and that he had three children. But we don’t know much more than
that. _______ fact, we don’t even know if Shakespeare wrote all the plays ___ his own or
whether other people helped him.

II. Complete the advertisement with the correct preposition.

Are you confused ____ all the different health advice you find in the media these days?
Most of us are resigned ____ having a life which is full ___ stress, but if we don’t look
after ourselves, we are putting ourselves _______ risk of developing health problems in
the future. Although we are all _____ pressure to look and feel good, finding a fitness
programme which is right ______ us can be difficult – and expensive. But now there is a
solution _______ all your health and fitness problems! Here at FEEL GOOD FITNESS
we have a firm belief ______ the importance of regular exercise, and with the help of
your own personal fitness trainer you will soon discover the benefits ________ following
a training programme which you actually enjoy --- so there’s no chance ________ you
getting bored and giving up after a week! FEEL GOOD FITNESS helps you to FEEL
GOOD NOW!
Communicative English-I 17.14 Prepositions

III. Complete the story with the correct prepositions. Sometimes more than one
preposition is possible, use a different preposition in each space.

One day, a young boy was working ____ a field ______ his village. He worked _______a
shepherd boy, protecting the sheep, but _____ only the sheep as company he soon
become bored. To entertain himself, the boy suddenly shouted, ‘Help! Help! A wolf is
killing all the sheep!’ The people from the village ran _____ the field to help the boy, but
he just laughed and said, ‘Hahaha! There is no wolf! I was only joking!’. The next day,
and the day ______ that, the boy repeated his joke. Each time, the villagers ran to help,
and each time they found the boy sitting ______ the sheep and saying, ‘Hahaha! I was
joking again. Of course there is no wolf!’ _________ now the villagers were very angry.
Then the next day, a wolf really did start killing the sheep, so the boy again shouted,
‘Help! Help! A wolf is killing all the sheep!’ This time, ________ the boy’s cries, the
villagers thought he was joking again, and _______ the other days, they didn’t run to help
him. So the wolf killed all the sheep.

IV. Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning, using the preposition in
brackets.

1. We had a long journey to make, so we set off early. (ahead of)

____________________________________________________________________

2. Maya is really good at volleyball and is an excellent tennis player too. (as well as)
_____________________________________________________________________

3. I know I’ve got a good salary, but it’s a terrible job if we think about job satisfaction. (in
terms of)
_____________________________________________________________________
_
4. Not checking your answers carefully caused most of your mistakes in the test. (due to)
_______________________________________________________________________

5. Because she worked hard during the year, Julia was offered a promotion. (as a result of)
________________________________________________________________________

6. The weather forecast said it might snow later today. (according to)
________________________________________________________________________

7. The police put up a sign warning people not to go near the edge of the cliff. (away from)
________________________________________________________________________
_
8. We were the only people in the park, if you don’t include an old man and his dog. (apart
from)
___________________________________________________________________

9. Jim had to brake suddenly when a cat ran across the road as he was driving. (in front of)
________________________________________________________________________
_
Centre for Distance Education 17.15 Acharya Nagarjuna University

10. Pasta is definitely one of my favourite meals, and pizza is too, of course! (along with)
________________________________________________________________________

V. Complete the sentences using the nouns given + a preposition

cause connection contact damage invitation

key map photographs reason reply

1. On the wall there were some pictures and a ________ the world.
2. Thank you for the ________ your party next week.
3. Since she left home two years ago, Sophie has had little _______ her family.
4. I can’t open this door. Do you have a _________the other door?
5. The ______ the fire at the hotel last week is still unknown.
6. Did you get a _________ the email you sent to the company?
7. The two companies are completely independent. There is no ______ them.
8. Jane showed me some old __________ the city as it looked 100 years ago.
9. Carol has decided to give up job. I don’t know her ________ doing this.
10. It wasn’t a bad accident. The __________ the car wasn’t serious.

VI. Complete the sentences using these adjectives + a preposition.

amazed angry bored excited

impressed kind nervous careless

1. Are you _________ the exam?

2. Thank you for all you’ve done. You’ve been very _________ me.
3. What have I done wrong? Why are you ________ me?
4. You must be very _________ your trip next week. It sounds really good.
5. I wasn’t _________ the service in the restaurant. We had to wait ages before our food
arrived.
6. Ben isn’t very happy at college. He says he’s _______ the course he’s doing.
7. I’d never seen so many people before. I was _______ the crowds.
8. It was ________ you to leave the door unlocked when you went out.

VII. Complete the sentences using these verbs (in the correct form) + a preposition

Complain dream hear remind

Remind think think warn

1. It was my idea. I ____________ it first.

2. Ben is never satisfied. He’s always ____________ something.
3. I can’t make a decision yet. I need time to ________ your proposal.
4. Before you go into the house, I must ________ you ________ the dog. He’s bitten
people before, so be careful.
5. She’s not a well known singer. Not many people have _______ her.
6. A: You wouldn’t go away without telling me, would you?
B: Of course not. I wouldn’t ___________it.
7. I would have forgotten my appointment if Jane hadn’t _________ me.
8. Do you see that man over there? Does he _____ you______ any body you know.
Communicative English-I 17.16 Prepositions

VIII. Put in the correct preposition. If the sentence is already complete, leave the space
empty.

1. The school provides all its students __________ books.

2. A strange thing happened _______ me a few days ago.
3. Mark decided to give up sport to concentrate ______ his studies.
4. Money should be used well. I don’t believe ________ wasting it.
5. My present job isn’t wonderful, but I prefer it ________ what I did it before.
6. I hope you succeed __________ getting what you want.
7. As I was coming out of the room, I collided _________ somebody who was coming in.
8. There was an awful noise as the car crashed ________ a tree.
9. Patrick is a photographer. He specializes _______ sports photography.
10. do you spend a lot of money _______ clothes?
11. I was amazed when Joe walked into the room. I couldn’t believe _______ it.
12. Somebody broke _______ my car and stole the radio.
13. I was quite cold, but Tom insisted ________ having the window open.
14. The teacher decided to split the class _______ four groups.
15. Some words are difficult to translate ________ one language _____ another.

IX. Put in the correct preposition. If no preposition is necessary, leave the space empty.

1. I’ll never forgive them _________ what they did.

2. They wore warm clothes to protect themselves _________ the cold.
3. You know you can always rely_________ me if you need any help.
4. Sophie doesn’t have enough money to pay ________ her college fees.
5. She’s often unwell. She suffers ________ very bad headaches.
6. I don’t know whether I’ll go out tonight. It depends _______ how I feel.
7. She hasn’t got a job. She depends ________her parents for money.
8. I complemented her ______her English. She spoke really well.

X. Complete the sentences with correct prepositions.

1. There are some differences __________ British and American English.

2. Money isn’t the solution _________ every problem.
3. There has been an increase _____ the amount of traffic using this road.
4. The advantage ____ having a car is that you don’t have to rely on public transport.
5. There are many advantages ______ being able to speak a foreign language.
6. Everything can be explained. There’s a reason _______ everything.
7. When Paul left home, his attitude _______ his parents seemed to change.
8. Ben and I used to be good friends, but I don’t have much contact ____him now.
9. There has been a sharp rise _______ the property prices in the past few years.
10. If I give you the camera, can you take a picture _______ me?

17.12. REFERENCES

1. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum. 2009. A University Grammar of English.

Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd.
2. Michael Swan.2015. Practical English Usage, Third Edition. Oxford University
Press.
Centre for Distance Education 17.17 Acharya Nagarjuna University

3. Raymond Murphy.2013. English Grammar in Use, Fourth Edition. Cambridge

University Press.
4. Mark Lloyd, Jeremy Day.2013. Active Grammar, Level 3. Cambridge University
Press.
5. Mark Lloyd, Jeremy Day.2013. Active Grammar, Level 4. Cambridge University
Press.
6. Board of Editors. 2007. Spoken and Written Communication in English. Hyderabad:
Universities Press.
7. Krishna Mohan and Meera Banerjee. 2000. Effective English Communication. New
Delhi: Tata Mc Gran Hill.

K. Sai Krishna
 LESSON: 18
TENSES, CONCORD, NUMBER

OBJECTIVES
The aims and objectives of this lesson include
 Familiarizing the students with the functional aspects of tenses – present, past and future
 Sensitizing the students to the common errors of ‘concord’ i.e., subject in agreement with
verb number, gender and person
 To throw light on the nuances of number and its correlation with person
 To create an awareness on the interrelationship between concord and number

STRUCTURE

18.1. Introduction
18.2. Tense, Aspect, and Mood
18.3. Tense and Aspect
18.4. The Present
18.5. The Past
18.6. The Future
18.7. Concord
18.8. Number
18.9. Conclusion
18.10. Self – Assessment questions
18.11. Exercises:
18.12. References

18.1. INTRODUCTION

The Verb is an important functional element in an English sentence. It has a close

grammatical relationship with the subject and any other predicate element. In order to
perform the full grammatical function, the verb must have the important characteristic called
Tense. In English, tense is used to show when something happens. There are two tenses to an
English verb: Present Tense and Past Tense. There is no future tense in English.

Students familiar with traditional grammar may find this statement strange. Tense is a
grammatical category seen in the form or shape of the verb i.e. its inflections. In English we
know that walk is in the present tense and walked is in the past tense because of the
inflection -ed. But there is no inflection for a future tense in the English verb walk.
Traditionally grammarians say thatwill walk is the future tense of walk. This mistake is
because of mixing up tense and time reference. We know that will is a ‘modal auxiliary’
which is in the present tense while would is in the past. This is similar to the other modals
with a distinction between present and past tenses. See the examples below.

Can – could; may – might; shall – should; will – would.

Communicative English-I 18.2 Tenses, Concord…

So we cannot say that will walk is in the future tense. In a sentence like ‘I will go to
London next month’ - the verb is in the present tense but has future time reference – ‘next
month’ which is an adverbial. Futurity can be expressed through many forms. In English
one tense form does not convey one period of time alone.

Tense is a matter of inflexion and it is used to express how the verbal action is
performed. There is an arbitrary relation between Tense and Time. Time is a natural
phenomenon and a semantic label whereas tense is a grammatical quality. It enables us to
use the two tense forms – present and past – to express different meanings associated with
time – Present, Past and Future. In this lesson we have examples of Past and Present tenses
and ways of referring to future time, the common mistakes made when using these tenses,
and their correct usage.

18.2. TENSE, ASPECT AND MOOD

Time is a universal, non-linguistic concept with three divisions: past, present, and future.
Each verb has three characteristics – Tense, Aspect and Mood. Tense is a grammatical
category which is different in different languages. Tense can be understood as a
correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time. Aspect refers to the
manner in which the verbal action is experienced. Therefore we can have different aspects
like indefinite (action will never be complete), continuous (Progressive) and perfect (action
over). Mood is related to the verbal action and its connection to certain conditions like
necessity, possibility, compulsion etc. We have Modal Auxiliaries to express the mood of a
verbal action.

Eg: It may rain today (possibility).

I must go this afternoon (compulsion)
He ought to attend to this work (obligation)

In fact, however, to a great extent these three categories impinge on each other: in
particular, the expression of time present and past cannot be considered separately from
aspect, and the expression of the future is closely bound up with mood. (Quirk & Greenbaum,
2006)

18.3. TENSE AND ASPECT

Thus English has two simple tenses (past and present) and two aspects (the
progressive and the perfect). We here consider the present and past tenses in relation to the
progressive and perfective aspects. Considering the different verb forms and their relevance
to the verbal action, we can have eight possibilities to express the various meanings to time.
They are:

1. The Simple Present (Present Indefinite)

2. The Present Progressive
3. The Present Perfect
4. The Present Perfect Progressive.
5. The Simple Past (Past Indefinite)
6. The Past Progressive
7. The Past Perfect
8. The Past Perfect Progressive.
9. The future
Centre for Distance Education 18.3 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Let us examine each of them in some detail.

TENSES – Tabular view:

Tenses
[Link]. Tense form Subject Verb form Object Adverbial time frame
(indicative)
1 Simple Present eats regularly.
2 Present Progressive is eating now.
3 Present perfect Sameera has eaten a mango just now.
4 Present perfect has been eating since yesterday.
Progressive
5 Simple Past Ate last night.
6 Past Progressive was eating when I went there.
7 Past perfect Sameera had eaten a mango before I reached the
place.
8 Past perfect had been eating when I went there.
Progressive

18.4. THE PRESENT

[Link] Present:

 Simple present is used for habitual actions, hobbies.

 Some of the clue words which indicate simple present arealways , frequently/often,
usually, seldom/rarely, nowadays, never, every week/year, sometimes/occasionally, from
time to time, every now and then

i. Sita goes to tennis club every day.

ii. I like tea.
iii. We go to school regularly.
iv. It usually rains in the evenings in Hyderabad.
v. I know an eighty year old man who drinks a gallon of milk daily.
vi. I go to Japanese language class twice a week.
vii. Mario goes to church on every Sunday.
viii. The students are never late to the class of Prof. Tirumalesh.
ix. School children practice yoga nowadays.
x. My teachers are always in time to the college.
xi. He reads newspaper everyday in the morning.
xii. Some children rarely visit their parents in old age.

 Universal truths
 The sun rises in the east.
 The dog is a faithful animal.
 The tiger is an endangered animal now.
 Water boils at 100º C.
 The earth goes around the sun.
 Leaves are usually green in colour
Communicative English-I 18.4 Tenses, Concord…

 Exclamatory sentences
 What a lovely rose it is!
 Oh! Look out!
 How on earth did you do this!

 Historic present
 If I sell this car, I will buy an Audi.
 If you work hard, you will have a bright future.
 College reopens from Monday.

 Planned future actions

 The meeting starts at 3:00 p.m.
 The Prime Minister of India visits the US President in January 2016.
 I don’t teach math at college.
 The train leaves at 7:25 a.m.
 When does the flight take off?

 Verbs of emotions and feelings are expressed in simple present tense.

 I like tea. But NOT I am liking tea.
 Johnsy likes Sue. Sue hates being sick and dull.
 Radha loves Krishna.
 I understand English very well.
 I think it’s foolish to smoke and drink.
 She knows him.
 Mani prefers coffee to tea.
 They watch the programme on TV every week.
 Helen sees many farmers working in the field.
However, we may use the expression ‘I am thinking’ to emphasize change or to indicate an
active meaning. For example,
o I am thinking of moving to Delhi. (Refers to the change)
o I am seeing him later. (to indicate appointment)
 Narrations, illustrations, commentaries
 This new mobile is exciting. It is very much user-friendly. It has a sleek thin metal
frame to protect it from damage. It has an inbuilt 32GB memory. This helps to save
many pictures, download videos and so on.

18.4.2. Present Progressive

The Present Progressive is used for the actions that are going on at that time of speaking.

 Look! It is raining now.

 I am writing now.
 Somebody is knocking at the door.
 You are reading now.
 They are working on the project at the moment.
 It’s eleven now. But people are still working.
Centre for Distance Education 18.5 Acharya Nagarjuna University

The Present progressive is used for actions planned in future and the time is mentioned.

 Narendra Modi is going to visit the USA in 2016.

 I am going to learn German language next year.
 She is flying tomorrow to Los Angeles.
 What are you doing this weekend?

 We do not use –ing form of the verb i.e., present continuous for the following verbs. They
indicate a state rather than an action. Note: Please refer to stative and dynamic verbs in
lesson 4 on Verb Phrases in P-I Structure of Modern English, Semester II.

believe belong consist contain feel know

like love need possess realize remember
see think understand want watch desire
suppose depend seem prefer hate

For example,

 I understand what you are saying. But NOT I am understanding what you are
saying.
 Similarly, the word ‘have’ when it is being used to indicate possession, it is not used in
continuous –ing form of the verb. For example,
 I have a car. But NOT I am having a car.
 The students are having a great time when the teacher is not around. (‘have’ refers to
‘enjoy’)

[Link] perfect

The Present perfect is used for actions just completed or the action that has an impact on the
present. It is indicated by have/has+past participle (V3). Words related to adverbs of time are
never, ever, just, just now, till, until, till now, yet and so on.

 Anita and Linda have not yet completed the work.

 Shiela has not come to office till now.
 Raghu has never eaten an apple.
 Have you ever been to Tokyo?
 Linda has already visited Liverpool.
The Present perfect is used to denote an action which began sometime in the past and has
continued upto the present.

 My teacher has read all the plays of Shakespeare.

 He has visited the USA and Canada.

The sentences below we are ungrammatical:

 I have met him in 1998. [ x ]
 I have completed my M.A. in 2014. [ x ]
Communicative English-I 18.6 Tenses, Concord…

 She has visited the university last week. [ x ]

 They have sent the letter five minutes ago. [ x ]
BUT when the time in the past is not mentioned or it is not important, you can use present
perfect tense.

 I’ve bought a car.

 They have moved in the new house.

18.4.4. Present perfect progressive

The Present perfect progressive is used for the action that started sometime in the past and the
action is still going on in the present. The structure is have/has +been+ -ing form of the verb.
For example, ‘It has been raining for the last four hours.’ This statement means that it started
raining four hours ago and it is still raining at present.
Since (denotes point of time) and for (denotes period of time) indicating time are the clue
words which indicate present perfect continuous tense.

 Krishna has been working in this company for the past ten years.
 Jaya has been pursuing her [Link] since 2012.
 They have been living here for five years.
 Present perfect continuous tense is used to talk about an activity that has finished but
whose results are visible now.
 The girl is tired as she has been dancing for the last five hours.
 We do not have any time to complete the project because we have been working on an
emergency issue for the last one week.
 All the money is over as the boys have been spending it like spend-thrifts.
 Venkat is a prolific writer now because he has been practicing language for several
years.

18.5. THE PAST

18.5.1. Simple past

The Simple past is used for clear past actions, the actions that are completed in the past and
time indicating the past is also mentioned.

 Dr. Rao was born in 1923.

 India got independence in 1947.
 What did you say?
 Ravi got up and gave away everything to people.
 I did not read the book, I gave it to her.
 Did you write to your friend yesterday?
 Simple past is used to talk about actions that happened regularly in the past and
completed in the present.
 She often solved Sudoku in her childhood.
 He always won the game.
Centre for Distance Education 18.7 Acharya Nagarjuna University

When two past actions were expressed, simple past is used for the second completed action.
For example:

 (I could not catch the train as) I reached the station after the train had left the
platform.
 Explanation: First completed action is train leaving the platform. The person reaching
the station is the second completed action. The person could not catch the train. We
shall discuss these once again when we talk about Past perfect in the following
sections. Some more examples are here for your information.
 The teacher entered the classroom after the students had come to the class.
 Her son had left to college before she came home.
 I had brushed my teeth before I took bath.

18.5.2. Past Progressive

Past progressive is used to express an action that was in progress at a particular point of time
in the past. It is indicated by was/were + -ing form of the verb. Past continuous or past perfect
are usually not used in isolation. They are usually used along with another past action.

 What were you doing in the last summer?

 Was it raining when you left college?
 While I was writing the notes, I noticed that somebody was waiting for me.
 While she was cooking in the kitchen, the telephone rang.
 While he was waiting at the theatre, the nurse told him happy news.

18.5.3. Past perfect

 Past perfect is used for an action that happened before another past action. When two
past actions were expressed, past perfect tense is used for the first completed action.
 I had brushed my teeth before I took bath.
 He had taken bath before he left to college.
 The team had worked rigorously before they launched the satellite.
 She had left the auditorium soon after the Chief Guest got down the dais.
 All the students had prepared thoroughly before they attempted the examination.
18.5.4. Past perfect progressive
 Past perfect progressive is used to talk about an activity which continued in the past
and that had an impact in the past. The structure of this tense is had+been+-ing form
of the verb.
 I did not get a good rank in EAMCET because I had been playing video games during
my intermediate.
 She became a child prodigy as she had been learning music at the age of two.
 It is used with since or for to talk about an activity that started at a time further back
in the past than something else.
 When we met our friend, he had already been working as a master trainer for several
years.
 When he spoke to me over phone, I had been doing research in this area for long.
 When David wrote to Pawan, David realized that he had already been aging.
Communicative English-I 18.8 Tenses, Concord…

 When I started reading on micro air vehicles, I noticed that the European countries
had already been working on similar area for quite some time.

18.6. THE FUTURE:

There is no obvious future tense in English corresponding to the time/tense relation

for present and past. The future in English is expressed in several ways. For instance, the
simple present is used to express the Future. There is a close relationship between futurity,
modality and aspect. Future time in English is indicated by means of modal auxiliaries or
semi-auxiliaries, or by simple present forms or progressive forms.
E.g.: She leaves tonight
She is leaving tonight

They start the mess on Monday.

They are starting the mess on Monday.

(i) Will and Shall

Will or ‘ll + infinitive in all persons

Shall + infinitive (in 1 st person only; chiefly British English)

I will / shall arrive tomorrow

He’ llbe here in half an hour

The future and modal functions of these auxiliaries can hardly be separated, but shall
and, particularly will are the closest approximation to a colorless, neutral future. Will for
future can be used in all persons throughout the English-speaking world, whereas shall (for
1st person) is largely restricted in this usage to southern British English. The auxiliary
construction is also used to refer to a statement seen in the past from a point of orientation in
the future: E.g. They will have finished their book by next year.
Note: Other modal auxiliaries can have future reference also: ‘He may leave tomorrow’. ‘He
will possibly leave…’
(ii) Be Going to + Infinitive

This construction denotes ‘future fulfillment of the present’. Looked at more carefully,
be going to has two more specific meanings:

(i)‘future of present intention’, is used chiefly with personal subjects:

When are you going to get married?
(ii) The other meaning is ‘future of present cause’, which is found with both personal and
non-personal subjects:
She’s going to have a baby.
It’s going to rain.
Both of these suggest that the event is already ‘on the way’. Be going to is not generally
used in the main clause of conditional sentences, will / ’ll or shall being preferred instead:
E.g. If you leave now, you’ll never regret it.
Centre for Distance Education 18.9 Acharya Nagarjuna University

(iii) Present Progressive

The present progressive refers to a future happening anticipated in the present. Its basic
meaning is ‘fixed arrangement, plan, or programme’:
He’s moving to Pune.
Since the progressive is used to denote present as well as future, a time adverbial is often
used to clarify in which meaning the verb is being used.
Students are cleaning the campus--- now / later.

(iv) Simple Present

The simple present is regularly used in subordinate clauses that are conditional (introduced
by if,unless, etc) or temporal (introduced by as soon as, before, when ,etc;):
What will you say if I marry my boss?
The train leaves tonight from Chennai.
The train is leaving tonight from Chennai. (plan or programme)

(v) Will/shall+ Progressive

The auxiliary verb construction can be used together with progressive infinitive to denote a
‘future-as-a-matter-of-course’: will/shall + be+V-ing. The use of this combination is used to
refer to action in progress at some time in the future.
At 10 a.m. tomorrow, I will be speaking to some students.
Gita will be running the family business by the time her brother leaves college.

This complex construction can be used to convey greater tact and consideration than the
simple auxiliary construction does. For example:
When will you come
When will you be coming?
(vi) Be to + Infinitive
This express as (a) arrangement, (b) command, or (c) contingent future:
(a) We are to be married soon
There’s to be an investigation
(b) They are to be back by10 o’ clock
(c) If he is to succeed, he must work harder

(vii) Be about to + Infinitive

This construction expresses near future, ie. imminent fulfillment:
[Link] taxi is here and we are about to leave.

Be…. to may enclose other items such as shortly or soon to provide a means of future
expression; with other items again (bound, liable, certain, (un) likely), future expression is
overlaid with modal meaning:
E.g. He is certain to address the meeting (It is certain that he will address…..)

(viii) Will/Shall+have+V-ing
The use of ‘will’ /’ shall’, together with the perfect form (“have’ + participle) tells us that a
certain action will be complete by some time in the future. For example:
Communicative English-I 18.10 Tenses, Concord…

Our train reaches Chennai at 9.30. a.m. tomorrow. All the offices will have opened by
then.

The sentence tells us about two events – (a) the train teaching Chennai and (b) the offices
opening – both of which are expected to happen in the future. The use of the future perfect
tense ‘will have opened’ indicates that event (b) will happen at an earlier time in the future
than event (a).
The zoo will haveclosed by the time we get there.
Iqbal will haveslept when you call him.

(ix) Future Time in the Past

Some of the future constructions just discussed can be used in the past tense to express time
which is in the future when seen from a viewpoint in the past.
 Auxiliary Verb construction with would (rare; literary narrative style)
The time was not far off when he would regret this decision.

 be going to + Infinitive (often with the sense of ‘unfulfilled intention’)

You were going to give me your address.

 Past Progressive
I was meeting him in Baroda the next day.

 be to + Infinitive (formal= ‘was destined’ , ‘ was arranged’)

He was later to regret his decision
The meeting was to be held the following week

 be about to (‘on the point of’): He was about to hit me.

18.7. CONCORD

Communication is achieved primarily through speech or writing. To achieve

proficiency in communication, whether oral or written the knowledge of such grammatical
elements as concord, active/passive structure, and direct/indirect structures, etc, is necessary
Concord in broad terms means agreement between the subject and the verb as well as other
elements of the clause structure, (Leech and Svartvik 1994). The idea of concord in the
grammar of English suggests that for an English sentence to be correct and meaningful, its
constituent parts (i.e. subject, verb, object, adverbial) must be in perfect agreement.

18.7.1. Subject – verb concord

Concord is the other name for subject-verb agreement and the thumb rule is that
subject and the verb of a clause have to agree in number and person.
e.g.1. My cousin plays cricket in the evenings.
*2. My cousins plays cricket in the evenings. [ x ]
Centre for Distance Education 18.11 Acharya Nagarjuna University

As the singular subject (e.g. 1) requires a singular verb, the first sentence is grammatical. On
the other hand in the second sentence the plural subject is followed by singular verb which
suggests that there is no concord between the subject and the verb.

Similarly a clause in the position has concord as singular subject:

e.g. 1. To be weak is miserable
2. Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to health.

18.7.2. Notional Concord and Proximity: Notional Concord is agreement of verb with
subject on the basis of the idea of thenumber rather the presence of grammatical marker for
that idea.
e.g. The Government have appointed a new committee

Here Government, a collective noun, is treated as plural.

The principle of Proximity (nearness) is applied to the agreement of the verb with a noun or a
pronoun that closely precedes it. (Preferably with the head word of the subject).
 Neither the students nor the teacher is present in the class. But NOT are because the
closest noun to the verb is singular hence the verb has to be singular i.e., the teacher.
 Neither the teacher nor the students are present in the class. In this sentence, the verb
is plural are because the closest noun (subject) the students is plural.
 Neither the employees nor the manager is present at the bank.

e.g. 1. No one except her own followers agree with the proposal.
2. One in ten take drugs.

Collective Nouns: Grammatically singular collective nouns are treated as notionally plural if
the group is considered as a collection of individuals.

e.g. 1. Scotland have won the trophy

2. The audience were enjoying every minute of it. (Greenbaum)
Singular and Plural Verbs are more or less interchangeable in the contexts. In case of
sentences like The audience was huge, it is singular as it is being considered as a single
undivided body.

Coordinated subject: If two or more noun phrases are joined by and, and if it forms the
subject, a distinction has to be made between coordination and coordinative apposition.
(Apposition means the two nouns are co-referential, [Link] Lincoln, York city).

e.g. 1. Kavitha and Anitha are now reading.

2. What I say and what I think are my own affair (Greenbaum)
Communicative English-I 18.12 Tenses, Concord…

In the second example – if the clauses are split they take singular verb i.e., What I say
is and what I think is). Singular verb is used with conjoins such as Time and Tide, Bread and
Butter, The Hammer and Sickle.

e.g. 1. Time and Tide waits for none.

2. Bread and Butter was given to the patient.

If two noun phrases represent the same subject, the verb that follows is singular.
e.g. The principal and correspondent was present.
If subject(s) is/are preceded by either….or, the second subject is taken into account
i.e., whether it is singular or plural.

e.g. 1. Either the convener or his assistant is to be blamed

2. Either the workers or the bosses have misunderstood
3. Either your brakes or your eyesight is at fault. (Greenbaum)

In less formal usage, phrases coordinated with neither ….nor are treated more like this
for concord.
e.g. 1. Neither he nor his nephew have arrived
2. Neither he nor his nephew has arrived.

18.7.3. Concord of a person:

Besides number concord, the concord of person is also vital.

1. I am reading now (1st person singular concord)
2. He is leaving tonight. (3rd person singular concord)

In case of past tense only the verb has distinction of person:

I was your benchmate.
He was my benchmate.

As far as correlatives are concerned ( in the presence of two subjects) the principal of
proximity is applied.
Neither he nor I have applied for the position.

18.7.4. Other types of concord:

There are two types: (a) Subject – complement (S) concord and
(b) subject-object concord.

There exists S-C concord of number, but not of person.

My friend is an intellectual.
My friends are intellectuals.

It is invalid to say, *my friend is intellectuals or *my friends were an intellectual.

Centre for Distance Education 18.13 Acharya Nagarjuna University

Similarly, subject-object concord of number, person and gender is necessary as well

as S-C concord, where the second element is a reflective pronoun (Greenbaum)

e.g. He hurt himself in the knee.

One should give oneself sufficient space to work.
Note: A reflexive pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person and gender.

18.7.5. Pronoun Concord:

Personal pronouns in the 3rd person should agree with their antecedents both in
number and (with singular persons, he she and it) in gender:
e.g. Kishen brought his book – Kishen and Ravi brought their books.

The pronoun They (3rd person plural) is used informally, in slight deviation from the
regular practice of using number concord as a substitute for the indefinite pronouns
everyone,everybody, someone, somebody, anyone,anybody, no one and nobody.
e.g Everyone feels he has the remedy.

It may be noted that the tendency has been to use ‘he’ as the unmarked form when the
gender is not determined.
Another alternative is the conjoining of both masculine and feminine pronoun.
e.g. Every candidate should submit his/her admit card.

18.7.6. Additional Examples:

1. ‘One of the’ is always followed by a plural noun but a singular verb because it refers
to a single entity. For example,
 One of the birds has started pecking the fruit with its beak.
 One of the students has come to college today.
 One of the scientists is giving a lecture in the auditorium.
 One of the experiments is very difficult to conduct as it is time taking.

2. When you use ‘none of the’ with an uncountable noun, the verb is singular.
 None of the work is done.
 But when you use ‘none of the’ with a countable noun, the verb is either singular
or plural.
 None of the members have/has come for the meeting.
 None of the trains have/has been resumed after the accident.

3. After ‘neither or either’, we should use a singular verb.

 Neither student was selected in the placement interview.
4. But ‘neither of’ or ‘either of’ is followed by a plural noun and a singular verb.
 Neither of my parents is working now.
Communicative English-I 18.14 Tenses, Concord…

5. If the nouns refer to two different people, articles must be repeated to indicate a plural
subject. Hence the verb is also a plural verb.
 My teacher and the mentor have guided me throughout my life.
 His aunt and his music teacher have helped him to grow well.
 The student and the coordinator have come for the meeting just now.
 My colleague and scholar has completed the task.
 My senior and a friend are working for a noble cause.
 My teacher and the convener of the conference have addressed the delegates.
 Her hobby and the alternate profession have saved her life in crisis.
 Dr. Reddy’s own student and the member of the committee have evaluated him.

6. If the nouns refer to the same person, articles will not be repeated to indicate the
singular subject. Hence the verb is also a singular one.
 A world renowned scientist with patriotic fervor and humanitarian was lost to
India in the death of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
 My friend and senior, Krishna Sai, has won the project.
 My teacher and mentor hasguided me throughout my life.
 The founder and chairman of the college is a distinguished academician and poet.

7. Each, Every
When each or every is followed by singular nouns using the conjunction and, the verb
is singular. It refers to a singular subject. For example,
 Each undergraduate student and each young person has a right to vote.
 Every citizen and every soldier has the responsibility to protect his country.
 Every woman and every girl child has to fight for the right to equality.
 Each of the books is worth ten thousand rupees.

18.8. NUMBER

In this section, we are going to discuss the importance of number in grammar. In the
earlier section on Concord, we have discussed the relationship of the subject in agreement
with the verb in terms of number, gender and person.

18.8.1. Number is a grammatical category which relates to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and
verbs. In English, the two number categories are singular and plural. For example,
 Ido my work sincerely.
 Youdoyour work sincerely.
 He doeshis work sincerely.
She does her I do my
worksincerely.1st
person – singular
1st person - plural We do our
work sincerely.
2nd person – singular You your
or plural
He his
rd
3 person - singular She does her
It its
3rd person - plural They do Their
Centre for Distance Education 18.15 Acharya Nagarjuna University

18.8.2. Number - Countable and Uncountable Nouns

It's important to distinguish between countable and uncountable nouns in English
because their usage is different in regard to both determiners and verbs.
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are for things we can count using numbers. They have a singular and
a plural form. The singular form can use the determiner "a" or "an". If you want to ask about
the quantity of a countable noun, you ask "How many?" combined with the plural countable
noun.

Singular Plural Singular Plural

one dog – two dogs one idea – two ideas
one horse – two horses one shop – two shops
one man – two men

Examples
 She has three dogs.
 I own a house.
 I would like two books please.
 How many friends do you have?

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count with numbers. They may
be the names for abstract ideas or qualities or for physical objects that are too small or too
amorphous to be counted (liquids, powders, gases, etc.). Uncountable nouns are used with a
singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form.

Examples

tea, sugar, water, air, rice, knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love, money, research, safety,
evidence.

We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express the quantity of an uncountable
noun, use a word or expression like some, a lot of, much, a bit of, a great deal of , or else use
an exact measurement like a cup of, a bag of, 1kg of, 1L of, a handful of, a pinch of, an hour
of, a day of. If you want to ask about the quantity of an uncountable noun, you ask "How
much?"

Examples
 There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.
 He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.
 Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns?
 He did not have much sugar left.
 Measure 1 cup of water, 300g of flour, and 1 teaspoon of salt.
 How much rice do you want?
Communicative English-I 18.16 Tenses, Concord…

Tricky Spots
Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. They must
follow the rules for uncountable nouns. The most common ones are:
accommodation, advice, baggage, behavior, bread, furniture, information, luggage, news,
progress, traffic, travel, trouble, weather, work

Examples

 I would like to give you some advice.

 How much bread should I bring?
 I didn't make much progress today.
 This looks like a lot of trouble to me.
 We did an hour of work yesterday.

Be careful with the noun hair which is normally uncountable in English, so it is not used in
the plural. It can be countable only when referring to individual hairs.
Examples
 She has long blond hair.
 The child's hair was curly.
 I washed my hair yesterday.
 My father is getting a few grey hairs now. (refers to individual hairs)
 I found a hair in my soup! (refers to a single strand of hair)

18.9. CONCLUSION

This lesson on ‘Tenses, Concord and Number’ is discussed under three different
sections. The first section of the lesson includes the functions of three broad categories i.e,
present, past and future. The sub-sections of each of these tenses is discussed in detail under
four categories including simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous tenses. The
second section deals with the concord which is ‘subject in agreement with the verb in
number, gender and person.’ The third section on ‘number’ dealt with the three persons in
grammar, first person – I, we; the second person – you (singular & plural) and the third
person – he, she, it (singular); they (plural). It is followed by exercises which serve as
comprehension questions to check the concepts. Number in countable and uncountable nouns
is also discussed.

18.10. SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. How many tenses does English have?

2. What is the difference between Tense and Aspect?
3. We understand Tense from the inflection of the Verb. Explain.
4. Why is time referred to as a semantic category?
5. What is Concord?
6. Explain the different types of Concord.
7. Discuss Notional Concord and Principle of Proximity
8. How does number System operate in English?
9. What is the difference between Variable and Invariable nouns?
Centre for Distance Education 18.17 Acharya Nagarjuna University

18.11. Exercises:

I. What are your hobbies and interests? Describe in ten sentences using simple present.
II. Do you have any childhood memories? Write about them using different types of past.
Or
III. Write about any ten important events that took place in your life during the last month
using different forms of the past.
IV. How do you visualize yourself in five years from now? You may use the appropriate
tense forms including the present and the future.
V. Fill in the blanks with appropriate verb form given in brackets to make it a
meaningful sentence.
1. Rama along with Sita _____(has/have) gone to the forest.
2. One of the members of the Board _____(was/were) not present for the last meeting.
3. Neither the pet animals nor any wild animal _____(are/is) in the zoo.
4. Either David or Samuel’s friends ___ (are/is) going to come and pick you up.
5. Slow and steady _____(win/wins) the race.
6. Neither the parents nor the child ____(have/has) any voice to talk about the mishap.
7. Each of the girls ____(was/were) given a toy to play.
8. My aunt and the guardian ____(have/has) come to the hostel.
9. His boss and wife ____ (have/has) cooked dinner for him.
10. Her colleague and a friend ____(has/have) completed the task in time.
VI. Choose the right form of the verb given in brackets to make it a meaningful
sentence.
1. I _____(have been/went) to Paris last year.
2. Ravi _____(has completed/ completed) his [Link]. in April 2015.
3. She_____(ate/has eaten)an apple just now.
4. Anita ______(had cut/cut) the cake after the birthday candles had been put off.
5. He ______(completed/had completed) a Diploma course before he graduated from
college.
6. While Behrman ______(was painting/painted) a leaf, he fell sick.
7. Wait!I______(am writing/was writing) a letter now.
8. A site ______(has been chosen/has chosen) at Kalpakkam for nuclear plant.
9. There _____(is/was) a critical need for india to shape perceptions in Nepal.
10. The people Kashmir ______(feel/are feeling) the need for freedom.
 Communicative English-I 18.18 Tenses, Concord…

VII. Fill in the blanks with correct form of the verb given in brackets.
1. The people ______(try) to minimize brain drain for the last five years.
2. Indians ______(continue) to rely traditional belief systems while raising our children.
3. When he wanted to work on current trends, his boss realized that a lot of people
______(work) for several years.
4. Seema gained a lot of weight as she ______(eat) junk food for a long time.
5. Raja Ram Mohan Roy ______(write) a letter to the British to introduce English
education in India.
6. India ______(file) a patent on medicinal properties of turmeric when America had
claimed for it.
7. The CM realized that a lot of farmers ______(commit) suicide for quite some time in
the state.
8. Latha became the Indo-German Ambassador as she ______(learn) the language for a
long time and mastered it.
9. Sachin mastered cricket game as he ______(practice) it since his childhood.
10. There was a draught as it ______(not, rain) for two continuous years.

VIII. Fill in the blanks with suitable form of the verb given in brackets.
1. If you study hard, you _____(get) good marks.
2. If I complete the task now, I ______(sleep) tonight peacefully.
3. _____ you _____ (sing) with me at the party?
4. He_____(read) newspaper in the morning tomorrow.
5. When he becomes 21, he ______(drive) for three years.
6. By the time you complete your M.A., you _____(study) English for four semesters.

IX. Fill in the blanks with suitable pronominal forms and words to match the
number.
1. Here is your bag. It is not _____(mine/my).
2. Whose book is this? It is _____(him/his) book.
3. One has to face the hardships boldly in _____(one’s/his) journey.
4. Everyone is inquisitive to learn English. _____(they/everyone) are very good learners.
5. The two ____(daughter-in-laws/daughters-in-law) never listened to the mother-in-law.
6. The three _____(Commander-in-Chieves/Commanders-in-Chief) are very important
for the security of any country.
Centre for Distance Education 18.19 Acharya Nagarjuna University

7. I take two_____(doses of medicine/dose of medicines) everyday.

8. She is a _____(shepherd/shepherdess) and takes good care of the cattle.
9. Telling many interesting_____(stories/storys) is an art.
10. She cherishes the memories of _____(photos/photoes).
11. Sita ____(sing/sings) songs beautifully.
12. One of the members _____(does/do) the work meticulously.
13. Praveen____(doesn’t/don’t) come regularly to the office.
14. Many people ____(do/does) know how to conduct themselves at workplace.
15. A thing of ______(beauty/beauties) is a joy forever.

18.12. REFERENCES:

1. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum ,A University Grammar of English, Pearson,

2012.
2. F.T. Wood, A Remedial English Grammar for Foreign Students, Macmillan
Publishers, 1974.
3. David Green, Contemporary English Grammar Structures & Composition, Macmillan
Publishers India Limited, 2000.
4. John Eastwood, Oxford Guide to English Grammar, Oxford University Press, 2005.
5. Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad, English Grammar for
Today, Palgrave, 2005.
6. Geoffrey Leech and J. Svartvik. A Communicative Grammar of English. Pearson
2012.

Dr. N.V.S.N. Lakshmi

 (302EG21)

MODEL QUESTION PAPER

M.A. DEGREE EXAMINATION
Third Semester
English
Paper II — COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH - 1
Time : Three hours Maximum : 70 marks
Answer ONE question from each Unit.
All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) What is communication? Discuss the nature of Communication.

Or

(b) Compare and contrast intrapersonal communication.

2. (a) What are the barriers you find in the process of communication? Explain.
Or

(b) What is mass communication? Discuss its importance in 21 st century.

3. (a) What is verbal communication? Discuss the characteristics of verbal communication?

Or

(b) What is the importance of Greeting and Inviting in the communication process?

4. (a) What is non-verbal communication? Discuss the role of body language in communication.

Or

(b) Discuss apologizing and requesting as important functions of language.

5. (a) Examine the significance of listening as one of the skills of communication?

Or

(b) What is Report Writing? Differentiate between writing a report and Minutes.
6.(a) Discuss Skimming and scanning as the important types of reading.

Or

(b) Explain the importance of stress and intonation in communication process.

7. Use any FOUR of the following idioms in your own sentences

(a) Throw cold water on
(b) By the back door
(c) Apples and Oranges
(d) Go one year and out the other
(e) Have one foot in the grave
(f) One swallow doesn`t make a summer

8. (a) Provide one word substitutes for any three of the following:
(i) A person who does not believe in the existence of God
(ii) That which cannot be corrected
(iii) A person who speaks two languages fluently
(iv) The killing of a large group of people
(v) A sentimental longing or wistful affection for a period of the past.

Or

(b) Choose the correct synonyms for any three of the following.

(i) Gloomy
(a) Glamorous (b) Bleak (c) Pompous

(ii) Impediment
(a) Hurdle (b) Impartial (c) Dimnish

(iii) Spurious
(a) Brisk (b) Filthy (c) Fake

(iv) Jaded
(a) Exhausted (b) Boring (c) Young
9.(a) Fill any THREE of the following sentences with suitable prepositions

(i) Many people died----------------Covid – 19.

(ii) She watched the serials-----------------TV.
(iii) Dhoni is senior------------------Kohli.
(iv) Our examination begin-------------------15th April.
(v) He hit her head-----------------bottle.

Or

(b) (i) She read the novel in one day.

(ii) I will clean the house every day.
(iii) The teacher always answers the students questions.
(iv) The two Prime Ministers are signing the agreement.
(v) The director will give you instructions.

10. Provide articles wherever necessary to any FOUR of the following.

(i) We like to live in --------------------open air.

(ii) Iron is -----------------useful metal.
(iii) I saw -------------------one eyed man on the road.
(iv) You are late by -----------------hour.
(v) He gave me -----------------ten rupee note.

11. Fill in the blanks with suitable verb forms in any FOUR of the following

(a) That child ----------------- very much since I last ------------------ her (grow, saw)
(b) He----------------- not --------------- to us since last January.(write)
(c) Ever since that accident he ------------------with a limb. (have, walk)
(d) I ---------------- more highly of him as a writer since I -------------- his last novel.
(think, read)
(e) Since my son -------------- to that school he ---------------- rapid progress. (go, make)
(f) He ----------------- three jobs since he ---------------- work five years ago. (have, start)