Essentials of

Structural Dynamics

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 About the Authors
Hector Estrada, Ph.D., P.E., is professor of civil engineering at the
University of the Pacific, where he has held the position of department
chair. He has authored and contributed chapters to several books on
structural engineering and materials. Dr. Estrada has served as a
reviewer for ASCE’s Journal of Structural Engineering and Journal of
Engineering Mechanics.

Luke S. Lee, Ph.D., P.E., is professor of civil engineering at the

University of the Pacific, where he currently serves as the director of
its engineering graduate program. He has authored and contributed
chapters to several books on structural engineering and materials.
Dr. Lee has served as a reviewer for ASCE’s Journal of Composites for
Construction and the International Journal of Structural Health Monitoring.

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 Essentials of
Structural Dynamics
Hector Estrada, Ph.D., P.E.
Luke S. Lee, Ph.D., P.E.

New York Chicago San Francisco

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Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto

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 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Idealization of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
   1.2.1 Lumped-Mass Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
   1.2.2 Generalized Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Time-Dependent Excitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Rigid-Body Dynamic Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Deformable-Body Dynamic Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
   1.5.1 Direct Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
   1.5.2 Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Introduction to Generalized Single Degree of Freedom
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
   1.6.1 Lumped Structural Mass/Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
   1.6.2 Lumped Structural Stiffness of Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
   1.6.3 Lumped Structural Stiffness of Lateral Force Resisting
    Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Flexural and Shear Stresses in Lateral Force Resisting
Portal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
   1.7.1 Equivalent Static Force Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
   1.7.2 Element Level Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2 Free Vibration of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 Free Vibration Response of Undamped SDOF Systems . . . . . . . . 40
   2.1.1 Solution to the Undamped SDOF System Equation of
    Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
   2.1.2 Natural Period and Frequency of Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
   2.1.3 Phase Angle and Maximum Amplitude of Vibration
    Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2 Free Vibration Response of SDOF Systems with Viscous
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
   2.2.1 Critically Damped System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
   2.2.2 Overdamped System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
   2.2.3 Underdamped System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
   2.2.4 Equivalent Structural Damping Modeled with Viscous
    Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
   2.2.5 Logarithmic Decrement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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 vi Contents

3 Forced Vibration Response of SDOF Systems—Harmonic

Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Vibration Response of Undamped SDOF Systems
Subjected to Harmonic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2 Vibration Response of Damped SDOF Systems Subjected to
Harmonic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Vibration Response of SDOF Systems to Support Excitation . . . . 81
3.4 Transmissibility and Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
   3.4.1 Transmissibility of Force from the Structure to the
     Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
   3.4.2 Transmissibility of Vibration from the Foundation
     to the Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
   3.4.3 Force and Motion Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.5 Damping Evaluation Using Response to Harmonic Loading . . . . . 93
   3.5.1 Resonant Amplification Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
   3.5.2 Half-Power Bandwidth Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4 Vibration Response of SDOF Systems to General Dynamic Loading . . . . 101
4.1 Response of a SDOF System to an Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2 General Forcing Function and Duhamel’s Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3 Numerical Evaluation of Duhamel’s Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
   4.3.1 Euler’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
   4.3.2 Trapezoidal Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
   4.3.3 Simpson’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
   4.3.4 MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.4 Response (Shock) Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5 Approximate Analysis for Short-Duration Excitation Pulses . . . . 135
4.6 Response to Ground Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.7 Direct Integration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
   4.7.1 Nigam–Jennings Algorithm (Explicit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
   4.7.2 Central Difference Method (Explicit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
   4.7.3 Newmark’s Beta Method for Linear Systems (Implicit) . . . 151
4.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5 Vibration of Generalized SDOF Systems with Distributed Mass
and Distributed Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1 Discrete System Analysis (Shear Buildings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
   5.1.1 Forced Vibration Response of Generalized SDOF
     Discrete Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
   5.1.2 Analysis Summary of Generalized SDOF Systems Forced
     Vibration Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
   5.1.3 Support Excitation Vibration Response of Generalized
     SDOF Discrete Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
   5.1.4 Analysis Summary of Support Excitation Vibration
     Response of Generalized SDOF Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

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 Contents vii

5.2 Continuous Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

   5.2.1 Forced Vibration Response of Generalized SDOF
     Continuous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
   5.2.2 Support Excitation Vibration Response of Generalized
     SDOF Continuous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6 Vibration of Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1 Generalized Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.2 Undamped Equations of Motion for MDOF System . . . . . . . . . . . 199
   6.2.1 Periods and Mode Shapes for a MDOF System . . . . . . . . . 201
   6.2.2 Orthogonality of Mode Shapes (Eigenvectors) . . . . . . . . . . 208
   6.2.3 Modal Superposition Analysis of Free Vibration
     Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3 Free Vibration Response of MDOF Systems with Viscous
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
   6.3.1 Rayleigh Damping for MDOF Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7 Forced Vibration of MDOF Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.1 Forced Vibration Response of Undamped MDOF Systems . . . . . 232
   7.1.1 Displacements, Nodal Forces, Base Shears, and
     Overturning Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
   7.1.2 Combining Maxima Response Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
   7.1.3 Harmonic Forcing Function Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
   7.1.4 General Forcing Function Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.2 Forced Vibration Response of MDOF Systems with Viscous
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
   7.2.1 Harmonic Forcing Function Response with Damping . . . . 248
   7.2.2 General Forcing Function Response with Damping . . . . . 252
   7.2.3 Modal Analysis Method Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.3 Support Excitation Vibration Response of MDOF Systems . . . . . 264
   7.3.1 Displacements, Nodal Forces, Base Shears,
     Overturning Moments, and Modal Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
   7.3.2 Modal Analysis Method Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

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 Preface

E
ssentials of Structural Dynamics is intended to provide students and practitioners
with a clear and concise presentation of structural dynamics. It begins with an
overview of foundational concepts and methods (e.g., idealization of structures,
degrees of freedom, determining mass and stiffness of structures and structural
elements, types of force excitation, etc.) used throughout the book. In Chap. 2, we
examine the formulation of the equation of motion for a single-degree-of-freedom
(SDOF) oscillator along with the solution to the differential equation of motion for
unloaded SDOF undamped and damped systems (free vibration response). Next, we
present the solution for forced SDOF undamped and damped systems: harmonic
forcing function in Chap. 3 and general forcing function in Chap. 4, where we also
include several computational tools that are used to solve the complex mathematics
involved in the solution of the equation of motion. In these first four chapters, the
primary focus is on developing parameters to characterize structural system mass,
stiffness, and damping, which, in turn, are used to calculate periods, frequencies, and
other relevant dynamic properties such as dynamic internal forces in structures at
a particular location.
We then connect the analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems to
fundamental SDOF principles through the development of the generalized SDOF
equations (Chap. 5). This generalized SDOF formulation can be combined with the
principles associated with SDOF analyses to analyze MDOF systems, particularly
multistory buildings, including finding maximum shear and bending moment in
all members due to a dynamic load. The process entails computing approximate
contribution factors to determine story displacements, which are then used to obtain
nodal or lateral story dynamic forces that are necessary to perform a complete analysis
of internal loading of the structural system.
The last part of the book, Chaps. 6 and 7, focuses on formulation and solution of the
system of differential equations for MDOF systems. In Chap. 6 we focus on determining
system vibration mode shapes and their associated natural periods, whereas Chap. 7
focuses primarily on a solution method known as modal analysis, which, along with
the shock response spectra for general loading, can be used to establish the maximum
structural response of building structures. With this maximum response, the maximum
internal loads can be determined and used to design each member.
The book provides coverage of the essentials of structural dynamics, emphasizing
the process of establishing and solving the equation of motion for various time-
dependent loads. To that end, the reader is introduced to a wide variety of practical

ix

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 x Preface

dynamics loading examples and end-of-chapter problems. Also, to guide the reader, each
chapter begins with a list of learning outcomes. After carefully studying this textbook,
a reader should be able to:

1. Demonstrate a basic understanding of the various applications of structural

dynamics.
2. Identify and solve basic structural dynamics problems.
3. Perform dynamic analyses of structural systems subjected to complex dynamic
loadings.

The first objective relates to the student’s ability to operate in the first two cognitive
domains of Bloom’s taxonomy (namely, knowledge of structural dynamics terms and
comprehension of the various applications of structural dynamics). The second and third
objectives primarily concentrate on the next two cognitive domains (namely, application
of structural dynamics and analysis of systems subjected to various dynamic loadings).
It is the hope of the authors that this along with the chapter learning objectives provides
a roadmap to mastering the subject of structural dynamics.

Audience
The book is intended as a tool for a one-semester course in structural dynamics at the
undergraduate or graduate levels, both in civil and architectural engineering. It
provides students with an understanding of essential concepts and basic ideas relevant
for solving many common and practical structural dynamics problems. Many solutions
to example problems are prepared using computer programing methods (i.e., MATLAB)
to enable students to solve the more complex dynamics problems. This book has also
been written to support industry practitioners who are interested in gaining a working
knowledge of structural dynamics and quickly gain insight into more complex analysis
technics.

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our families, especially our wives Wendy and Theresa, for their
patience and understanding throughout the course of writing this book.
We would enjoy receiving any comments or suggestions from students, instructors,
and practitioners regarding the contents of this book.
Hector Estrada
Luke S. Lee

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

a. Idealize structures
b. Explain the concept of degrees of freedom
c. Discretize members and systems using the lumped-mass and generalized
displacement methods
d. Describe various time-dependent excitations
e. Describe the relationship between rigid-body dynamics and inertial forces and
moments
f. Draw free-body diagrams of members and systems using D’Alembert’s
principle
g. Apply direct equilibrium to formulate the equation of motion for a single-
degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system
h. Apply virtual work to formulate the equation of motion for a SDOF system
i. Determine the mass/weight of a structure
j. Determine the stiffness of a structure for various structural elements and
components
k. Explain the process for determining internal forces and stresses in structural
systems and members

In general, civil structural systems are not designed to move; therefore, motion of
any part (or component) of the system is largely undesirable. This is entirely opposite
to most mechanical engineering systems where motion is an integral part of the design.
However, both disciplines cover the topic of vibration analysis following a similar
approach; the subject is introduced using a simple oscillator supported by a spring and
a dashpot and subjected to an initial displacement and velocity and/or a time-dependent
force (or load). The vibration of the system is then characterized mathematically by
writing a differential equation of motion, either following dynamic force or energy
equilibrium. The solution to the differential equation is then developed analytically or
numerically depending on the complexity of the load. The complexity of the solution
increases exponentially when the analysis requires following several points on a system
(or component), which is conducted by discretizing the system (or component) into
nodes that are treated as separate oscillators. Each oscillator interacts with adjacent

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 2 Chapter One

oscillators leading to a system of coupled differential equations, which in most practical

cases is only tractable using computational methods.
The primary focus of this book is to present methods of analysis to determine defor-
mations and stresses developed in structures when they are subjected to dynamic exci-
tation, both from applied loading and support motion. In this context, the term dynamic
implies time-varying, both excitation and response. For example, a dynamic load is any
load with magnitude, direction, and/or position varying with time, which results in a
response (deflections, stresses, etc.) that also varies with time. Therefore, structural
dynamic problems require a succession of solutions corresponding to all times of inter-
est in the response history, whereas structural analysis problems generally have a single
static solution; so, structural dynamics methods are an extension of standard structural
analyses methods. The main difference between the two methods is that static loading
response only depends on the applied static loading (and can be determined using
established principles of static equilibrium); whereas dynamic loading response
depends not only on the applied dynamic loading, but also inertial forces developed to
oppose the acceleration produced by the loading.
The inertial force is the most important characteristic when deciding if a problem is
dynamic or static since all loads are applied over a finite period of time; slowly applied
forces do not generate significant inertial forces. That is, if the inertial force is large
compared to the magnitude of the applied time-dependent load, a large portion of this
load must be resisted by the internal forces (axial, shear, and moment) and the dynamic
character of the problem must be taken into account; however, when the inertial force is
small compared to the magnitude of the applied force (motions are slow), the dynamic
effect is negligible and the analysis can proceed using a static structural analysis at any
desired time.

1.1 Idealization of Structures

It is impossible to perfectly model (physically or mathematically) any real engineering
problem. Most dynamic analysis problems involve complex material behavior, loading,
and supporting conditions, all of which make idealizations of the system necessary to
be able to render the problem manageable; rigorous analysis is, however, possible using
advanced computational tools such as finite element analysis or physical modeling,
both of which are beyond the scope of this book. In this book we focus on mathematical
models, which are a symbolic representation of the real physical system and include
various simplifying assumptions. The primary objective of dynamics is to describe the
motion of this mathematical model. An acceptable mathematical model must yield
satisfactory approximate solutions from a safety and economic standpoint.
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a time-dependent load that vibrates
vertically; the vibration is opposed by an inertial force as the beam deflects; see Fig. 1.1.

p(t)

fI(t)

Figure 1.1 Inertial force in simply supported beam.

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 Introduction 3

This force is directly opposite to the time-varying displacement and is proportional to

the acceleration of the motion. Should we wish to determine the position of the beam at
any point along the beam at any time, the analysis must then be formulated in terms of
partial differential equations since both position and time are independent variables.
Analytical closed-form solutions to this problem are difficult to ascertain except for
relatively simple, well-defined loading cases. However, there are a number of compu-
tational methods that can be implemented to obtain solutions even for the most complex
loadings. This, however, requires that we first discretize the problem into degrees of
freedom.

1.2 Degrees of Freedom

To characterize the behavior of structural systems (both under static or dynamic
loading), they must first be idealized as a system of connected parts, called elements or
members. These members include beams, columns, and struts (in bracing systems) and
can form various structural systems such as trusses and frames. To determine the
displacements and internal loading necessary to design these structural systems under
dynamic loading, we use structural analysis and vibration theory both of which
underpin structural dynamics. The specific points on a structure used to establish dis-
placements and internal loads in structural systems are known as nodes and are usually
located at the ends of members where there are typically supports and connections
(also known as joints).
A degree of freedom (DOF) in the context of structural dynamics is an indepen-
dent displacement or rotation of a node to capture the effect of inertial forces. For
example, consider the portal frame shown in Fig. 1.2 with rigid connections between
columns and beam and fixed supports at the base of each column. The nodes at the
supports and rigid connections can each be assigned three DOFs (in a two-dimensional
system), for a total of 12 DOFs. However, since the nodes at the supports are
“constrained” (since the base of the columns are modeled as fixed supports, their
nodes are prevented from displacing or rotating), the number of DOFs can be reduced
to six, three DOFs at each of the connections, since the beam and column ends at the
connections must both move and rotate in sync.
For our discussion in this section, the beam is assumed to be much stiffer than the
columns, preventing rotations of the connections, eliminating two additional DOFs.
Also, the two columns move in parallel, and if we assume that the axial deformations

u
u
p(t) m p(t) m
p(t)

Figure 1.2 Idealized single degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system for a portal frame.

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 4 Chapter One

of the columns and beam are relatively small, we can reduce the entire system to a
single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) case as shown in Fig. 1.2; the lateral displacement of
the beam, u. Also, in this model we assume that the entire mass of the frame is lumped
at the top of the system. Furthermore, we assume that the stiffness of the frame is
entirely contributed by the columns. Finally, note that there is no damping (i.e., energy
dissipation) included in the system; without damping the system will move in
perpetuity once set in motion. We will cover damping in later chapters.
As shown in Fig. 1.1, individual elements have distributed mass, which when set in
motion develop a distributed inertial force. As noted earlier, the dynamic analysis of
such system requires treating it as a continuous system with infinite number of DOFs.
However, we can discretize the element into a discrete system with a finite number of
DOFs using one of two procedures: the lumped-mass or the generalized displacement
methods.

1.2.1 Lumped-Mass Procedure

In the lumped-mass method the distributed element mass is concentrated at discrete
points where inertial forces develop, as shown in Fig. 1.3 for the beam depicted in
Fig. 1.1. Thus, independent displacements (and in some cases rotations) of these points
characterize the DOFs necessary to specify the effect of the inertial force of the element.
If the maximum amplitude of the displacement of the beam shown in Fig. 1.3 is relatively
small, we can assume the displacements of the lumped masses to be linear and only
three DOFs are required (i.e., one vertical DOF at each lumped mass). However, a large
displacement of the beam would cause finite rotations of the masses (the segments of
beam contributing to the lumped mass are not fully concentrated), and these rotations
would have to be included as DOFs at each lumped mass for a total of six DOFs. This
method is generally used in multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) cases where a large
portion of the mass can be concentrated at discrete points to generate a more accurate
effect of the inertial force, such as in shear buildings. This is the basis for the analysis of
MDOF systems in Chaps. 6 and 7.

1.2.2 Generalized Displacements

The generalized displacement method is most effective in modeling cases where the
distributed mass is relatively uniform, and its dynamic deflected shape can be
expressed as the sum of a series of specified deformed shapes of the element as
shown in Fig. 1.4. Generally, we can use any shape yN(x) that is compatible with the
geometric supports. For example, the cantilever tower shown in Fig. 1.4 has no rota-
tion or displacement at the support so the generalized displacement shapes shown
must conform to these conditions. This method is typically used in a generalized

p(t)
m1 m2 m3

fI1 fI2 fI3

Figure 1.3 Simply supported beam and lumped-mass model.

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 Introduction 5

p(t)

+ …
= +

fI(t)
y1(x) y2(x) y3(x)

Figure 1.4 Cantilever tower and generalized displacements also known as structural mode
shapes.

degree-of-freedom analysis of elements with distributed mass and stiffness, which

is covered in Chap. 5.

1.3 Time-Dependent Excitations

Time-dependent excitations can be divided into two general categories: loads applied
directly to a structure and motion of the support of the structure. Examples of applied
loads include impact from collisions, wind-induced pressures, blast-induced pres-
sures, wave forces on coastal and ocean structures, etc. Examples of support motion
include earthquake-induced accelerations, mechanical equipment-induced vibrations,
ground shock, etc. In general, we have two approaches to evaluate the response of
structures to these types of loads: deterministic and nondeterministic. Deterministic
analysis is used when we can assume the time-dependent excitations are known to a
high degree of certainty. Whereas nondeterministic analysis is used when the time or
position variations of the excitations can only be characterized in a statistical sense;
that is, the excitation is random in time and/or position. In this book we focus on
deterministic excitations, both applied loads and support motions. This type of excita-
tion is further subdivided into periodic and nonperiodic.
Periodic excitations exhibit the same time variation successively for a large number
of cycles; this type of loading can be represented as the sum of a series of simple
harmonic (sine and cosine) components. For example, the excitation caused by an
unbalanced rotating machine in a building can be represented using a simple sinusoidal
variation as shown in Fig. 1.5. Nonperiodic excitation can be of short-duration

p(t)
t

Figure 1.5 Unbalanced rotating machine and simple sinusoidal excitation.

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 6 Chapter One

p(t)
t

Figure 1.6 Air blast load and impulsive excitation.

(impulsive) or long-duration. For example, an air blast load can be represented as an

impulsive loading as shown in Fig. 1.6.

1.4 Rigid-Body Dynamic Equilibrium

To characterize the behavior of structural systems under the action of various forces,
we need fundamental analytical science principles. These principles have been devel-
oped under the umbrella of a branch of physical science known as mechanics. This
subject is rather broad and is found in many fields of engineering. In civil engineer-
ing, mechanics focuses on structural mechanics, which describes and predicts the
state of rest or motion of bodies subjected to forces. Structural mechanics is divided
into two general categories: mechanics of rigid bodies and mechanics of deformable
bodies. In this section we focus on the rigid-body mechanics while the rest of the book
covers deformable bodies.
Rigid-body mechanics is subdivided into statics, which deals with equilibrium
of objects at rest, and dynamics, which deals with objects in motion. Statics is based
on Newton’s first law, which states that if the resultant of a system of forces acting
on a body is zero, the body will remain at rest (if originally at rest) or in uniform
motion in a straight line (if originally in constant motion). Rigid-body dynamics
forms the basis of vibration theory and is based on Newton’s second law, which
states that if the resultant of a system of forces, F, acting on a particle of mass, m, is
not zero, the particle will experience an acceleration, a, proportional to the resultant
force, F = ma. This is a vector relationship and gives the analytical relation between
motion response of a particle and time. The motion of a rigid body can be described
by two vector equations, one relating the force to the linear acceleration of the cen-
ter of gravity, G, and the other relating the moments to the angular motion of the
body. In plane motion (the x-y plane) the vector quantities reduce to the following
three scalar relationships:

∑F x = maGx

∑F y = maGy (1.1)

∑M G = IGα

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 Introduction 7

where

aGx and aGy are the accelerations of the center of mass G of the body.
a is the angular acceleration.
IG is the mass moment of inertia with respect to an axis through G. This can be
obtained from various statics textbooks or by the product of the square of the polar
radius of gyration, rp = I p /A (where Ip is the polar moment of inertia, and A the
cross-sectional area) and the total mass, IG = mrp2.

In structural dynamics, the last of Eqs. (1.1) is seldom needed because we assume small
rotations of distributed mass components. Also, the right-hand side of Eqs. (1.1) are
time dependent owing to the fact that accelerations are second derivatives of displace-
ments (or rotations) with respect to time. These relationships form the basis for dynamic
equilibrium where the mass is assumed to develop an inertial force proportional to the
acceleration but opposite in direction; the principle is known as D’Alembert’s principle
and is a convenient approach to change the effect of the acceleration of the mass into an
equivalent force, the inertial force.
Although statics can be considered a special case within the area of dynamics (zero
acceleration case), the subject is usually treated separately because it forms the founda-
tion for structural analysis, which uses static equilibrium to determine the effect of
applied static loading on structural systems and components. Static equilibrium along
with D’Alembert’s principle can be used to formulate dynamic equilibrium, which is
used to obtain the equation of motion.

Example 1
Consider a rigid column having mass, m, length, L, and constrained to move horizon-
tally at the top end by a spring having a stiffness k as shown below. Draw a free-body
diagram (FBD) of the column after a time-dependent horizontal force is applied and
formulate the equation of motion using D’Alembert’s principle.

p(t)
k

m L

Figure E1.1 Rigid column model.

Solution
i. Draw the FBD including the inertial force and moment. The time-dependent force
causes both inertial force and inertial moment at the center of gravity, G, which
is halfway up the column, at L/2. For this case, we will formulate the equation

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 8 Chapter One

of motion in terms of the rotation of the column about the pin support, q, which
is assumed to be small; thus, the displacement at the top, D can be approximated
as the product of q and the length, L (small angle approximation yields sinθ  θ
and cosθ  1). Also, the linear acceleration at G is proportional to the rotation, q,
and L/2, such that ux = θL/2. Furthermore, the angular acceleration, is equal to
the second derivative of the rotation with respect to time, α = θ. Lastly, the mass
moment of inertia of the beam with respect to an axis through G, IG can be
obtained as follows:
The square of the radius of gyration about centroidal x axis for a rectangular
rod with dimensions b and L:
rpx2 = I p /A = (bL3 + Lb 3 )/12/(bL) = L2 /12

Since b is much smaller than L, the polar mass moment of inertial about G is
IG = mrpx2 = mL2 /12

D = qL
p(t)
Dk
q
L/2
W
IGa
G müx

L/2
Ax

Ay

Figure E1.2 FBD of rigid column model.

ii. Formulate the equation of motion by applying Eqs. 1.1 and D’Alembert’s principle. Sum
forces along x and y and take moments about support A.

mθL
∑F x = 0; Ax − mu
x + p(t) − ∆k = 0 ⇒ Ax =
2
+ θ Lk − p(t)

∑F y = 0; Ay − W = 0 ⇒ Ay = W

L ∆
∑M A
x   − W   + IGα − Lp(t) + L(∆k ) = 0
= 0; mu
2 2

mθL2 Wθ L mL2θ
⇒ − + + θ L2 k = Lp(t)
4 2 12
This last equation leads to the equation of motion, which can be written in
terms of the rotation,

mL   W
θ + Lk −  θ = p(t)
3  2

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 Introduction 9

Note that for this case the weight, W acts as a destabilizing force and must be consid-
ered in the equation of motion; when the weight equals to 2Lk, the column becomes
unstable, and it is said to buckle. ▲

1.5 Deformable-Body Dynamic Equilibrium

As noted earlier, because of the complexity of most practical structural dynamics
problems, they must be solved using approximate analyses, involving only a limited
number of DOFs. The number of DOFs should be chosen such that the simplification
provides sufficient accuracy from an economic and safety standpoint. Fortunately,
many practical problems can be solved using a single DOF as will be shown in Chaps. 2,
3, and 4. For more complex cases, we can use a generalized SDOF analysis covered later
in this chapter and in Chap. 5, or a MDOF analysis covered in Chaps. 6 and 7. But even
complex cases can be formulated into a series of SDOF cases using a technique known
as modal analysis. In all cases we must first start by obtaining the equations of motion
using dynamic equilibrium either directly or by virtual work, both of which are intro-
duced in this section.
As shown in Fig. 1.2 for a SDOF case, the response of the analytical model is usually
determined in terms of displacements. To establish the expressions governing the
response, we use all external forces (including the inertial force developed from
Newton’s second law), as well as internal forces that react the applied and inertial forces
(which are not applicable in rigid-body equilibrium). The source of these internal forces
is the system’s inherent stiffness and its ability to dissipate energy (i.e., damping). The
expression of equilibrium results in the equation of motion of the structure, the solution
of which provides the response time history, usually in terms of displacement, but can
also be written in terms of velocities or accelerations. The formulation of the equation
of motion is the most important (and at times the most difficult) part of the entire
dynamic analysis process; in general, it consists of four force terms: inertial, damping,
stiffness, and excitation forces.
Consider the simplified SDOF system of the frame depicted in Fig. 1.2 and draw
the FBD of the lollipop mass, as shown in Fig. 1.7. The mass can be considered a par-
ticle with negligible rotation. Intuitively the column of the lollipop provides an elastic
restoring force, which can be characterized by a spring force. Recall that the restoring
force in a spring is equal to the product of the elongation of the spring and the spring
constant (the slope of force-displacement line, which is the stiffness, or the force

p(t) W = mg

p(t) m mü
k V = ku

Figure 1.7 Free-body diagram of idealized portal frame in Fig. 1.2.

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 10 Chapter One

required to cause a unit elongation). For this example, assume the column stiffness is
k, which is a function of the column cross section and material properties (as will be
shown later in this chapter). The restoring (or stiffness) force is the internal shear
force in the column, V, which is the product of the displacement, u, and the stiffness,
k, as shown in Fig. 1.7.
This system can be made to vibrate by applying initial displacement and/or velocity
or a time-dependent excitation. The most general case can be subjected to all three
forcing conditions simultaneously: initial displacement, initial velocity, and a time-
dependent excitation. Application of initial conditions results in free vibration response
(covered in Chap. 2) and are not included in the formulation of the equation of motion;
they are implemented in the solution. Time-dependent excitation (forcing function, p(t),
or support motion) results in a forced response and is included in the equation of
motion. The equation of motion can be formulated using several procedures; in this
book we focus on direct equilibrium and the principle of virtual work, both of which
use D’Alembert’s principle.

1.5.1 Direct Equilibrium

For this procedure, we need to first draw a detailed FBD, which is a sketch of the body
in question isolated from all other bodies and supports showing all forces on the body.
With a FBD, we can formulate the equation of motion by applying equilibrium using
D’Alembert’s principle by reframing dynamic equilibrium [Eqs. (1.1)] into static
equilibrium. Assuming the FBD shown in Fig. 1.7 can be treated as a particle, we can
write two equations of equilibrium:

+
→ ∑F x
 − ku + p (t) = 0 ⇒ mu
= 0; − mu  + ku = p(t)
(1.2)
+
↑ ∑ Fy = 0; − W + N = 0 ⇒ N = mg

where

mü is the inertial force.

ku is the force due to the lateral deformation, u in the columns.
k is the lateral stiffness, discussed in more detail later.
W = mg is the force due to gravity, g.
N is the axial force in the column.

The double dot over the u indicates double differentiation with respect to time; that is,

d2u
 =
u (1.3)
dt 2

Horizontal equilibrium in Eq. (1.2) yields the equation of motion, which is a second-
order, linear, and homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients. In
many of the problems presented in this book, this direct approach is the most conve-
nient way to formulate the equation of motion.

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