Digital Fluency Details Syllabus

[Link] Detailed Content Teaching

Hours
Unit 1 05

Unit 2 05

Unit 3 05

LAB ACTIVITIES
30

Page 3 of 206
 UNIT-1
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware.
An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management,
memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System,
VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting

Page 4 of 206
  Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main

memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program
to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities
for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are
not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how
much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and
for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the
following activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management

Page 5 of 206
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized
access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service
and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.
Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving
with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems
which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer
operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a
group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts
the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the
CPU.

Page 6 of 206
  Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the
user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have
been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications
and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

Page 7 of 206
  With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The
primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access
among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required
to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken
by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as
the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
Page 8 of 206
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these
systems, virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

 It provides programs an environment to execute.

 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.
Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

 Program execution
 I/O operations
 File System manipulation
 Communication
 Error Detection
 Resource Allocation
 Protection

Program execution

Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like
printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a
process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate,
registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with
respect to program management −

 Loads a program into memory.

 Executes the program.
Page 9 of 206
  Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
 Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.

I/O Operation

An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers
hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.
An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk
(secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include
magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its
own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to file management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication

In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory,
peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in
the network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and
security. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
communication −

Page 10 of 206
  Two processes often require data to be transferred between them
 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are
connected through a computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by
Message Passing.

Error handling

Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the
memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
error handling −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

Resource Management

In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU

cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major
activities of an operating system with respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection

Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple
processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or
users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords

Common operating systems

Here are the most common operating systems in use:

Page 11 of 206
Microsoft Windows

Created by Microsoft, Microsoft Windows is one of the most popular proprietary operating
systems for computers in the world. Most personal computers come preloaded with a version
of Microsoft Windows. One downside of Windows is that compatibility with mobile phones has
been problematic.

Apple iOS

Apple iOS from Apple is used on smartphones and tablets manufactured by the same company.
Users of this system have access to hundreds of applications. The operating system offers
strong encryption capabilities to control unauthorized access to users' private data.

Google Android

Android from Google is the most popular operating system in the world. It's mainly used on
tablets and smartphones. It also runs on devices made by other manufacturers. Users have
access to numerous mobile applications available on the Google Play Store.

Apple macOS

Developed by Apple, this proprietary operating system runs on the manufacturer's personal
computers and desktops. All Apple and Macintosh computers come equipped with the latest
version of macOS, previously known as OS X systems. The ability to prevent bugs and fend off
hackers make Apple operating systems popular with their users.

Linux

Created by the Finnish programmer Linus Torvalds, Linux is today developed by programmer
collaborators across the world who submit tweaks to the central kernel software. Linux is
popular with programmers and corporate servers. It is available for free online.

1. MS Windows

MS Windows Logo
MS Windows is a personal computer operating system. It was created by Microsoft.

Page 12 of 206
MS Windows is an operating system that manages the resources of the computer and provides
an interface for the user to interact with different parts of the computer.

MS Windows has three main versions that are used in PCs, laptops, tablets, and other devices
(Windows 10, 8.1, 7).

2. MS DOS
MS-DOS is an operating system made by Microsoft that is the predecessor to Windows.

It used to be the most popular operating system in the world, but nowadays it's rare for people
to use MS-DOS.

But what exactly does it do? MS-DOS stands for "Microsoft Disk Operating System."

It's a computer program that was designed to provide basic file management and text output
functions.

So basically, you can consider MS-DOS as the elementary school of computer programming.

3. Ubuntu OS

Picture of Ubuntu Operating System

Ubuntu is an open-source Linux-based operating system.

It can be installed on desktops, servers, and smartphones.

Ubuntu is the most popular operating system in use on supercomputers and can also be found
on many of the world's fastest machines.

The first time you boot up Ubuntu, it asks for your name and set of preferences. Choose a
username and type it in.

4. Mac OS

Picture of Mac Operating System

Mac OS is a desktop operating system created by Apple Inc.

that has been designed to work on Macintosh computers. The original version of Mac OS was
introduced in 1984.

It is the predecessor of macOS, which is the current Apple's desktop and laptop operating

Page 13 of 206
system.

Mac OS provides a number of different features, such as a graphical user interface, pre-emptive
multitasking, and memory protection that had never been seen before on personal computers
when it was introduced with the original Macintosh 128K in 1984.

5. Apple IOS

Picture of Apple IOS Logo

Apple IOS is a mobile operating system that was created in 2007 and released in 2008.

It was the successor of Apple’s other operating system, known as OS X.

The IOS has been developed by Apple Inc., which is headquartered in Cupertino, California.

There are two versions of this software: iOS 12 and iOS 11.

The IOS is designed for use on Apple devices, such as the iPhone iPad Pro, and iPod Touch.

It can also be downloaded onto computers to allow them to run the same features available on
the devices.

MS Word Tutorial

MS Word tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of Word. Our Word tutorial is designed
for beginners and professionals.

Microsoft Word is a computer application program written by Microsoft. It is mainly used to

design text for presentation.

Page 14 of 206
Our MS Word tutorial includes all topics of MS Word such as save the document, correct error,
word count, font size, font style, apply a style, customize a style, page size, page margin, insert
header and footer and more.

What is Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word is word processing software. It is developed by Microsoft and is part of

Microsoft Office Suite. It enables you to create, edit and save professional documents like
letters and reports.

Brief History

Microsoft word was released in 1983 as Multi-Tool Word. Its first version was based on the
framework of Bravo which was world's first graphical writing program.

Microsoft renamed Multi Tool Word to Microsoft Word, and then in October 1983, Microsoft
released its first version for the IBM PC.

In 1985, Microsoft ported it to the Macintosh which was different from its DOS-based
counterpart, i.e. Macintosh offered various major interface changes.

In 1989, Microsoft released a new version of Word for its Windows operating systems. It was
the Microsoft Word who introduced the concept of WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get),
i.e. it allowed to create and display bold and italics text.

In 2014, Microsoft developed the source code for Microsoft Word for Windows 1.1a.

MS Word Index

MS Word Tutorial
o MS Word Tutorial

o Microsoft office button

o Quick Access Toolbar

o Title Bar

o Ribbon and Tabs

Page 15 of 206
o Ruler

Text Basics
o Insert Text

o Delete Text

o Select Text

o Copy and Paste Text

o Save the Document

Proofing Features
o Correct Errors

o Check Word Count

Formatting Text
o Format Font Size

o Format Font Style

o Format Font Color

o Change Text Case

o Format Text Alignment

o Insert a Text Box

o Bold, Italic and Underline

Formatting Paragraph
o Create First Line Indent

o Apply a Style

o Customize a Style

o Create a New Style

Modify Page Layout

o Change Page Orientation

Page 16 of 206
o Change Page Size

o Change Page Margins

o Insert Break

o Insert Header Footer

Working with Tables

o To Insert Table

o Convert Text to Table

o Add Row in Table

o Add Column in Table

o Delete Column/Row

o Modify Table

o Split Text to Column

Inserting Illustrations
o Insert Smart Art

o Add Text in Smart Art

o Insert Picture

o Insert Clip Art

o Format Picture

Working with Lists

o Create Lists

o Use Symbols as Bullets

Using WordArt
o Insert WordArt

o Format WordArt

Page 17 of 206
In this chapter, we will discuss how to get started with Word 2010. We will understand how to
start a Word 2010 application in simple steps. Assuming you have Microsoft Office 2010
installed in your PC, to start the Word application, follow these steps −
Step 1 − Click the Start button.

Step 2 − Click the All Programs option from the menu.

Page 18 of 206
Step 3 − Search for Microsoft Office from the submenu and click it.

Page 19 of 206
Step 4 − Search for Microsoft Word 2010 from the submenu and click it.

Page 20 of 206
This will launch the Microsoft Word 2010 application and you will see the following window.

Page 21 of 206
In this chapter, we will understand how to explore Window in Word 2010. Following is the
basic window which you get when you start the Word application. Let us understand the
various important parts of this window..

File Tab

The File tab replaces the Office button from Word 2007. You can click it to check
the Backstage view. This is where you come when you need to open or save files, create new
documents, print a document, and do other file-related operations.

Quick Access Toolbar

Page 22 of 206
This you will find just above the File tab. This is a convenient resting place for the
mostfrequently used commands in Word. You can customize this toolbar based on your
comfort.

Ribbon

Ribbon contains commands organized in three components −

 Tabs − These appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related
commands. Home, Insert, Page Layout are examples of ribbon tabs.
 Groups − They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group
on the Ribbon. For example, group of commands related to fonts or group of
commands related to alignment, etc.
 Commands − Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.

Title bar

This lies in the middle and at the top of the window. Title bar shows the program and
document titles.

Rulers

Word has two rulers - a horizontal ruler and a vertical ruler. The horizontal ruler appears just
beneath the Ribbon and is used to set margins and tab stops. The vertical ruler appears on the
left edge of the Word window and is used to gauge the vertical position of elements on the
page.

Help

The Help Icon can be used to get word related help anytime you like. This provides nice
tutorial on various subjects related to word.

Zoom Control

Zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of a
slider that you can slide left or right to zoom in or out; you can click the + buttons to increase
or decrease the zoom factor.

Page 23 of 206
View Buttons

The group of five buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the
screen, lets you switch through the Word's various document views.
 Print Layout view − This displays pages exactly as they will appear when printed.
 Full Screen Reading view − This gives a full screen view of the document.
 Web Layout view − This shows how a document appears when viewed by a Web
browser, such as Internet Explorer.
 Outline view − This lets you work with outlines established using Word’s standard
heading styles.
 Draft view − This formats text as it appears on the printed page with a few exceptions.
For example, headers and footers aren't shown. Most people prefer this mode.

Document Area

This is the area where you type. The flashing vertical bar is called the insertion point and it
represents the location where text will appear when you type.

Status Bar

This displays the document information as well as the insertion point location. From left to
right, this bar contains the total number of pages and words in the document, language, etc.
You can configure the status bar by right-clicking anywhere on it and by selecting or
deselecting options from the provided list.

Dialog Box Launcher

This appears as very small arrow in the lower-right corner of many groups on the Ribbon.
Clicking this button opens a dialog box or task pane that provides more options about the
group.
In this chapter, we will discuss the Backstage View in Word 2010. The Backstage view was
introduced in Word 2010. This acts as the central place for managing your documents. The
backstage view helps in creating new documents, saving and opening documents, printing and
sharing documents, and so on.
Getting to the Backstage View is easy: Just click the File tab, located in the upper-left corner of
the Word Ribbon. If you already do not have any opened document, then you will see a
window listing down all the recently opened documents as follows −

Page 24 of 206
If you already have an opened document, then it will display a window showing detail about
the opened document as shown below. Backstage view shows three columns when you select
most of the available options in the first column.

Page 25 of 206
The first column of the backstage view will have following options −

[Link] Option & Description

Save
1
If an existing document is opened, it will be saved as is, otherwise it will display a dialogue box
asking for the document name.

Save As
2
A dialogue box will be displayed asking for document name and document type, by default it will
save in word 2010 format with extension .docx.

3 Open
This option is used to open an existing word document.

Page 26 of 206
 4 Close
This option is used to close an open document.

5 Info
This option displays information about the opened document.

6 Recent
This option lists down all the recently opened documents

7 New
This option is used to open a new document.

8 Print
This option is used to print an open document.

Save & Send

9
This option will save an open document and will display options to send the document using email,
etc.

10 Help
This option is used to get the required help about Word 2010.

11 Options
This option is used to set various option related to Word 2010.

12 Exit
Use this option to close the document and exit.

Document Information

Page 27 of 206
When you click the Info option available in the first column, it displays the following
information in the second column of the backstage view −
 Compatibility Mode − If the document is not a native Word 2007/2010 document,
a Convert button appears here, enabling you to easily update its format. Otherwise,
this category does not appear.
 Permissions − You can use this option to protect your word document. You can set a
password so that nobody can open your document, or you can lock the document so
that nobody can edit your document.
 Prepare for Sharing − This section highlights important information you should know
about your document before you send it to others, such as a record of the edits you
made as you developed the document.
 Versions − If the document has been saved several times, you may be able to access the
previous versions of it from this section.

Document Properties

When you click the Info option available in the first column, it displays various properties in
the third column of the backstage view. These properties include the document size, the
number of pages in the document, the total number of words in the document, the name of
the author etc.
You can also edit various properties by clicking on the property value and if the property is
editable, then it will display a text box where you can add your text like title, tags, comments,
Author.

Exit Backstage View

It is simple to exit from the Backstage View. Either click on the File tab or press the Esc button
on the keyboard to go back to the working mode of Word.
n this chapter, let us discuss how to enter text with Microsoft Word 2010. Let us see how easy
it is to enter text in a Word document. We assume you know that when you start Word, it
displays a new document by default as shown below −

Page 28 of 206
Document area is the area where you type your text. The flashing vertical bar is called the
insertion point and it represents the location where the text will appear when you type. keep
the cursor at the text insertion point and start typing the text. We typed only two words "Hello
Word" as shown below. The text appears to the left of the insertion point as you type −

Page 29 of 206
The following are the two important points that will help you while typing −
 You do not need to press Enter to start a new line. As the insertion point reaches the
end of the line, Word automatically starts a new one. You will need to press Enter, to
add a new paragraph.
 When you want to add more than one space between words, use the Tab key instead of
the spacebar. This way you can properly align text by using the proportional fonts.
In this chapter, we will discuss how to move around in Word 2010. Word provides a number of
ways to move around a document using the mouse and the keyboard.
To begin with, let us create some sample text. To create a sample text, there is a short cut
available. Open a new document and type =rand() and press Enter. Word will create the
following content for you −

Page 30 of 206
Moving with Mouse

You can easily move the insertion point by clicking in your text anywhere on the screen. There
may be instances when a document is big and you cannot see a place where you want to
move. Here, you will have to use the scroll bars, as shown in the following screenshot −

Page 31 of 206
You can scroll through your document by rolling your mouse wheel, which is equivalent to
clicking the up-arrow or down-arrow buttons in the scroll bar.

Moving with Scroll Bars

As shown in the above screenshot, there are two scroll bars: one for moving vertically within
the document, and one for moving horizontally. Using the vertical scroll bar, you may −
 Move upward by one line by clicking the upward-pointing scroll arrow.
 Move downward by one line by clicking the downward-pointing scroll arrow.
 Move one next page, using the next page button (footnote).
 Move one previous page, using the previous page button (footnote).
 Use the Browse Object button to move through the document, going from one chosen
object to the next.

Moving with Keyboard

Page 32 of 206
The following keyboard commands, used for moving around your document, also move the
insertion point −

Keystroke Where the Insertion Point Moves

Forward one character

Back one character

Up one line

Down one line

PageUp To the previous screen

PageDown To the next screen

Home To the beginning of the current line

End To the end of the current line

You can move word by word or paragraph by paragraph. You would have to hold down the Ctrl
key while pressing an arrow key, which moves the insertion point as described here −

Key Combination Where the Insertion Point Moves

Ctrl + To the next word

Ctrl + To the previous word

Page 33 of 206
Ctrl + To the start of the previous paragraph

Ctrl + To the start of the next paragraph

Ctrl + PageUp To the previous browse object

Ctrl + PageDown To the next browse object

Ctrl + Home To the beginning of the document

Ctrl + End To the end of the document

Shift + F5 To the last place you changed in your document.

Moving with Go To Command

Press the F5 key to use the Go To command. This will display a dialogue box where you will
have various options to reach to a particular page.
Normally, we use the page number, the line number or the section number to go directly to a
particular page and finally press the Go To button.

Page 34 of 206
 Excel 2010 Tutorial
Microsoft Excel is a commercial spreadsheet application, written and distributed by Microsoft
for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. At the time of writing this tutorial the Microsoft excel
version was 2010 for Microsoft Windows and 2011 for Mac OS X.
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet tool capable of performing calculations, analyzing data and
integrating information from different programs.
By default, documents saved in Excel 2010 are saved with the .xlsx extension whereas the file
extension of the prior Excel versions are .xls.
This chapter teaches you how to start an excel 2010 application in simple steps. Assuming you
have Microsoft Office 2010 installed in your PC, start the excel application following the below
mentioned steps in your PC.
Step 1 − Click on the Start button.

Step 2 − Click on All Programs option from the menu.

Page 35 of 206
Step 3 − Search for Microsoft Office from the sub menu and click it.

Step 4 − Search for Microsoft Excel 2010 from the submenu and click it.

Page 36 of 206
This will launch the Microsoft Excel 2010 application and you will see the following excel
window.

The following basic window appears when you start the excel application. Let us now
understand the various important parts of this window.

Page 37 of 206
File Tab

The File tab replaces the Office button from Excel 2007. You can click it to check the Backstage
view, where you come when you need to open or save files, create new sheets, print a sheet,
and do other file-related operations.

Quick Access Toolbar

You will find this toolbar just above the File tab and its purpose is to provide a convenient
resting place for the Excel's most frequently used commands. You can customize this toolbar
based on your comfort.

Ribbon

Page 38 of 206
Ribbon contains commands organized in three components −
 Tabs − They appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related
commands. Home, Insert, Page Layout are the examples of ribbon tabs.
 Groups − They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group
on the Ribbon. For example, group of commands related to fonts or group of
commands related to alignment etc.
 Commands − Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.

Title Bar

This lies in the middle and at the top of the window. Title bar shows the program and the
sheet titles.

Help

The Help Icon can be used to get excel related help anytime you like. This provides nice
tutorial on various subjects related to excel.

Zoom Control

Zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of a
slider that you can slide left or right to zoom in or out. The + buttons can be clicked to increase
or decrease the zoom factor.

View Buttons

The group of three buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the
screen, lets you switch among excel's various sheet views.
 Normal Layout view − This displays the page in normal view.
 Page Layout view − This displays pages exactly as they will appear when printed. This
gives a full screen look of the document.
 Page Break view − This shows a preview of where pages will break when printed.

Sheet Area

Page 39 of 206
The area where you enter data. The flashing vertical bar is called the insertion point and it
represents the location where text will appear when you type.

Row Bar

Rows are numbered from 1 onwards and keeps on increasing as you keep entering data.
Maximum limit is 1,048,576 rows.

Column Bar

Columns are numbered from A onwards and keeps on increasing as you keep entering data.
After Z, it will start the series of AA, AB and so on. Maximum limit is 16,384 columns.

Status Bar

This displays the current status of the active cell in the worksheet. A cell can be in either of the
fours states (a) Ready mode which indicates that the worksheet is ready to accept user inpu
(b) Edit mode indicates that cell is editing mode, if it is not activated the you can activate
editing mode by double-clicking on a cell (c) A cell enters into Enter mode when a user types
data into a cell (d) Point mode triggers when a formula is being entered using a cell reference
by mouse pointing or the arrow keys on the keyboard.

Dialog Box Launcher

This appears as a very small arrow in the lower-right corner of many groups on the Ribbon.
Clicking this button opens a dialog box or task pane that provides more options about the
group.
The Backstage view has been introduced in Excel 2010 and acts as the central place for
managing your sheets. The backstage view helps in creating new sheets, saving and opening
sheets, printing and sharing sheets, and so on.
Getting to the Backstage View is easy. Just click the File tab located in the upper-left corner of
the Excel Ribbon. If you already do not have any opened sheet then you will see a window
listing down all the recently opened sheets as follows −

Page 40 of 206
If you already have an opened sheet then it will display a window showing the details about
the opened sheet as shown below. Backstage view shows three columns when you select most
of the available options in the first column.

Page 41 of 206
First column of the backstage view will have the following options −

[Link]. Option & Description

1 Save
If an existing sheet is opened, it would be saved as is, otherwise it will display a dialogue box
asking for the sheet name.

2 Save As
A dialogue box will be displayed asking for sheet name and sheet type. By default, it will save in
sheet 2010 format with extension .xlsx.

3 Open
This option is used to open an existing excel sheet.

Page 42 of 206
4 Close
This option is used to close an opened sheet.

5 Info
This option displays the information about the opened sheet.

6
Recent
This option lists down all the recently opened sheets.

7 New
This option is used to open a new sheet.

8 Print
This option is used to print an opened sheet.

9 Save & Send

This option saves an opened sheet and displays options to send the sheet using email etc.

10 Help
You can use this option to get the required help about excel 2010.

11 Options
Use this option to set various option related to excel 2010.

12 Exit
Use this option to close the sheet and exit.

Sheet Information

When you click Info option available in the first column, it displays the following information in
the second column of the backstage view −

Page 43 of 206
  Compatibility Mode − If the sheet is not a native excel 2007/2010 sheet, a Convert
button appears here, enabling you to easily update its format. Otherwise, this category
does not appear.
 Permissions − You can use this option to protect the excel sheet. You can set a
password so that nobody can open your sheet, or you can lock the sheet so that
nobody can edit your sheet.
 Prepare for Sharing − This section highlights important information you should know
about your sheet before you send it to others, such as a record of the edits you made
as you developed the sheet.
 Versions − If the sheet has been saved several times, you may be able to access
previous versions of it from this section.

Sheet Properties

When you click Info option available in the first column, it displays various properties in the
third column of the backstage view. These properties include sheet size, title, tags, categories
etc.
You can also edit various properties. Just try to click on the property value and if property is
editable, then it will display a text box where you can add your text like title, tags, comments,
Author.

Exit Backstage View

It is simple to exit from the Backstage View. Either click on the File tab or press the Esc button
on the keyboard to go back to excel working mode.
Entering values in excel sheet is a child’s play and this chapter shows how to enter values in an
excel sheet. A new sheet is displayed by default when you open an excel sheet as shown in the
below screen shot.

Page 44 of 206
Sheet area is the place where you type your text. The flashing vertical bar is called the
insertion point and it represents the location where text will appear when you type. When you
click on a box then the box is highlighted. When you double click the box, the flashing vertical
bar appears and you can start entering your data.
So, just keep your mouse cursor at the text insertion point and start typing whatever text you
would like to type. We have typed only two words "Hello Excel" as shown below. The text
appears to the left of the insertion point as you type.

Page 45 of 206
There are following three important points, which would help you while typing −

 Press Tab to go to next column.

 Press Enter to go to next row.
 Press Alt + Enter to enter a new line in the same column

Page 46 of 206
 Powerpoint 2010 Tutorial

Microsoft PowerPoint is a commercial presentation application written and distributed by

Microsoft for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. The current versions at the time of writing this
tutorial are 2010 for Microsoft Windows and 2011 for Mac OS X. Microsoft PowerPoint is a
presentation tool that supports text, shapes, graphics, pictures and multimedia along with
integration with other Microsoft Office products like Excel. By default, documents saved in
PowerPoint 2010 are saved with the .pptx extension whereas, the file extension of the prior
PowerPoint versions is .ppt.

In this chapter, we will understand how to get started with PowerPoint 2010. We will
understand how to start PowerPoint 2010 application in simple steps. To access PowerPoint
2010, you must have Microsoft Office 2010 installed in your PC. Only Office 2010 Home and
Student, Home and Business, Standard, Professional and Professional Plus packages have
PowerPoint included in them. Other packages may have a viewer, but you cannot create
presentations with them.
Step 1 − Click the Start button.

Step 2 − Click All Programs option from the menu.

Page 47 of 206
Step 3 − Search for Microsoft Office from the sub menu and click it.

Step 4 − Search for Microsoft PowerPoint 2010 from the submenu and click it.

Page 48 of 206
This will launch the Microsoft PowerPoint 2010 application and you will see the following
presentation window.

The following screenshot shows the various areas in a standard PowerPoint file. It is important
to familiarize yourself with these areas as it makes learning and using PowerPoint easier.

Page 49 of 206
File Tab

This tab opens the Backstage view which basically allows you to manage the file and settings
in PowerPoint. You can save presentations, open existing ones and create new presentations
based on blank or predefined templates. The other file related operations can also be
executed from this view.

Ribbon

Page 50 of 206
The ribbon contains three components −
 Tabs − They appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related
commands. Home, Insert, Page Layout are examples of ribbon tabs.
 Groups − They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group
on the Ribbon. For example, a group of commands related to fonts or a group of
commands related to alignment, etc.
 Commands − Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.

Title Bar

This is the top section of the window. It shows the name of the file followed by the name of
the program which in this case is Microsoft PowerPoint.

Slide Area

This is the area where the actual slide is created and edited. You can add, edit and delete text,
images, shapes and multimedia in this section.

Help

The Help Icon can be used to get PowerPoint related help anytime you need. Clicking on the
"?" opens the PowerPoint Help window where you have a list of common topics to browse
from. You can also search for specific topics from the search bar at the top.

Page 51 of 206
Page 52 of 206
Zoom Options

The zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of a
slider that you can slide left or right to zoom in or out, you can click on the - and + buttons to
increase or decrease the zoom factor. The maximum zoom supported by PowerPoint is 400%
and the 100% is indicated by the mark in the middle.

Slide Views

The group of four buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the
screen, lets you switch between PowerPoint views.
 Normal Layout view − This displays page in normal view with the slide on the right and
a list of thumbnails to the left. This view allows you to edit individual slides and also
rearrange them.
 Slide Sorter view − This displays all the slides as a matrix. This view only allows you to
rearrange the slides but not edit the contents of each slide.
 Reading View − This view is like a slideshow with access to the Windows task bar in
case you need to switch windows. However, like the slideshow you cannot edit
anything in this view.

Notes Section

This sections allows you to add notes for the presentation. These notes will not be displayed
on the screen during the presentation; these are just quick reference for the presenter.

Quick Access Toolbar

The Quick Access Toolbar is located just under the ribbon. This toolbar offers a convenient
place to group the most commonly used commands in PowerPoint. You can customize this
toolbar to suit your needs.

Slide Tab

This section is available only in the Normal view. It displays all the slides in sequence. You
can add, delete and reorder slides from this section.
In Office 2010, Microsoft replaced the traditional file menu with the new Backstage view. This
view not only offers all the menu items under the file menu, but additional details which
makes management of your files a lot easier.

Accessing Backstage View

Page 53 of 206
You can access the Backstage view simply by clicking on the File tab. You can exit this view by
clicking on any tab (including the File tab again). You can also press the 'Esc' button on the
keyboard.

Organization of Backstage View

The backstage view has three sections or panes.

Page 54 of 206
  First Pane − This is the commands pane which consists of all the commands you would
typically find in the file menu of older versions. You also have the Options menu which
lets you edit the options on the program like customizing the ribbon.
Various commands under the first pane are described in the table below −

[Link] Command & Description

1 Save
This allows you to save a new file or an existing file in standard format. If you are working on a
previously saved file this will save the new changes in the same file format. If you are working on a
new file, this command would be similar to the Save As command.

Page 55 of 206
2 Save As
Allows you to specify the file name and the file type before saving the file.

3 Open
Allows you to open new PowerPoint files.

4
Close
Allows you to close an existing file.

5 Info
Displays the information about the current file.

6 Recent
Lists series of recently viewed or edited PowerPoint files.

7 New
Allows you to create a new file using blank or pre-defined templates.

8 Print
Allows you to select the printer settings and print the presentation.

9 Save & Send

Allows you to share your presentation with larger audience via emails, web, cloud services, etc.

10 Help
Provides access to PowerPoint Help.

11 Options
Allows you to set various options related to PowerPoint program.

Page 56 of 206
12 Exit
Closes the presentation and exits the program.

 Second Pane − This is the subcommands pane. This will list all the commands related to
the main command you choose in the first pane. For example, if you select Print in the
first pane, you get to choose the printer and adjust the print settings in the second
pane.
 Third Pane − This is the preview or file information page. Depending on the command
and the subcommand you select, this pane will either display the properties of the file
or give you a preview of the file.
 PowerPoint offers a host of tools that will aid you in creating a presentation. These
tools are organized logically into various ribbons in PowerPoint. The table below
describes the various commands you can access from the different menus.

Page 57 of 206
 
Menu Category Ribbon Commands

Home Clipboard functions, manipulating slides, fonts, paragraph settings, drawing

objects and editing functions.

Insert Insert tables, pictures, images, shapes, charts, special texts, multimedia and
symbols.

Design Slide setup, slide orientation, presentation themes and background.

Page 58 of 206
Transitions Commands related to slide transitions.

Animations Commands related to animation within the individual slides.

Slide Show Commands related to slideshow set up and previews.

Review Proofing content, language selection, comments and comparing presentations.

View Commands related to presentation views, Master slides, color settings and
window arrangements.

 Besides these depending on the objects selected in the slide, there are other menu tabs
that get enabled.

Page 59 of 206
 UNIT-2
Basics of Computer Networks
Computer network is an interconnection between two or more hosts/computers. The
connectivity can be physical by using cables or virtual using wireless network. Different types
of networks include LAN, WAN, MAN, etc., as shown below −

Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network (LAN) provides data communication within shorter distance and connects
several devices such as computers and printers. This type of network contains computers that
are relatively closer and are physically connected with cables and wireless media. Any network
that exists within a single building, or even a group of adjacent buildings, is considered as LAN.
It is often used to connect separate LANs together so they can communicate and exchange
data.

Page 60 of 206
Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network is connecting two or more LANs together, generally across a wide
geographical area.

Example
A company may have its corporate headquarters and manufacturing plant located in one city
and marketing office in another city. Each site needs resources, data and programs locally, but
it also needs to share data with other sites. To accomplish this, the company can attach
devices that connect over public utilities to create a WAN.

Page 61 of 206
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extensive network that connects numerous corporate
LANs together. Usually MANs are not owned by sole organization. Their communication
devices and equipment are maintained by a group or single network provider that sells its
networking services to corporate customers. MANs often take the role of high-speed network
that allows sharing of regional resources. MANs also can provide a mutual connection to other
networks using a WAN link.

Page 62 of 206
Internet is a global communication system that links together thousands of individual
networks. It allows exchange of information between two or more computers on a network.
Thus internet helps in transfer of messages through mail, chat, video & audio conference, etc.
It has become mandatory for day-to-day activities: bills payment, online shopping and surfing,
tutoring, working, communicating with peers, etc.
In this topic, we are going to discuss in detail about concepts like basics of computer networks,
Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), concept of internet, basics of internet
architecture, services on internet, World Wide Web and websites, communication on internet,
internet services, preparing computer for internet access, ISPs and examples
(Broadband/Dialup/Wi-Fi), internet access techniques, web browsing software, popular web
browsing software, configuring web browser, search engines, popular search engines/search
for content, accessing web browser, using favorites folder, downloading web pages and
printing web pages.

[Link]. Internet, WWW, Web Browsers Concepts & Description

1 Basics of Computer Networks

Computer network is an interconnection between two or more hosts/computers. Different

types of networks include LAN, WAN, MAN, etc.

Page 63 of 206
2 Internet Architecture
Internet is called the network of networks. It is a global communication system that links
together thousands of individual networks. Internet architecture is a meta-network, which
refers to a congregation of thousands of distinct networks interacting with a common protocol

3 Services on Internet
Internet acts as a carrier for numerous diverse services, each with its own distinctive features
and purposes.

4 Communication on Internet
communication can happens through the the Internet by using Email, Internet Relay Chat, Video
Conference etc.

5 Preparing Computer for Internet Access

We shall learn how to use functions and charts in Microsoft Excel Using Formulas like Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division

6 Internet Access Techniques

A chart is a graphical representation of worksheet data. Charts can make data interesting,
attractive and easy to read and evaluate. They can also help you to analyze and compare data.

7 Web Browsing Software

"World Wide Web" or simple "Web" is the name given to all the resources of internet. The
special software or application program with which you can access web is called "Web
Browser".

8 Configuring Web Browser

Search Engine is an application that allows you to search for content on the web. It displays
multiple web pages based on the content or a word you have typed.

9 Search Engines
Search Engine is an application that allows you to search for content on the web. It displays
multiple web pages based on the content or a word you have typed.

10 Search for the content

Search Engine helps to search for content on web using the different stages

Page 64 of 206
11 Accessing Web Browser
There are several ways to access a web page like using URLs, hyperlinks, using navigating tools,
search engine, etc.

Summary

This topic summarized the concepts of internet like LAN, WAN, internet architecture, internet
services, WWW, communications on the internet, internet service providers, internet access
techniques, web browsers, search engines, favourites folder, configuration of web browsers,
and downloading & printing web pages.
Communication refers to exchange of information between persons through internet. Internet
provides a basis for communication and collaboration which can be done using mail, chat,
skype, etc. When dealing with official matters, electronic mail helps in the exchange of
messages text documents, web pages, audio, video, etc.
In this topic, we are going to discuss in detail about basics of email, email addressing,
configuring email client, using emails, opening email client, mailbox, creating and sending a
new email, replying to an email message, forwarding an email message, sorting and searching
emails, advance email features, sending documents by email, activating spell check, using
address book, sending softcopy as attachment, handling spam, instant messaging and
collaboration, using emoticons and some of the internet etiquettes.

Basics of E-mail

Electronic mail is an application that supports interchange of information between two or

more persons. Usually text messages are transmitted through email. Audio and video transfer
through email depends on the browser in use. This provides a faster way of communication in
an affordable cost.

Advantages of E-mail
Functionalities like attachment of documents, data files, program files, etc., can be enabled.
This is a faster way of communication at an affordable cost.

Disadvantages of E-mail
If the connection to the ISP is lost, then you can’t access email. Once you send an mail to a
recipient, you have to wait until she/he reads and replies to your mail.

Email Addressing

Email address is a unique address given to the user that helps to identify the user while
sending and receiving messages or mails.

Page 65 of 206
Username − Name that identifies any user’s mailbox
Domain name − Represents the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
@ Symbol − Helps to concatenate username and domain name.
For example − user_name@domain_name
Username − user, Domain name − [Link]

[Link]. Communication and Collaboration Concepts & Description

1 Configuring Email Client

Configuring email client is setting up a client which includes the various steps.

2 Using E-mails

The main purpose of using email is to exchange information between persons. The process
starts with opening of client email and ends with sending and verifying mail to recipients.

3 Mailbox: Inbox and Outbox

Inbox is an area where you can see all the received mails. Outbox is an area where the outgoing
messages or messages which are in process of sending or which are failed to send are stored.

4 Advance Email Features

Email provides many advanced features which includes sending attachments like documents,
videos, images, audio, etc.

5 Instant Messaging and Collaboration

Instant messaging is real time mutual communication between persons via internet. This is a
private chat. Once the recipient is online, you can start sending messages to him/her.

6 Internet etiquettes

Internet etiquettes are also called as "Netiquette".Netiquettes are basic rules or techniques
which are accepted worldwide

Summary

Page 66 of 206
This chapter has given a clear idea about the electronic mail and its features. Thus, we gained
a deep understanding about the basics of email, email addressing, configuring email client,
using emails, opening email client, mailbox, creating and sending a new email, replying to an
email message, forwarding an email message, sorting and searching emails, advance email
features like sending document by email, activating spell check, using address book, sending
softcopy as an attachment, handling SPAM, Instant Messaging and Collaboration, using
smiley/emoticons and some internet etiquettes.
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other
electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a
fast, secure and correct way over same or different networks. Network devices may be inter-
network or intra-network. Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45
connector, whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us explore some
of these devices in greater detail.

Modem

Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can
transmit only analog data.

The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa. Modem
is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator. The modulator converts
digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the computer.
The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being received by the
computer.

Types of Modem

Page 67 of 206
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data, type of
connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −
 Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from digital device
to network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator).
 Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the
directions but only one at a time.
 Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions
simultaneously.

RJ45 Connector

RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by devices to
physically connect to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). Ethernet is a technology that
defines protocols for establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair
ones and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go into the corresponding socket
on devices and connect the device to the network.

Ethernet Card

Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component used by
computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on the LAN. The
earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be installed manually. In
modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component. The NIC has RJ45
socket where network cable is physically plugged in.

Page 68 of 206
Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports. Old Ethernet cards
had maximum speed of 10 Mbps. However, modern cards support fast Ethernets up to a
speed of 100 Mbps. Some cards even have capacity of 1 Gbps.

Router

A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another if
both networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically connected to at least
two LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form of packets,
which are data frames with their destination address added. Router also strengthens the
signals before transmitting them. That is why it is also called repeater.

Page 69 of 206
Routing Table

A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can take to reach
its destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of these two types −
 Static − In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only for
very small networks that have maximum two to three routers.
 Dynamic − In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers
through protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger networks
where manual feeding may not be feasible due to large number of routers.

Switch

Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks through twisted
pair cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on
the network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices connected to
it.

Page 70 of 206
On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to the
correct port. Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network
errors. The data is transmitted in full duplex mode

Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices like hubs
used for networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the devices
connected to it. This helps in maintaining network speed even during high traffic. In fact,
higher data speeds are achieved on networks through use of multiple switches.

Gateway

Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. In networking
parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar networks. A gateway usually is a
computer with multiple NICs connected to different networks. A gateway can also be
configured completely using software. As networks connect to a different network through
gateways, these gateways are usually hosts or end points of the network.

Page 71 of 206
Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to another. In
this way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit data only over
networks that use same protocols.

Wi-Fi Card

Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve wireless
connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the local
network wirelessly. The physical area of the network which provides internet access through
Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space.
Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.

Page 72 of 206
A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing, downloading digital camera
images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern devices come with their in-built wireless
network adapter.
The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network topology.
Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a network are −
 Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an
infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc. have
to be considered when designing a network.
 Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow reconfiguration
of office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing nodes.
 Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down time.
Failure of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole network
useless.
 Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load of new
devices and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.
 Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware, software
and technical personnel requirements.
 Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be easy.

Page 73 of 206
Bus Topology

Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial, to which
many network devices and workstations are attached along the length. Server is at one end of
the bus. When a workstation has to send data, it transmits packets with destination address in
its header along the bus.

The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal sees the
data, it copies it to the local disk.

Advantages of Bus Topology

These are the advantages of using bus topology −

 Easy to install and maintain

 Can be extended easily
 Very reliable because of single transmission line

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

These are some disadvantages of using bus topology −

 Troubleshooting is difficult as there is no single point of control

 One faulty node can bring the whole network down
 Dumb terminals cannot be connected to the bus

Page 74 of 206
Ring Topology

In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the network a circular
shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.

When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which transmits it to
the next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In this way, data raverses the
network and reaches the destination node, which removes it from the network. If the data
reaches the sender, it removes the data and resends it later.

Advantages of Ring Topology

These are the advantages of using ring topology −

 Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

 Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in only one direction
 Very high transmission speeds possible

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

These are some the disadvantages of using ring topology −
 Failure of single node brings down the whole network

Page 75 of 206
  Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty one
is identified
 Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact

Star Topology

In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called the central
node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the server. It is the
most popular topology for information and voice networks as central node can process data
received from source node before sending it to the destination node.

Advantages of Star Topology

These are the advantages of using star topology −
 Failure of one node does not affect the network
 Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node immediately
 Simple access protocols required as one of the communicating nodes is always the
central node

Disadvantages of Star Topology

These are the disadvantages of using star topology −

Page 76 of 206
  Long cables may be required to connect each node to the server
 Failure of central node brings down the whole network

Tree Topology

Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable. It
incorporates features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called hierarchical
topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the advantages of using tree topology −
 Existing network can be easily expanded
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means easier installation and
maintenance
 Well suited for temporary networks

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the disadvantages of using tree topology −
 Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology
 Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network

Page 77 of 206
 Insecure network
 Maintenance difficult for large networks
 Networks can be categorized depending on size, complexity, level of security, or
geographical range. We will discuss some of the most popular topologies based on
geographical spread.
 PAN
 PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the interconnection between
devices within the range of a person’s private space, typically within a range of 10
metres. If you have transferred images or songs from your laptop to mobile or from
mobile to your friend’s mobile using Bluetooth, you have set up and used a personal
area network.


 A person can connect her laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant and portable
printer in a network at home. This network could be fully Wi-Fi or a combination of
wired and wireless.
 LAN
 LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single site like an office,
building or manufacturing unit. LAN is set up to when team members need to share
software and hardware resources with each other but not with the outside world.

Page 78 of 206
 Typical software resources include official documents, user manuals, employee
handbook, etc. Hardware resources that can be easily shared over the network include
printer, fax machines, modems, memory space, etc. This decreases infrastructure costs
for the organization drastically.


 A LAN may be set up using wired or wireless connections. A LAN that is completely
wireless is called Wireless LAN or WLAN.
 MAN
 MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a network spread over a city,
college campus or a small region. MAN is larger than a LAN and typically spread over
several kilometres. Objective of MAN is to share hardware and software resources,
thereby decreasing infrastructure costs. MAN can be built by connecting several LANs.

Page 79 of 206
  The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.
 WAN
 WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many countries. WAN is
typically a network of many LANs, MANs and WANs. Network is set up using wired or
wireless connections, depending on availability and reliability.


 The most common example of WAN is the Internet.
Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy, reliable
and secure way. Before we discuss the most common protocols used to transmit and receive
data over a network, we need to understand how a network is logically organized or designed.
The most popular model used to establish open communication between two systems is
the Open Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed by ISO.

OSI Model

OSI model is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact services and
protocols for each layer. It simply tells what each layer should do by defining its input and
output data. It is up to network architects to implement the layers according to their needs
and resources available.
These are the seven layers of the OSI model −
 Physical layer −It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that need to
communicate. It transmits data in bits and manages simplex or duplex transmission by
modem. It also manages Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network,
like cabling, cable terminators, topography, voltage levels, etc.

Page 80 of 206
 Data link layer − It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles
datagrams into frames and adds start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves
problems caused by damaged, lost or duplicate frames.
 Network layer − It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of
information between the workstations. It also breaks down transport layer datagrams
into smaller datagrams.
 Transport layer − Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer breaks it
down into data frames, provides error checking at network segment level and prevents
a fast host from overrunning a slower one. Transport layer isolates the upper layers
from network hardware.
 Session layer − This layer is responsible for establishing a session between two
workstations that want to exchange data.
 Presentation layer − This layer is concerned with correct representation of data, i.e.
syntax and semantics of information. It controls file level security and is also
responsible for converting data to network standards.
 Application layer − It is the topmost layer of the network that is responsible for sending
application requests by the user to the lower levels. Typical applications include file
transfer, E-mail, remote logon, data entry, etc.

Page 81 of 206
It is not necessary for every network to have all the layers. For example, network layer is not
there in broadcast networks.
When a system wants to share data with another workstation or send a request over the
network, it is received by the application layer. Data then proceeds to lower layers after
processing till it reaches the physical layer.
At the physical layer, the data is actually transferred and received by the physical layer of the
destination workstation. There, the data proceeds to upper layers after processing till it
reaches application layer.
At the application layer, data or request is shared with the workstation. So each layer has
opposite functions for source and destination workstations. For example, data link layer of the
source workstation adds start and stop flags to the frames but the same layer of the
destination workstation will remove the start and stop flags from the frames.
Let us now see some of the protocols used by different layers to accomplish user requests.

TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of layered
protocols used for communication over the Internet. The communication model of this suite is
client-server model. A computer that sends a request is the client and a computer to which the
request is sent is the server.

Page 82 of 206
Page 83 of 206
TCP/IP has four layers −
 Application layer − Application layer protocols like HTTP and FTP are used.
 Transport layer − Data is transmitted in form of datagrams using the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP). TCP is responsible for breaking up data at the client side and
then reassembling it on the server side.
 Network layer − Network layer connection is established using Internet Protocol (IP) at
the network layer. Every machine connected to the Internet is assigned an address
called IP address by the protocol to easily identify source and destination machines.
 Data link layer − Actual data transmission in bits occurs at the data link layer using the
destination address provided by network layer.
TCP/IP is widely used in many communication networks other than the Internet.

FTP

As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily to facilitate sharing of files between
researchers. And to this day, file transfer remains one of the most used [Link] protocol
that handles these requests is File Transfer Protocol or FTP.

Using FTP to transfer files is helpful in these ways −

 Easily transfers files between two different networks
 Can resume file transfer sessions even if connection is dropped, if protocol is configure
appropriately

Page 84 of 206
  Enables collaboration between geographically separated teams

PPP

Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables transmission of TCP/IP
traffic over serial connection, like telephone line.

To do this, PPP defines these three things −

 A framing method to clearly define end of one frame and start of another,
incorporating errors detection as well.
 Link control protocol (LCP) for bringing communication lines up, authenticating and
bringing them down when no longer needed.
 Network control protocol (NCP) for each network layer protocol supported by other
networks.
Using PPP, home users can avail Internet connection over telephone lines.

Mobile Communication Protocols

Any device that does not need to remain at one place to carry out its functions is a mobile
device. So laptops, smartphones and personal digital assistants are some examples of mobile
devices. Due to their portable nature, mobile devices connect to networks wirelessly. Mobile
devices typically use radio waves to communicate with other devices and networks. Here we
will discuss the protocols used to carry out mobile communication.
Mobile communication protocols use multiplexing to send information. Multiplexing is a
method to combine multiple digital or analog signals into one signal over the data channel.

Page 85 of 206
This ensures optimum utilization of expensive resource and time. At the destination these
signals are de-multiplexed to recover individual signals.

These are the types of multiplexing options available to communication channels −

 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) − Here each user is assigned a different
frequency from the complete spectrum. All the frequencies can then simultaneously
travel on the data channel.
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) − A single radio frequency is divided into multiple
slots and each slot is assigned to a different user. So multiple users can be supported
simultaneously.

Page 86 of 206
  CDMA (Code Division Multiplexing) − Here several users share the same frequency
spectrum simultaneously. They are differentiated by assigning unique codes to them.
The receiver has the unique key to identify the individual calls.

GSM

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communications. GSM is one of the most widely
used digital wireless telephony system. It was developed in Europe in 1980s and is now
international standard in Europe, Australia, Asia and Africa. Any GSM handset with a SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module) card can be used in any country that uses this standard. Every
SIM card has a unique identification number. It has memory to store applications and data like
phone numbers, processor to carry out its functions and software to send and receive
messages
GSM technology uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to support up to eight calls
simultaneously. It also uses encryption to make the data more secure.
The frequencies used by the international standard is 900 MHz to 1800 MHz However, GSM
phones used in the US use 1900 MHz frequency and hence are not compatible with the
international system.

CDMA

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It was first used by the British military during
World War II. After the war its use spread to civilian areas due to high service quality. As each
user gets the entire spectrum all the time, voice quality is very high. Also, it is automatically
encrypted and hence provides high security against signal interception and eavesdropping.

WLL

WLL stands for Wireless in Local Loop. It is a wireless local telephone service that can be
provided in homes or offices. The subscribers connect to their local exchange instead of the
central exchange wirelessly. Using wireless link eliminates last mile or first mile construction of
network connection, thereby reducing cost and set up time. As data is transferred over very
short range, it is more secure than wired networks.
WLL system consists of user handsets and a base station. The base station is connected to the
central exchange as well as an antenna. The antenna transmits to and receives calls from users
through terrestrial microwave links. Each base station can support multiple handsets
depending on its capacity.

GPRS

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services. It is a packet based wireless communication
technology that charges users based on the volume of data they send rather than the time
duration for which they are using the service. This is possible because GPRS sends data over

Page 87 of 206
the network in packets and its throughput depends on network traffic. As traffic increases,
service quality may go down due to congestion, hence it is logical to charge the users as per
data volume transmitted.
GPRS is the mobile communication protocol used by second (2G) and third generation (3G) of
mobile telephony. It pledges a speed of 56 kbps to 114 kbps, however the actual speed may
vary depending on network load.
Since the introduction of first commercial mobile phone in 1983 by Motorola, mobile
technology has come a long way. Be it technology, protocols, services offered or speed, the
changes in mobile telephony have been recorded as generation of mobile communication.
Here we will discuss the basic features of these generations that differentiate it from the
previous generations.

1G Technology

1G refers to the first generation of wireless mobile communication where analog signals were
used to transmit data. It was introduced in the US in early 1980s and designed exclusively for
voice communication. Some characteristics of 1G communication are −

 Speeds up to 2.4 kbps

 Poor voice quality
 Large phones with limited battery life
 No data security

2G Technology

2G refers to the second generation of mobile telephony which used digital signals for the first
time. It was launched in Finland in 1991 and used GSM technology. Some prominent
characteristics of 2G communication are −

 Data speeds up to 64 kbps

 Text and multimedia messaging possible
 Better quality than 1G
When GPRS technology was introduced, it enabled web browsing, e-mail services and fast
upload/download speeds. 2G with GPRS is also referred as 2.5G, a step short of next mobile
generation.

3G Technology

Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony began with the start of the new millennium and
offered major advancement over previous generations. Some of the characteristics of this
generation are −

Page 88 of 206
  Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps
 High speed web browsing
 Running web based applications like video conferencing, multimedia e-mails, etc.
 Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
 3D gaming
Every coin has two sides. Here are some downsides of 3G technology −

 Expensive mobile phones

 High infrastructure costs like licensing fees and mobile towers
 Trained personnel required for infrastructure set up
The intermediate generation, 3.5G grouped together dissimilar mobile telephony and data
technologies and paved way for the next generation of mobile communication.

4G Technology

Keeping up the trend of a new mobile generation every decade, fourth generation (4G) of
mobile communication was introduced in 2011. Its major characteristics are −

 Speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps

 Mobile web access
 High definition mobile TV

Page 89 of 206
  Cloud computing
 IP telephony
Email is one of the most popular uses of Internet world wide. As per a 2015 study, there are
2.6 billion email users worldwide who send some 205 billion email messages per day. With
email accounting for so much traffic on the Internet, email protocols need to be very robust.
Here we discuss some of the most popular email protocols used worldwide.

SMTP

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is connection oriented application
layer protocol that is widely used to send and receive email messages. It was introduced in
1982 by RFC 821 and last updated in 2008 by RFC 5321. The updated version is most widely
used email protocol.
Mail servers and mail transfer agents use SMTP to both send and receive messages. However,
user level applications use it only for sending messages. For retrieving they use IMAP or POP3
because they provide mail box management
RFC or Request for Comments is a peer reviewed document jointly published by Internet
Engineering Task Force and the Internet Society. It is written by researchers and computer
scientists describing how the Internet should work and protocols and systems supporting
them.

Page 90 of 206
POP3

POP3 or Post Office Protocol Version 3 is an application layer protocol used by email clients
to retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP network. POP was designed to move
the messages from server to local disk but version 3 has the option of leaving a copy on the
server
POP3 is a very simple protocol to implement but that limits its usage. For example, POP3
supports only one mail server for each mailbox. It has now has been made obsolete by modern
protocols like IMAP.

IMAP

IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP was defined by RFC 3501 to enable
email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over a TCP/IP connection. IMAP is
designed to retrieve messages from multiple mail servers and consolidate them all in the
user’s mailbox. A typical example is a corporate client handling multiple corporate accounts
through a local mailbox located on her system.
All modern email clients and servers like Gmail, Outlook and Yahoo Mail support IMAP or POP3
protocol. These are some advantages that IMAP offers over POP3 −

 Faster response time than POP3

 Multiple mail clients connected to a single mailbox simultaneously
 Keep track of message state like read, deleted, starred, replied, etc.
 Search for messages on the server
VoIP is the acronym for Voice over Internet Protocol. It means telephone services over
Internet. Traditionally Internet had been used for exchanging messages but due to
advancement in technology, its service quality has increased manifold. It is now possible to
deliver voice communication over IP networks by converting voce data into packets. VoIP is a
set of protocols and systems developed to provide this service seamlessly.

Page 91 of 206
Here are some of the protocols used for VoIP −

 H.323
 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
 Session Description Protocol (SDP)
 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 Skype Protocol
We will discuss two of the most fundamental protocols – H.323 and SIP – here.

H.323

H.323 is a VoIP standard for defining the components, protocols and procedures to provide
real-time multimedia sessions including audio, video and data transmissions over
packetswitched networks. Some of the services facilitated by H.323 include −

 IP telephony
 Video telephony
 Simultaneous audio, video and data communications

SIP

SIP is an acronym for Session Initiation Protocol. SIP is a protocol to establish, modify and
terminate multimedia sessions like IP telephony. All systems that need multimedia sessions

Page 92 of 206
are registered and provided SIP address, much like IP address. Using this address, caller can
check callee’s availability and invite it for a VoIP session accordingly.
SIP facilitates multiparty multimedia sessions like video conferencing involving three or more
people. In a short span of time SIP has become integral to VoIP and largely replaced H.323.

Wireless Technologies
Wireless connection to internet is very common these days. Often an external modem is
connected to the Internet and other devices connect to it wirelessly. This eliminated the need
for last mile or first mile wiring. There are two ways of connecting to the Internet wirelessly –
Wi-Fi and WiMAx.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve connection to
the Internet without a direct cable between device and Internet Service Provider. Wi-Fi
enabled device and wireless router are required for setting up a Wi-Fi connection. These are
some characteristics of wireless Internet connection −

 Range of 100 yards

 Insecure connection
 Throughput of 10-12 Mbps
If a PC or laptop does not have Wi-Fi capacity, it can be added using a Wi-Fi card.

Page 93 of 206
The physical area of the network which provides Internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi
hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space like airport, railway
stations, etc. Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.

WiMax

To overcome the drawback of Wi-Fi connections, WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access) was developed. WiMax is a collection of wireless communication
standards based on IEEE 802.16. WiMax provides multiple physical layer and media access
control (MAC) options.
WiMax Forum, established in 2001, is the principal body responsible to ensure conformity and
interoperability among various commercial vendors. These are some of the characteristics of
WiMax −

 Broadband wireless access

 Range of 6 miles
 Multilevel encryption available
 Throughput of 72 Mbps

Page 94 of 206
The main components of a WiMax unit are −
 WiMax Base Station − It is a tower similar to mobile towers and connected to Internet
through high speed wired connection.
 WiMax Subscriber Unit (SU) − It is a WiMax version of wireless modem. The only
difference is that modem is connected to the Internet through cable connection
whereas WiMax SU receives Internet connection wirelessly through microwaves.

Network Security

Computer networks are an integral part of our personal and professional lives because we
carry out lots of day-to-day activities through the Internet or local organizational network. The
downside of this is that huge amount of data, from official documents to personal details, gets
shared over the network. So it becomes necessary to ensure that the data is not accessed by
unauthorized people.
Practices adopted to monitor and prevent unauthorized access and misuse of network
resources and data on them is called network security.

A network has two components – hardware and software. Both these components have their
own vulnerability to threats. Threat is a possible risk that might exploit a network weakness to
breach security and cause harm. Examples of hardware threats include −

Page 95 of 206
  Improper installation
 Use of unsecure components
 Electromagnetic interference from external sources
 Extreme weather conditions
 Lack of disaster planning
Hardware threats form only 10% of network security threats worldwide because the
components need to be accessed physically. 90% threats are through software vulnerabilities.
Here we discuss the major types of software security threats.

Virus

A virus is a malicious program or malware that attaches itself to a host and makes multiple
copies of itself (like a real virus!), slowing down, corrupting or destroying the system.
Some harmful activities that can be undertaken by a virus are −

 Taking up memory space

 Accessing private information like credit card details
 Flashing unwanted messages on user screen
 Corrupting data
 Spamming e-mail contacts
Viruses mostly attack Windows systems. Till a few years ago, Mac systems were deemed
immune from viruses, however now a handful of viruses for them exist as well.

Page 96 of 206
Viruses spread through e-mails and need a host program to function. Whenever a new
program runs on the infected system, the virus attaches itself to that program. If you are an
expert who tinkers with the OS files, they can get infected too.

Trojan Horse

Trojan horse is a malware that hides itself within another program like games or documents
and harms the system. As it is masked within another program that appears harmless, the user
is not aware of the threat. It functions in a way similar to viruses in that it needs a host
program to attach itself and harms systems in the same ways.

Trojan horses spread through emails and exchange of data through hard drives or pen drives.
Even worms could spread Trojan horses.

Worms

Worms are autonomous programs sent by the attacker to infect a system by replicating itself.
They usually infect multitasking systems that are connected to a network. Some of the harmful
activities undertaken by worms include −

 Accessing and relaying back passwords stored on the system

 Interrupt OS functioning
 Disrupt services provided by the system

Page 97 of 206
  Install viruses or Trojan horses

Spams

Electronic junk mail, unsolicited mail or junk newsroom postings are called spam. Sending
multiple unsolicited mails simultaneously is called spamming. Spamming is usually done as
part of marketing tactics to announce a product or share political or social views with a wide
base of people.
The first spam mail was sent by Gary Thuerk on ARPANET in 1978 to announce launch of new
model of Digital Equipment Corporation computers. It was sent to 393 recipients and together
with lots of hue and cry it generated sales for the company as well.

Almost all mail servers give you the option of stopping spams by marking a received mail as
junk. You should take care to share your email ID only with trusted people or websites, who
will not sell them to spammers.

Communication Technologies - Firewall

There exist multiple approaches to counter or at least reduce security threats. Some of these
are −

 Authenticating users accessing a service

 Providing access to authorized users
Page 98 of 206
  Using encrypted passwords for remote log on
 Using biometric authorization parameters
 Restricting traffic to and from
Firewalls are the first line of defense against unauthorized access to private networks. They
can be used effectively against virus, Trojan or worm attacks.

How Firewalls Work

Dictionary defines firewall as a wall or partition designed to inhibit or prevent spread of fire. In
networks, a system designed to protect an intranet from unauthorized access is called firewall.
A private network created using World Wide Web software is called an intranet. Firewall may
be implemented in both hardware and software.
All traffic to and from the network is routed through the firewall. The firewall examines each
message and blocks those that does not meet the pre-defined security criteria.
These are some of the prevalent techniques used by firewalls −
 Packet level filtering − Here each packet is examined depending on user-defined rules.
It is very effective and transparent to users, but difficult to configure. Also, as IP
address is used to identify users, IP spoofing by malicious parties can prove
counterproductive.

Page 99 of 206
  Circuit level filtering − Like good old telephone connections, circuit level filtering
applies security mechanisms while connection between two systems is being
established. Once the connection is deemed secure, data transmission can take place
for that session.
 Application level filtering − Here, security mechanisms are applied to commonly used
applications like Telnet, FTP servers, storage servers, etc. This is very effective but
slows down performance of the applications.
 Proxy server − As the name suggests, proxy server is used to interrupt all incoming and
outgoing messages and mask the true server address.
A firewall may use a combination of two or more techniques to secure the network, depending
on extent of security required.
Cookies are small text files with their unique ID stored on your system by a website. The
website stores your browsing details like preferences, customizations, login ID, pages clicked,
etc. specific to that website. Storing this information enables the website to provide you with a
customized experience the next time you visit it.

How Cookies Work

When you visit a website through your browser, the website creates and stores a cookie file in
your browser or program data folder/sub-folder. This cookie may be of two types −

Page 100 of 206

  Session cookie − It is valid only till the session lasts. Once you exit the website the
cookie is automatically deleted.
 Persistent cookie It is valid beyond your current session. Its expiration date is
mentioned within the cookie itself.
A cookie stores these information −

 Name of website server

 Cookie expiration date/time
 Unique ID
A cookie is meaningless by itself. It can be read only by the server that stored it. When you visit
the website subsequently, its server matches cookie ID with its own database of cookies and
loads webpages according to your browsing history.

Handling Cookies

Cookies were initially designed to enhance user’s web browsing experience. However, in the
current aggressive marketing scenario, rogue cookies are being used to create your profile
based on your browsing patterns without consent. So you need to be wary of cookies if you
care about your privacy and security.
Almost all modern-day browsers give you options to allow, disallow or limit cookies on your
system. You can view the cookies active on your computer and make decisions accordingly.

Communication Technologies - Hacking

Unauthorized access to data in a device, system or network is called hacking. A person hacking
another person’s system is called hacker. A hacker is a highly accomplished computer expert
who can exploit the smallest of vulnerabilities in your system or network to hack it.
A hacker may hack due to any of the following reasons −

 Steal sensitive data

 Take control of a website or network
 Test potential security threats
 Just for fun
 Broadcast personal views to a large audience

Page 101 of 206

Types of Hacking

Depending on the application or system being broken into, these are some categories of
hacking common in the cyber world −

 Website hacking
 Network hacking
 Email hacking
 Password hacking
 Online banking hacking

Ethical Hacking

As iron sharpens iron, hacking counters hacking. Using hacking techniques to identify potential
threats to a system or network is called ethical hacking. For a hacking activity to be termed
ethical, it must adhere to these criteria −
 Hacker must have written permission to identify potential security threats
 Individual’s or company’s privacy must be maintained
 Possible security breaches discovered must be intimated to the concerned authorities

Page 102 of 206

  At a later date, no one should be able to exploit ethical hacker’s inroads into the
network

Cracking

A term that goes hand in glove with hacking is cracking. Gaining unauthorized access to a
system or network with malicious intent is called cracking. Cracking is a crime and it may have
devastating impact on its victims. Crackers are criminals and strong cyber laws have been put
into place to tackle them.

Security Acts and Laws

Cyber Crimes

Any unlawful activity involving or related to computer and networks is called cybercrime. Dr.
K. Jaishankar, Professor and Head of the Department of Criminology, Raksha Shakti University,
and Dr. Debarati Halder, lawyer and legal researcher, define cybercrime thus −
Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive
to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm, or loss, to
the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet
(networks including but not limited to Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and
mobile phones (Bluetooth/SMS/MMS).
This definition implies that any crime perpetrated on the Internet or using computers is a
cybercrime.

Page 103 of 206

Examples of cybercrimes include −

 Cracking
 Identity theft
 Hate crime
 E-commerce fraud
 Credit card account theft
 Publishing obscene content
 Child pornography
 Online stalking

Page 104 of 206

  Copyright infringement
 Mass surveillance
 Cyber terrorism
 Cyber warfare

Cyber Law

Cyber law is a term that encompasses legal issues related to use of Internet and cyberspace. It
is a broad term that covers varied issues like freedom of expression, internet usage, online
privacy, child abuse, etc. Most of the countries have one or the other form of cyber law in
place to tackle the growing menace of cybercrimes.
A major issue here is that in any crime perpetrator, victim and instruments used might be
spread across multiple locations nationally as well as internationally. So investigating the crime
needs close collaboration between computer experts and multiple government authorities,
sometimes in more than one country.

Indian IT Act

Information Technology Act, 2000 is the primary Indian law dealing with cybercrime and e-
commerce. The law, also called ITA-2000 or IT Act, was notified on 17th October 2000 and is
based on the United Nations Model Law on Electronic Commerce 1996 recommended by the
UN General Assembly on 30th January 1997.
The IT Act covers whole of India and recognizes electronic records and digital signatures. Some
of its prominent features include −
 Formation of Controller of Certifying Authorities to regulate issuance of digital
signatures
 Establishment of Cyber Appellate Tribunal to resolve disputes due to the new law
 Amendment in sections of Indian Penal Code, Indian Evidence Act, Banker’s Book
Evidence Act and RBI Act to make them technology compliant
The IT Act was framed to originally to provide legal infrastructure for e-commerce in India.
However, major amendments were made in 2008 to address issues like cyber terrorism, data
protection, child pornography, stalking, etc. It also gave authorities the power to intercept,
monitor or decrypt any information through computer resources.

IPR Issues

IPR stands for Intellectual Property Rights. IPR is legal protection provided to creators
of Intellectual Property (IP). IP is any creation of the intellect or mind, like art, music,
literature, inventions, logo, symbols, tag lines, etc. Protecting the rights of intellectual property

Page 105 of 206

creators is essentially a moral issue. However, law of the land does provide legal protection in
case of violation of these rights.

Intellectual Property Rights include −

 Patents
 Copyrights
 Industrial design rights
 Trademarks
 Plant variety rights
 Trade dress
 Geographical indications
 Trade secrets

Page 106 of 206

Violation of Intellectual Property Rights is called infringement in case of patents, copyrights
and trademarks, and misappropriation in case of trade secrets. Any published material that
you view or read on the Internet is copyright of its creator and hence protected by IPR. You are
legally and morally obliged not to use it and pass it off as your own. That would be
infringement of creator’s copyright and you may incur legal action.

Communication Technologies - Web Services

Let us discuss some terms commonly used with regard to the Internet.

WWW

WWW is the acronym for World Wide Web. WWW is an information space inhabited by
interlinked documents and other media that can be accessed via the Internet. WWW was
invented by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and developed the first web browser in
1990 to facilitate exchange of information through the use of interlinked hypertexts.

A text that contains link to another piece of text is called hypertext. The web resources were
identified by a unique name called URL to avoid confusion.
World Wide Web has revolutionized the way we create, store and exchange information.
Success of WWW can be attributed to these factors −

 User friendly
 Use of multimedia
 Interlinking of pages through hypertexts
 Interactive

HTML

HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language. A language designed such that parts of text can
be marked to specify its structure, layout and style in context of the whole page is called
a markup language. Its primary function is defining, processing and presenting text.

Page 107 of 206

HTML is the standard language for creating web pages and web applications, and loading them
in web browsers. Like WWW it was created by Time Berners-Lee to enable users to access
pages from any page easily.
When you send request for a page, the web server sends file in HTML form. This HTML file is
interpreted by the web browser and displayed.

XML

XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language. It is a markup language designed to store and
transport data in safe, secure and correct way. As the word extensible indicates, XML provides
users with a tool to define their own language, especially to display documents on the
Internet.

Any XML document has two parts – structure and content. Let’s take an example to
understand this. Suppose your school library wants to create a database of magazines it
subscribes to. This is the CATALOG XML file that needs to be created.

<CATALOG>
<MAGAZINE>
<TITLE>Magic Pot</TITLE>
<PUBLISHER>MM Publications</PUBLISHER>
<FREQUENCY>Weekly</FREQUENCY>
<PRICE>15</PRICE>
</MAGAZINE>

<MAGAZINE>
<TITLE>Competition Refresher</TITLE>

Page 108 of 206

 <PUBLISHER>Bright Publications</PUBLISHER>
<FREQUENCY>Monthly</FREQUENC>
<PRICE>100</PRICE>
</MAGAZINE>
</CATALOG>
Each magazine has title, publisher, frequency and price information stored about it. This is the
structure of catalog. Values like Magic Pot, MM Publication, Monthly, Weekly, etc. are the
content.
This XML file has information about all the magazines available in the library. Remember that
this file will not do anything on its own. But another piece of code can be easily written to
extract, analyze and present data stored here.

HTTP

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is the most fundamental protocol used for
transferring text, graphics, image, video and other multimedia files on the World Wide Web.
HTTP is an application layer protocol of the TCP/IP suite in client-server networking model
and was outlined for the first time by Time Berners-Lee, father of World Wide Web.

HTTP is a request-response protocol. Here is how it functions −

 Client submits request to HTTP.
 TCP connection is established with the server.
 After necessary processing server sends back status request as well as a message. The
message may have the requested content or an error message.
An HTTP request is called method. Some of the most popular methods are GET, PUT, POST,
CONNECT, etc. Methods that have in-built security mechanisms are called safe methods while
others are called unsafe. The version of HTTP that is completely secure is HTTPS where S
stands for secure. Here all methods are secure.
An example of use of HTTP protocol is −
[Link]

Page 109 of 206

The user is requesting (by clicking on a link) the index page of video tutorials on the
[Link] website. Other parts of the request are discussed later in the chapter.

Domain Names

Domain name is a unique name given to a server to identify it on the World Wide Web. In the
example request given earlier −
[Link]
[Link] is the domain name. Domain name has multiple parts called labels
separated by dots. Let us discuss the labels of this domain name. The right most label .com is
called top level domain (TLD). Other examples of TLDs include .net, .org, .co, .au, etc.

The label left to the TLD, i.e. tutorialspoint, is the second level domain. In the above
image, .co label in .[Link] is second level domain and .uk is the TLD. www is simply a label used
to create the subdomain of [Link]. Another label could be ftp to create the
subdomain [Link].

Page 110 of 206

This logical tree structure of domain names, starting from top level domain to lower level
domain names is called domain name hierarchy. Root of the domain name hierarchy
is nameless. The maximum length of complete domain name is 253 ASCII characters.

URL

URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. URL refers to the location of a web resource on
computer network and mechanism for retrieving it. Let us continue with the above example −
[Link]
This complete string is a URL. Let’s discuss its parts −
 [Link] is the resource (web page in this case) that needs to be retrieved
 [Link] is the server on which this page is located
 videotutorials is the folder on server where the resource is located
 [Link]/videotutorials is the complete pathname of the resource
 https is the protocol to be used to retrieve the resource
URL is displayed in the address bar of the web browser.

Websites

Page 111 of 206

Website is a set of web pages under a single domain name. Web page is a text document
located on a server and connected to the World Wide Web through hypertexts. Using the
image depicting domain name hierarchy, these are the websites that can be constructed −

 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
Note that there is no protocol associated with websites 3 and 4 but they will still load, using
their default protocol.

Web Browsers

Web browser is an application software for accessing, retrieving, presenting and traversing
any resource identified by a URL on the World Wide Web. Most popular web browsers include
−

 Chrome
 Internet Explorer
 Firefox
 Apple Safari
 Opera

Page 112 of 206

Web Servers

Web server is any software application, computer or networked device that serves files to
the users as per their request. These requests are sent by client devices through HTTP or
HTTPS requests. Popular web server software include Apache, Microsoft IIS, and Nginx.

Web Hosting

Web hosting is an Internet service that enables individuals, organizations or businesses to

store web pages that can be accessed on the Internet. Web hosting service providers have
web servers on which they host web sites and their pages. They also provide the technologies
necessary for making a web page available upon client request, as discussed in HTTP above.

Web Scripting

Script is a set of instructions written using any programming language and interpreted (rather
than compiled) by another program. Embedding scripts within web pages to make them
dynamic is called web scripting.

Page 113 of 206

As you know, web pages are created using HTML, stored on the server and then loaded
into web browsers upon client’s request. Earlier these web pages were static in nature, i.e.
what was once created was the only version displayed to the users. However, modern users as
well as website owners demand some interaction with the web pages.
Examples of interaction includes validating online forms filled by users, showing messages
after user has registered a choice, etc. All this can be achieved by web scripting. Web scripting
is of two types −
 Client side scripting − Here the scripts embedded in a page are executed by the client
computer itself using web browser. Most popular client side scripting languages are
JavaScript, VBScript, AJAX, etc.
 Server side scripting − Here scripts are run on the server. Web page requested by the
client is generated and sent after the scripts are run. Most popular server side scripting
languages are PHP, Python, ASP .Net, etc.

Web 2.0

Web 2.0 is the second stage of development in World Wide Web where the emphasis is
on dynamic and user generated content rather than static content. As discussed above, World
Wide Web initially supported creation and presentation of static content using HTML.
However, as the users evolved, demand for interactive content grew and web scripting was
used to add this dynamism to content.

Page 114 of 206

In 1999, Darcy DiNucci coined the term Web 2.0 to emphasize the paradigm shift in the way
web pages were being designed and presented to the user. It became popularity around 2004.
Examples of user generated content in Web 2.0 include social media websites, virtual
communities, live chats, etc. These have revolutionized the way we experience and use the
Internet.

Communication Technologies - Terminologies

Before we dive into details of networking, let us discuss some common terms associated with
data communication.

Channel

Physical medium like cables over which information is exchanged is called channel.
Transmission channel may be analog or digital. As the name suggests, analog channels
transmit data using analog signals while digital channels transmit data using digital signals.
In popular network terminology, path over which data is sent or received is called data
channel. This data channel may be a tangible medium like copper wire cables or broadcast
medium like radio waves.

Page 115 of 206

Data Transfer Rate

The speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel, measured per unit time,
is called data transfer rate. The smallest unit of measurement is bits per second (bps). 1 bps
means 1 bit (0 or 1) of data is transferred in 1 second.

Here are some commonly used data transfer rates −

 1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second

 1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
 1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
 1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps

Bandwidth

Data transfer rates that can be supported by a network is called its bandwidth. It is measured
in bits per second (bps). Modern day networks provide bandwidth in Kbps, Mbps and Gbps.
Some of the factors affecting a network’s bandwidth include −

 Network devices used

 Protocols used
 Number of users connected
 Network overheads like collision, errors, etc.

Page 116 of 206

Throughput

Throughput is the actual speed with which data gets transferred over the network. Besides
transmitting the actual data, network bandwidth is used for transmitting error messages,
acknowledgement frames, etc.
Throughput is a better measurement of network speed, efficiency and capacity utilization
rather than bandwidth.

Protocol

Protocol is a set of rules and regulations used by devices to communicate over the network.
Just like humans, computers also need rules to ensure successful communication. If two
people start speaking at the same time or in different languages when no interpreter is
present, no meaningful exchange of information can occur.
Similarly, devices connected on the network need to follow rules defining situations like when
and how to transmit data, when to receive data, how to give error-free message, etc.
Some common protocols used over the Internet are −

 Transmission Control Protocol

 Internet Protocol
 Point to Point Protocol
 File Transfer Protocol
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 Internet Message Access Protocol
Switching Techniques
In large networks, there may be more than one paths for transmitting data from sender to
receiver. Selecting a path that data must take out of the available options is called switching.
There are two popular switching techniques – circuit switching and packet switching.

Page 117 of 206

Circuit Switching

When a dedicated path is established for data transmission between sender and receiver, it is
called circuit switching. When any network node wants to send data, be it audio, video, text or
any other type of information, a call request signal is sent to the receiver and acknowledged
back to ensure availability of dedicated path. This dedicated path is then used to send data.
ARPANET used circuit switching for communication over the network.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching provides these advantages over other switching techniques −

 Once path is set up, the only delay is in data transmission speed
 No problem of congestion or garbled message

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching has its disadvantages too −
 Long set up time is required
 A request token must travel to the receiver and then acknowledged before any
transmission can happen
 Line may be held up for a long time

Packet Switching

Page 118 of 206

As we discussed, the major problem with circuit switching is that it needs a dedicated line for
transmission. In packet switching, data is broken down into small packets with each packet
having source and destination addresses, travelling from one router to the next router.

Transmission Media
For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be transported from one device to
other over some medium. Various transmission media can be used for transfer of data. These
transmission media may be of two types −
 Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a
fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.
 Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form of
electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.
Each transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of bandwidth,
speed, delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance, etc. Let’s discuss some of the
most commonly used media in detail.

Twisted Pair Cable

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because of good
performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in telephone lines. However, if two
or more wires are lying together, they can interfere with each other’s signals. To reduce this
electromagnetic interference, pair of copper wires are twisted together in helical shape like a
DNA molecule. Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair. To reduce interference
between nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are different for each pair.

Page 119 of 206

Up to 25 twisted pair are put together in a protective covering to form twisted pair cables that
are the backbone of telephone systems and Ethernet networks.

Advantages of twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world. This is due to the
many advantages that they offer −

 Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

 Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions
 Least expensive for short distances
 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too −

 Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

 High error rate for distances greater than 100m
 Very thin and hence breaks easily
 Not suitable for broadband connections

Shielding twisted pair cable

Page 120 of 206

To counter the tendency of twisted pair cables to pick up noise signals, wires are shielded in
the following three ways −

 Each twisted pair is shielded.

 Set of multiple twisted pairs in the cable is shielded.
 Each twisted pair and then all the pairs are shielded.
Such twisted pairs are called shielded twisted pair (STP) cables. The wires that are not
shielded but simply bundled together in a protective sheath are called unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) cables. These cables can have maximum length of 100 metres.
Shielding makes the cable bulky, so UTP are more popular than STP. UTP cables are used as the
last mile network connection in homes and offices.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so that
transmitted signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists of
these layers, starting from the innermost −
 Stiff copper wire as core
 Insulating material surrounding the core
 Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the insulator
 Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire
Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.

Page 121 of 206

Advantages of Coaxial Cables
These are the advantages of coaxial cables −
 Excellent noise immunity
 Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km cable
 Can be used for both analog and digital signals
 Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables
 Easy to install and maintain

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables −

Page 122 of 206

  Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables
 Not compatible with twisted pair cables

Optical Fibre

Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are called optical fibre.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at the source, which is read
by a detector at the other end. Optical fibre cable has a bundle of such threads or fibres
bundled together in a protective covering. Each fibre is made up of these three layers, starting
with the innermost layer −
 Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic
 Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive index than
the core
 Protective outer covering called buffer
Note that both core and cladding are made of similar material. However, as refractive index of
the cladding is lower, any stray light wave trying to escape the core is reflected back due
to total internal reflection.

Page 123 of 206

Optical fibre is rapidly replacing copper wires in telephone lines, internet communication and
even cable TV connections because transmitted data can travel very long distances without
weakening. Single node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length of 2 kms and
bandwidth of up to 100 Mbps. Multi-node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment
length of 100 kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.

Advantages of Optical Fibre

Optical fibre is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages that it offers −

 High bandwidth
 Immune to electromagnetic interference
 Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
 Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

Despite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fibre may not be a viable
option for every one due to these disadvantages −

 Optical fibre cables are expensive

 Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and maintaining optical
fibre cables
 Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex
transmission

Infrared

Low frequency infrared waves are used for very short distance communication like TV remote,
wireless speakers, automatic doors, hand held devices etc. Infrared signals can propagate
within a room but cannot penetrate walls. However, due to such short range, it is considered
to be one of the most secure transmission modes.

Radio Wave
Page 124 of 206
Transmission of data using radio frequencies is called radio-wave transmission. We all are
familiar with radio channels that broadcast entertainment programs. Radio stations transmit
radio waves using transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed in our devices.
Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture radio signals. These radio
frequencies can also be used for direct voice communication within the allocated range. This
range is usually 10 miles.

Advantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Inexpensive mode of information exchange

 No land needs to be acquired for laying cables
 Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

Disadvantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Insecure communication medium

 Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc

Page 125 of 206

 UNIT-3
Database Management System Tutorial
Database Management System or DBMS in short refers to the technology of storing and
retrieving usersí data with utmost efficiency along with appropriate security measures. This
tutorial explains the basics of DBMS such as its architecture, data models, data schemas, data
independence, E-R model, relation model, relational database design, and storage and file
structure and much more.

Why to Learn DBMS?

Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a new concept then, and all the
research was done to make it overcome the deficiencies in traditional style of data
management. A modern DBMS has the following characteristics −
 Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world entities to
design its architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too. For example, a school
database may use students as an entity and their age as an attribute.
 Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations among them to form tables.
A user can understand the architecture of a database just by looking at the table
names.
 Isolation of data and application − A database system is entirely different than its data.
A database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive, on which the
database works and organizes. DBMS also stores metadata, which is data about data,
to ease its own process.
 Less redundancy − DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which splits a relation
when any of its attributes is having redundancy in values. Normalization is a
mathematically rich and scientific process that reduces data redundancy.
 Consistency − Consistency is a state where every relation in a database remains
consistent. There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of leaving
database in inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared to
earlier forms of data storing applications like file-processing systems.
 Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes it more
efficient to retrieve and manipulate data. A user can apply as many and as different
filtering options as required to retrieve a set of data. Traditionally it was not possible
where file-processing system was used.

Applications of DBMS

Page 126 of 206

Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and figures that can be
processed to produce information.
Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information, which is based on
facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all students, we can then
conclude about toppers and average marks.
A database management system stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to retrieve,
manipulate, and produce information. Following are the important characteristics and
applications of DBMS.
 ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
and Durability (normally shortened as ACID). These concepts are applied on
transactions, which manipulate data in a database. ACID properties help the database
stay healthy in multi-transactional environments and in case of failure.
 Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-user environment and allows
them to access and manipulate data in parallel. Though there are restrictions on
transactions when users attempt to handle the same data item, but users are always
unaware of them.
 Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the
Sales department will have a different view of database than a person working in the
Production department. This feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of
the database according to their requirements.
 Security − Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are
unable to access data of other users and departments. DBMS offers methods to impose
constraints while entering data into the database and retrieving the same at a later
stage. DBMS offers many different levels of security features, which enables multiple
users to have different views with different features. For example, a user in the Sales
department cannot see the data that belongs to the Purchase department.
Additionally, it can also be managed how much data of the Sales department should be
displayed to the user. Since a DBMS is not saved on the disk as traditional file systems,
it is very hard for miscreants to break the code.
Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and figures that can be
processed to produce information.
Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information, which is based on
facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all students, we can then
conclude about toppers and average marks.
A database management system stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to retrieve,
manipulate, and produce information.

Characteristics

Page 127 of 206

Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a new concept then, and all the
research was done to make it overcome the deficiencies in traditional style of data
management. A modern DBMS has the following characteristics −
 Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world entities to
design its architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too. For example, a school
database may use students as an entity and their age as an attribute.
 Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations among them to form tables.
A user can understand the architecture of a database just by looking at the table
names.
 Isolation of data and application − A database system is entirely different than its data.
A database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive, on which the
database works and organizes. DBMS also stores metadata, which is data about data,
to ease its own process.
 Less redundancy − DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which splits a relation
when any of its attributes is having redundancy in values. Normalization is a
mathematically rich and scientific process that reduces data redundancy.
 Consistency − Consistency is a state where every relation in a database remains
consistent. There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of leaving
database in inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared to
earlier forms of data storing applications like file-processing systems.
 Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes it more
efficient to retrieve and manipulate data. A user can apply as many and as different
filtering options as required to retrieve a set of data. Traditionally it was not possible
where file-processing system was used.
 ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
and Durability (normally shortened as ACID). These concepts are applied on
transactions, which manipulate data in a database. ACID properties help the database
stay healthy in multi-transactional environments and in case of failure.
 Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-user environment and allows
them to access and manipulate data in parallel. Though there are restrictions on
transactions when users attempt to handle the same data item, but users are always
unaware of them.
 Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the
Sales department will have a different view of database than a person working in the
Production department. This feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of
the database according to their requirements.
 Security − Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are
unable to access data of other users and departments. DBMS offers methods to impose
constraints while entering data into the database and retrieving the same at a later

Page 128 of 206

 stage. DBMS offers many different levels of security features, which enables multiple
users to have different views with different features. For example, a user in the Sales
department cannot see the data that belongs to the Purchase department.
Additionally, it can also be managed how much data of the Sales department should be
displayed to the user. Since a DBMS is not saved on the disk as traditional file systems,
it is very hard for miscreants to break the code.

Users

A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who use it for different
purposes. Some users retrieve data and some back it up. The users of a DBMS can be broadly
categorized as follows −

 Administrators − Administrators maintain the DBMS and are responsible for

administrating the database. They are responsible to look after its usage and by whom
it should be used. They create access profiles for users and apply limitations to
maintain isolation and force security. Administrators also look after DBMS resources
like system license, required tools, and other software and hardware related
maintenance.
 Designers − Designers are the group of people who actually work on the designing part
of the database. They keep a close watch on what data should be kept and in what
format. They identify and design the whole set of entities, relations, constraints, and
views.
 End Users − End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a DBMS. End
users can range from simple viewers who pay attention to the logs or market rates to
sophisticated users such as business analysts
The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture. It can be centralized or decentralized or
hierarchical. The architecture of a DBMS can be seen as either single tier or multi-tier. An n-tier
architecture divides the whole system into related but independent n modules, which can be
independently modified, altered, changed, or replaced.

Page 129 of 206

In 1-tier architecture, the DBMS is the only entity where the user directly sits on the DBMS and
uses it. Any changes done here will directly be done on the DBMS itself. It does not provide
handy tools for end-users. Database designers and programmers normally prefer to use single-
tier architecture.
If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier, then it must have an application through which the DBMS
can be accessed. Programmers use 2-tier architecture where they access the DBMS by means
of an application. Here the application tier is entirely independent of the database in terms of
operation, design, and programming.

3-tier Architecture

A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on the complexity of the users
and how they use the data present in the database. It is the most widely used architecture to
design a DBMS.

 Database (Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides along with its query processing
languages. We also have the relations that define the data and their constraints at this
level.

Page 130 of 206

  Application (Middle) Tier − At this tier reside the application server and the programs
that access the database. For a user, this application tier presents an abstracted view of
the database. End-users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond the
application. At the other end, the database tier is not aware of any other user beyond
the application tier. Hence, the application layer sits in the middle and acts as a
mediator between the end-user and the database.
 User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about
any existence of the database beyond this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the
database can be provided by the application. All views are generated by applications
that reside in the application tier.
Multiple-tier database architecture is highly modifiable, as almost all its components are
independent and can be changed independently.
Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are
fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is
connected to each other and how they are processed and stored inside the system.
The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the data used are to be kept in
the same plane. Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence they were prone to introduce
lots of duplication and update anomalies.

Entity-Relationship Model

Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships
among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model
creates entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
ER Model is based on −
 Entities and their attributes.
 Relationships among entities.
These concepts are explained below.

Page 131 of 206

  Entity − An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties
called attributes. Every attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For
example, in a school database, a student is considered as an entity. Student has various
attributes like name, age, class, etc.
 Relationship − The logical association among entities is called relationship.
Relationships are mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define
the number of association between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities −

o one to one
o one to many
o many to one
o many to many

Relational Model

The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is more scientific a model
than others. This model is based on first-order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary
relation.

The main highlights of this model are −

 Data is stored in tables called relations.

 Relations can be normalized.

Page 132 of 206

  In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
 Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
 Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.

Database Schema

A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire
database. It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are
associated. It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.
A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them. It contains a
descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of schema diagrams. It’s
the database designers who design the schema to help programmers understand the database
and make it useful.

A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories −

 Physical Database Schema − This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and its
form of storage like files, indices, etc. It defines how the data will be stored in a
secondary storage.

Page 133 of 206

  Logical Database Schema − This schema defines all the logical constraints that need to
be applied on the data stored. It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.

Database Instance

It is important that we distinguish these two terms individually. Database schema is the
skeleton of database. It is designed when the database doesn't exist at all. Once the database
is operational, it is very difficult to make any changes to it. A database schema does not
contain any data or information.
A database instance is a state of operational database with data at any given time. It contains
a snapshot of the database. Database instances tend to change with time. A DBMS ensures
that its every instance (state) is in a valid state, by diligently following all the validations,
constraints, and conditions that the database designers have imposed.
If a database system is not multi-layered, then it becomes difficult to make any changes in the
database system. Database systems are designed in multi-layers as we learnt earlier.

Data Independence

A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition to users’ data. For example, it
stores data about data, known as metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily. It is rather
difficult to modify or update a set of metadata once it is stored in the database. But as a DBMS
expands, it needs to change over time to satisfy the requirements of the users. If the entire
data is dependent, it would become a tedious and highly complex job.

Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when we change data at one layer, it
does not affect the data at another level. This data is independent but mapped to each other.

Logical Data Independence

Page 134 of 206
Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data is managed
inside. For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints, applied on
that relation.
Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes itself from actual data
stored on the disk. If we do some changes on table format, it should not change the data
residing on the disk.

Physical Data Independence

All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit format on the disk. Physical data
independence is the power to change the physical data without impacting the schema or
logical data.
For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system itself − suppose we
want to replace hard-disks with SSD − it should not have any impact on the logical data or
schemas.
The ER model defines the conceptual view of a database. It works around real-world entities
and the associations among them. At view level, the ER model is considered a good option for
designing databases.

Entity

An entity can be a real-world object, either animate or inanimate, that can be easily
identifiable. For example, in a school database, students, teachers, classes, and courses
offered can be considered as entities. All these entities have some attributes or properties that
give them their identity.
An entity set is a collection of similar types of entities. An entity set may contain entities with
attribute sharing similar values. For example, a Students set may contain all the students of a
school; likewise a Teachers set may contain all the teachers of a school from all faculties. Entity
sets need not be disjoint.

Attributes

Entities are represented by means of their properties, called attributes. All attributes have
values. For example, a student entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.
There exists a domain or range of values that can be assigned to attributes. For example, a
student's name cannot be a numeric value. It has to be alphabetic. A student's age cannot be
negative, etc.

Types of Attributes
 Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided
further. For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.

Page 135 of 206

  Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one simple
attribute. For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and
last_name.
 Derived attribute − Derived attributes are the attributes that do not exist in the
physical database, but their values are derived from other attributes present in the
database. For example, average_salary in a department should not be saved directly in
the database, instead it can be derived. For another example, age can be derived from
data_of_birth.
 Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single value. For example −
Social_Security_Number.
 Multi-value attribute − Multi-value attributes may contain more than one values. For
example, a person can have more than one phone number, email_address, etc.
These attribute types can come together in a way like −

 simple single-valued attributes

 simple multi-valued attributes
 composite single-valued attributes
 composite multi-valued attributes

Entity-Set and Keys

Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that uniquely identifies an entity among entity
set.
For example, the roll_number of a student makes him/her identifiable among students.
 Super Key − A set of attributes (one or more) that collectively identifies an entity in an
entity set.
 Candidate Key − A minimal super key is called a candidate key. An entity set may have
more than one candidate key.
 Primary Key − A primary key is one of the candidate keys chosen by the database
designer to uniquely identify the entity set.

Relationship

The association among entities is called a relationship. For example, an employee works_at a
department, a student enrolls in a course. Here, Works_at and Enrolls are called relationships.

Relationship Set
A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too
can have attributes. These attributes are called descriptive attributes.

Page 136 of 206

Degree of Relationship
The number of participating entities in a relationship defines the degree of the relationship.

 Binary = degree 2
 Ternary = degree 3
 n-ary = degree

Mapping Cardinalities
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set, which can be associated with the
number of entities of other set via relationship set.
 One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be associated with at most one entity of
entity set B and vice versa.

 One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated with more than one
entities of entity set B however an entity from entity set B, can be associated with at
most one entity.

Page 137 of 206

 Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be associated with at most
one entity of entity set B, however an entity from entity set B can be associated with
more than one entity from entity set A.

 Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more than one entity from B
and vice versa.

Page 138 of 206

WHAT IS E-LEARNING?

Page 139 of 206

Table of Contents

 E-learning: An introduction
 The benefits of E-Learning
 Authoring courses on LMS
 Course management, roles and administration
E-learning: An introduction
E-learning is a medium for engaging learners in an online training course. E-learning courses can
exist in many forms, using different types of technologies. Commonly used in organizations and
corporations, e-learning can help learners complete training and education objectives with ease
and flexibility as compared to traditional classroom-based learning.
E-learning courses can use a variety of content, including audio and video lectures,
presentations, assessment, assignments, polls, surveys, reading materials, multiple choice
question answers and more.
A learning management system (LMS) is used to publish the e-learning courses online. An LMS
allows course instructors to streamline their e-learning content allowing learners to access the
course material in one easy-to-access location.
A variety of studies have evaluated the impact of eLearning and concluded that— supported by
holistic approaches that include appropriate policies, infrastructure, professional development,
and curri- cula—eLearning can help produce positive outcomes. Research also seems to
indicate that a more technology-rich environment delivers greater impacts.
The Benefits of E-Learning
E-learning helps make learning more accessible for learners around the globe. In education, it
brings learning opportunities to previously disadvantaged groups. In business, it helps unite and
train an increasingly global workforce. When learning materials are available online, learners
can access their course material from anywhere and at any time using any device. A good
quality LMS allows users to participate in e-learning courses from desktop computers, smart
phones, and tablets. This means that users can learn any time of day, whenever it’s most
convenient for them—something classroom and face to face learning can’t compete with.
Learners can also start a learning session on one device (say a smartphone while they are
traveling) and continue the same course on another device (say a tablet or laptop at home in
the evening), making it easier to fit learning into busy lives.

Course authoring
For course instructors, an effective LMS offers easy course authoring tools for quickly creating
and updating content. Course instructors can streamline their e-learning content allowing
learners to access the course material in one easy-to-access location. Perhaps the most

Page 140 of 206

 important aspect of a well implemented Learning Management System (LMS) is that, it makes it
easy to track and prove progress of learners. This can be essential for E-Learning courses where
proof of mandatory training is required.
Course Administrators and Managers
For administrators and managers, e-learning is a more affordable and efficient way to conduct
learning and training. E-learning helps save time, money, materials, and resources by keeping
everything online. A larger number of learners and employees can participate in learning or
training initiatives at the same time as it is available online. As technology continues to push e-
learning forward, education, training, and professional development will reach wider audiences
and impact more learners.
It’s discreet
Some learners don’t feel comfortable learning in a large group, especially if they find something
difficult to understand that their co-workers do not have any problem with. E-learning allows
each learner to tackle the subject at their own pace, with interactive tasks being set in place to
ensure a thorough understanding throughout each chapter or module.

Importance of e-learning

 E-learning has been introduced to empower learners to get basic schooling and enhance skills.
Also, they can obtain a degree certificate, without actually attending school or university or any
other institution.
 For tutors, it is a great source of earning, wherein they can teach from anywhere in their
preferred time.
 Applying e-learning to all levels of schooling helped to ensure students grasp the lessons
adequately at a faster pace.
 According to psychology, the audio-visual method of teaching leads to a disciplined learning
environment. There are an effective tutor and student engagements.
 One of the importance of e-learning in education is that tutors and participants both can
develop advanced learning skills. For example, creating and selling ebooks is one such
advancement.
 E-learning has worked towards bringing learners, tutors, experts, practitioners, and other
interest groups to one place. Thus, there is a good practice of knowledge sharing followed
through different online platforms. This is important in current times as competition is rising
and the world is also growing. Hence, quick information helps in the better growth of an
individual.

Types of eLearning or e-Education

Page 141 of 206

 Digital and self-initiated learning can be acquired at the desired locations. One need not
wander in search of learning as e-learning education is versatile and amply equipped to suit all
learning methods.
E-Learning is conducted and eventuates in many forms and at times is the blend of the
following methodologies and practices:

 Completed online – no face to face meetings

 Provided through Mixed Learning – A blend of online and direct communication

That is in the two different forms

1. Synchronous- the communication between the provider and the receiver happens directly as in
chat rooms, or video-audio conferencing.
2. Asynchronous- The information is passed through forums, emails, wikis, etc.

 It is promoted through the self-study practices also.

 Web-based learning is another better option
 CD-ROMs provide subject wise detailed learning
 Audio and Visuals are more supplementary, descriptive and communicative methods.

Benefits of E-Learning in Education

An analytical look at the benefits of online learning will make us consider how today’s teachers,
students, and institutes want to get relevant and easily accessible content.
This is fulfilled with the online mode of learning as the students can learn at their comfort and
requirement.
The following are the advantages of e-learning which you must not miss.

 Online Learning can accommodate everyone’s needs

 Classes can be taken from any place and at the time which students or tutors prefer.

Page 142 of 206

 It offers access to exclusive, prolific, and updated content and accessibility is open, secure, and
uninterrupted. E-Learning lets you be in sync with modern learners and updated with the
current trends
 It ensures quick delivery of lessons. Traditional classrooms involve some or the kind of delay.
Whereas, eLearning provides expeditious and exclusive delivery of lessons. There is no
procrastinator in eLearning. It is a quick way of learning!
 The scalability of learning, content, and duration that is taken can be reasonably measured. It is
beneficial to those who feel nervous and disconnected in groups. It helps one learn without
having to give up the comforts of the environment. You are at ease with Consistency of
exposure, inputs, results, and coordination is highly ranked in E-Learning as it allows teachers a
higher degree of coverage to deliver the content regularly. This ensures consistency in learning.
 The method is made available at much-reduced costs. The importance of E-Learning education
is that it is quick and does not require much cost. The long training period, infrastructure,
stationery, travel expenses, etc. is reduced.
 Effectiveness of the transferred or imparted knowledge and learning is high and powerful. It
makes information easy to grasp and absorb. The Audio-Visuals help in remembering
knowledge for a longer time. Also, the courses which tutors prepare are well-planned.
 Mobility assured is a very comfortable and affordable option. Taking revision and getting hands-
on different courses is not that simple in traditional classes. Contrary to that, missed lessons
can always be taken again online. This makes it easier for tutors to impart the right information.
 It promotes a self-paced learning process.

Through e-learning, students can develop a self-paced training schedule. Also, for tutors, things
become quite easy. People working 9 to 7 or those who simply don’t have the necessary time to
conduct physical classes are no longer left behind.
They can take online sessions after work, in the evening, on the weekends, or whenever they
are free.

Benefits of E-Learning For Students

Unlike the traditional method of teaching with board and chalk, E-learning is fulfilled with the
online mode of learning as the students can learn at their comfort and requirements.
Let’s have a look at the advantages of E-Learning to the students:

 You can access the study material unlimited times.

 You can study your Courses anytime and anywhere.
 Students can access updated content when they want.
 Unlike the traditional method of teaching, e-learning has a quick mode of delivery. This
indicates that learning time is reduced.
 E-Learning provides scalability which helps in providing training.
 All students can receive the same type of syllabus, study materials and train through E-
Learning.

Page 143 of 206

 Through E-Learning, you can save time, money and reduced transportation cost. so, E-Learning
is cost-effective compared to traditional learning.
 E-Learning is provided online so No need for papers like traditional learning. Thus, we can save
the Environment through this.

One can link the various resources in several varying formats.

 Web-based learning promotes active and independent learning.

 College students, people working full time, homeowners, YouTubers, and coaching institutes
can take advantage of elearning education.
 One biggest advantage of the internet or e-learning is that one can educate oneself in the
comfort of their own home and get a degree.

These are some impossible things which are made possible only because of technology.

 Another benefit is that eLearning is based upon convenience and flexibility. All the resources for
the students as well as teachers are available in one place.
 Anyone can get training on a day to day basis. It can be on weekends or whenever one has the
free time.
 E-learning is also beneficial for business. This is because employees should also be educated
about new skills. It helps in improving their efficiency and is fruitful for the future education
course of time.
 There is an easy way for clearing doubts through discussion boards or chat boxes. Tutors can
easily answer the queries of students. Thus, it leads to better interaction.
 Global level education- Tutors can provide online education in multiple languages and people
from different time zones.
 Last but not the least eLearning is a boon to the environment as the paperless teaching has
contributed a lot in saving the trees. Also, tutors are feeling this option great as now the
evaluation of each student is done online which is quicker and less tiring.

10 Free Learning Apps

1. Free Online Learning Tool #1 – EdApp

Ed is a better mobile learning management system designed for today’s digital habits,
delivering more engaging and effective micro-learning directly to learners anytime and
anywhere. EdApp is effective because it incorporates cutting-edge aspects backed by science,
such as elements of gamification and spaced repetition. Not only will you learn, but you’ll have
a great time doing it!

Page 144 of 206

 2. Free Learning App #1 – Duolingo

When it comes to free learning apps, Duolingo comes top of mind. It offers 95 different
language courses in 23 languages. This free app offers basic flashcard-type language courses so
that you can learn and retain the information better. This immensely popular app has over 300
million registered users worldwide.

Page 145 of 206

 3. Free Learning App #2 – Khan Academy

If you’re curious about the world, but don’t want to go back to school, then Khan Academy
might be right for you. Khan offers over 4000 courses from all sorts of disciplines, including
math, art, history and economics. Their personalized learning dashboard allows you to see how
much progress you’ve made, and how close you are to your goals.

Page 146 of 206

4. Star Chart

Don’t you ever just look up at the night sky and wish you could know what constellation you’re
looking at? Star Chart can help. All you have to do is point your phone toward the night sky, and
the app will use a combination of GPS technology and 3D rendering to show you exactly what
you are looking at. It’s a hands-on way that gets learners out into the real world, while also
giving them the tools to understand what they are looking at.

5. SoloLearn

There’s no doubt that knowing how to code will become increasingly important, as our world
relies ever more on technology to stay connected. But learning a whole new coding language is
intimidating and daunting. Luckily, SoloLearn offers the largest collection of free code learning
content for people of all levels, from absolute beginner to pro. With fresh content posted daily,
you’ll always have something new to learn!

6. Coursera

With Coursera, not only can you learn tidbits of information about a ton of different subjects,
but you can take an entire degree online if you wish! Courses are taught by world-class
professors from the best universities around the world, and though there are some courses you
may have to pay for, they have enough free content to keep you busy and learning for quite a
while.

7. TED

Page 147 of 206

Sometimes the best way to learn is to learn from the best. That’s exactly what TED does. With
over 1,700 TED Talks videos, you can learn just about anything you want, presented by tech
geniuses, business gurus, musical legends, and experts in their respective fields.

8. PhotoMath

Don’t you ever wish you could take a picture of an equation and have someone show you the
steps on how to solve it? This is essentially what Photomath does! By showing you the step-by-
step equation, you can see where you went wrong or what formula you could have used to
solve the equation!

9. The Great Courses

College is expensive. But if the idea of signing up for an additional degree doesn’t appeal to
you, then consider looking into The Great Courses. This free app offers lectures from expert
professors that cover a whole array of subjects. The app allows you to download lectures or
stream courses, and you can even hook it up to your Google Chromecast. Learn college-grade
lessons in math, history, science, art and literature, all at your fingertips! Though the app itself
is free, you’ll need to pay for individual courses you wish to take. Try their free trial to see if it’s
right for you.

10. Periodic Table

The world is made of chemicals. But it can be hard to remember them all, not to mention their
properties! Luckily the Periodic Table app from the Royal Society of Chemistry incorporates all
sorts of content to help users learn chemistry. From podcasts to videos, this app will help you
learn about the elements that constitute the building blocks of our world.

About SWAYAM Platform

SWAYAM is a programme initiated by the Government of India and designed to achieve the
three cardinal principles of Education Policy viz., access, equity and quality. The objective of this
effort is to take the best teaching learning resources to all, including the most
disadvantaged. This is done through an online platform that facilitates hosting of all the courses
from Class 9 till post-graduation to be accessed by anyone, anywhere at any time. All the
courses are interactive and are available free of cost to any learner.
The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in 4 quadrants – (1) video lecture, (2) specially prepared
reading material that can be downloaded/printed (3) self-assessment tests through tests and
quizzes and (4) an online discussion forum for clearing the doubts.
Courses delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost to the learners, however learners
wanting a SWAYAM certificate should register for the final proctored exams that come at a
fee and attend in-person at designated centres on specified dates. Eligibility for the certificate
will be announced on the course page and learners will get certificates only if this criteria is

Page 148 of 206

matched. Universities/colleges approving credit transfer for these courses can use the
marks/certificate obtained in these courses for the same.
More Info: [Link]
SWAYAM Courses List
List of MOOCs (Massive Open Online Course) offered on SWAYAM platform changes every
semester, so check if a previously offered MOOC is available in present or upcoming semester
or not. The current list of available MOOCs can be found on the SWAYAM portal:
[Link]
List of SWAYAM Courses offered in 2018 (with details)
Instructions for enrolling to a MOOC on SWAYAM Portal
students are advised to compulsorily read these instructions before enrolling for the SWAYAM /
NPTEL MOOCs.

1. Intro : First get acquainted with the SWAYAM Platform, the various National
Coordinators who are “hosting” MOOCs in various disciplines :
[Link]
2. Register : To enrol for any MOOC on SWAYAM first Register as a user:
[Link]
3. Enrol : Select / click on the MOOC you want to enrol for and “Join” the MOOC to
register.
4. IMPORTANT: If a MOOC is offered as part of the semester syllabus (credit transfer),
then:
a. While enrolling for a MOOC opt for the certification exam (or proctored
exam) which is conducted at the end of the MOOC course.
b. NPTEL : If enrolling for a NPTEL hosted MOOC then ‘select’ the option ‘share the
information with my Institute / College’ .
c. Student should submit the assignments, take part in all the self-assessment tests
through tests and quizzes, etc. as mentioned in the MOOC page on SWAYAM /
NPTEL.
d. Exam : Pay the fee online for “certification exam”; This is done in the beginning
of the course or after half the course is over, it depends on the National
Coordinator hosting the MOOC course.
5. Once the “certifying exam” results are received share the same with the Department
along with the proof (like email, certificate, etc.

About Virtual Meetings/Zoom

What are virtual meetings in an online class?

Page 149 of 206

Virtual meetings are live meetings conducted over the Internet using web conferencing
software and audio/video equipment. For online classes with weekly virtual meetings, students
will attend (or connect to) their virtual meetings during the scheduled class time and participate
in live discussions and collaborations just like they would in a face-to-face class.

What is Zoom?

Zoom is the web conferencing software the University uses for virtual meetings. View this
tutorial for an overview on using Zoom in an online class (click on lower right corner to view in
full-screen):

Download PDF

What do I need in order to participate in virtual meetings?

For best virtual meeting experience, you will need access to the following:

 Windows or Mac computer (laptop or desktop)

 High speed Internet (1.5Mbps up/down and a wired connection is recommended)
 USB headset with microphone
 Webcam (if required for your class)
 A quiet location where you will have privacy

How do I make sure my computer and equipment are ready for virtual meetings via Zoom?

To test your computer and audio/video equipment, go to the "Join Meeting Test" page (image
link above) and click Join. You will be connected to a temporary test meeting.

The first time you join a Zoom meeting you will be prompted to download and install the Zoom
Launcher software as shown in the Prepare to Use Zoom tutorial above; complete the

Page 150 of 206

installation process to continue. Once in the meeting, click on "Test Computer Mic & Speakers"
to test your audio and video. Leave meeting when finished.

What should I do if my headphone/mic is not working?

 Reboot your computer and do the test again. Make sure your headset/webcam is
connected to the computer before joining the meeting.
 Close any program (e.g. Skype) that maybe using your webcam.
 Launch the Zoom app and go to Settings to make sure the correct audio/video device is
selected.
 If problem persists, contact ITS Helpdesk for assistance.

Where do I find the meeting room address for my class?

Your instructor will provide meeting room address and other information on ICON - check your
ICON course site for details.

I get a message that says "This meeting is restricted to authorized attendees only". What do I
do?

If you see this message when trying to join a Zoom class meeting, follow the steps below to
login to your University Zoom account using your Hawk ID and password.

Download PDF

What are some best practices for participating in virtual meetings?

 Always use headphone/earphone to listen - do not use onboard or external speakers.

 Arrive early and run sound test before each meeting.
 Using video? Dress appropriately if you will appear on camera. Check your video
settings; adjust room lighting and viewing angle to achieve optimum results. (What will
others see when you connect the camera?)
 Mute your microphone when you are not speaking.

Can I use Zoom outside of class?

Page 151 of 206

Yes, students can access their own Zoom account here and schedule online meetings for group
projects, discussions...etc. See tutorial below on how. Visit Zoom Tutorial Videos Page for more
information.

Download PDF

How do I share my computer screen in a Zoom meeting?

See this tutorial video

Getting started with Google Forms

Google Forms allows you to create your own custom online forms and send them to others.
These forms can include surveys, quizzes, sign-ups, and more. When someone completes the
form, the responses will be stored in a Google Sheets spreadsheet for you. In this lesson, you'll
learn about the Google Forms interface, along with the various uses for it.

How to get to Google Forms

Before you start using Forms, you'll need to make sure you're signed in to your Google account.
If you don't have one, you can review our lesson on creating a Google account to get started.
An easy way to access Google Forms is through Google Drive. First, you'll need to click
the New button.

Page 152 of 206

Then, you'll click More > Google Forms.

Page 153 of 206

The Google Forms interface

The first time you open Google Forms, it will look pretty empty, but that's only because you
haven't created or filled out any forms yet. The interface is easy to use and allows you to create
new forms, open recent ones, access a variety of templates, and more.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to become more familiar with the Google Forms
interface.

Page 154 of 206

What kinds of things can I do with Google Forms?

Google Forms has several uses, both personal and professional. Let's take a look at several of its
applications and possibilities.

 Personal: You can use it to create your own event invitations, gather contact
information, and find the best time to meet with various people.
 Work: Smaller businesses can easily use Google Forms to make their own job
applications, order forms, feedback forms, and more.
 Education: Teachers can use Google Forms to create quizzes and worksheets for
their students to complete.

Page 155 of 206

In our next lesson, we'll cover the basics of creating your own simple forms, as well as how to
access the responses you receive.

Creating simple forms

Google Forms allows you to create and edit a variety of forms, either from scratch or by using
a template. We'll go over how to create your own forms, the various types of questions you can
use, and how to store and access any responses you receive.

In this lesson, we'll start with creating a blank form. On the Google Forms homepage, simply
click the Blank form button.

From here, you'll be able to create and edit your form. When you click the untitled question,
you'll notice that a few options appear. Let's take a closer look at this interface.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to become more familiar with the Google Forms
editor.

Page 156 of 206

Types of questions

Google Forms offers a variety of questions for you to choose from. The type of question you use
will depend on what kind of answers you're looking to get with your form. Below are a few
types and how you can use them:

 Short answer: These allow your recipients to type anything they want as an
answer. They're good to use when you want personal responses for feedback or
for written portions of assignments.

Page 157 of 206

 Multiple choice, check boxes, and drop-down lists: These questions allow
recipients to select answers from a list. They're helpful when you want a narrow
selection of responses, and they can be useful for quizzes.

 Linear scale: With this type of question, the answers are selected from a number
scale. This lets recipients rate things or give feedback on how they felt about
something, like an event or course.

 Time or date: Recipients can fill out a time or date. You can use these to
schedule events, find availability, and more.

Page 158 of 206

Creating a multiple-choice question

As seen above, there are many types of questions you can create with Google Forms. In this
example, we'll be creating a multiple-choice question. The process for creating other types of
questions is fairly similar, and the general process will apply to most of them as well.

1. Click the Add question icon in the sidebar.

2. Click the drop-down menu, and select the type of question you'd like to use.

Page 159 of 206

3. Type your question in the Question form.

Page 160 of 206

 4. Click Option 1 and type an answer you'd like to make available, then
press Enter to add another answer. Repeat until you have the number of
answers you'd like to provide.

To preview your form and its questions, you can click the Preview icon in the top-right corner.
This allows you to view how your recipients will see the form.
Page 161 of 206
Using a template

Instead of creating a form from scratch, Google Forms offers plenty of templates for you to use
as a starting point. On the Forms homepage, click Template Gallery.

From here, you can select any of the available templates. They're organized into three
sections: Personal, Work, and Education.

Page 162 of 206

From here, it's as simple as filling in the blanks. You can also add or delete questions as you see
fit.

Choosing how to save your responses

Once you're happy with the form you've created, you'll need to choose how to store the
responses you'll receive. Google Forms offers two methods for storing responses:

 Inside the form: They will simply be logged in the Responses tab of your form.

Page 163 of 206

  Using Google Sheets: Your responses will be stored in a spreadsheet.

By default, your responses will be stored inside the form. However, if you'd like to save them to
a spreadsheet, here's how:

1. Navigate to the Responses tab of your form.

2. Click the More button.

3. From the drop-down menu, click Select response destination.

Page 164 of 206

4. Select either Create a new spreadsheet or Select existing spreadsheet.

Page 165 of 206

The method you choose will depend on both the type of information you're collecting and how
many recipients you plan on sending the form to. We'll cover this in greater detail in our lesson
on organizing and analyzing your responses.

What next?

Once you've finished adding your questions, your form will be ready to go! In the next lessons,
we'll talk about adjusting settings and sending the form out to all of your recipients.

Adjusting your settings

After you've created your form, you'll want to adjust its settings. Google Forms offers a variety
of settings that allow you to customize how your recipients use and interact with your forms. In
this lesson, we'll take a look at the different settings you can use.

To access the settings of your form, click the Settings icon in the top-right corner.

Page 166 of 206

This will bring up the Settings menu with various options. You can toggle them on and off
according to your preferences.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about the different settings for Google
Forms.

See Summary Charts and Text Responses

Page 167 of 206

 This allows your recipients to see a summary of the responses you've received so far. If you're
gathering sensitive information, you may not want to use this because it would make
responses available to everyone.

When to use these settings

To give you a better idea of when you might want to use some of these settings, let's take a
look at a few real-world examples:

 Julia is posting a survey for employees on her company's internal website. For
this, she'll select Limit to 1 response so an employee can't complete the survey
multiple times. She may also select See summary charts and text responses if
she'd like for employees to be able to see the survey's current results.
 George is creating an invitation for his wife's birthday party. He might want to
select Edit after submit so invitees can change their RSVPs if something comes
up. He could also select Collect email addresses so he can send out updates or
reminders to everyone who responds.
 Sarah is a teacher using Google Forms to schedule parent-teacher conferences.
She could select Collect email addresses to gather parents' information for
future contact. She may also want to use Response receipts, which would give
parents a copy of the form, reminding them of the date and time of their
conference.

Once you're happy with the settings you've chosen, you're ready to send your form to its
recipients!

Sending forms

Once you've created your form and chosen the correct settings, you're ready to send it off! To
get started with this process, click the Send button in the upper-right corner of the screen.

This will bring up the Send form menu. Before sending your form, you'll need to decide how to
send it out. Google Forms allows you to share your forms via email, direct link, embedding, and
social media sites.

Page 168 of 206

Which one you choose depends on several factors, including who your audience is and what
you're using the form for. Let's take a look at the various options and how to use them.

No matter which method you choose, there will be an option to Collect email addresses at the
top of the menu. If you turn this on, your respondents will be required to provide their email
address. This can be helpful if you want to contact them in the future.

Sending your form via email

If you have email addresses for everyone you'd like to send the form to, email is probably the
easiest method. Simply enter all of the information in the form shown below and click Send.

Page 169 of 206

If you check Include form in email, Google Forms will include your form in the email itself,
rather than providing a link to it. This could come in handy if your form is fairly short or if you'd
like your recipients to respond quickly.

Page 170 of 206

Sharing your form with a link

Instead of using email, Google Forms can create a link to your form that you can share
wherever. When someone clicks the link, they will be taken directly to your form.

This method can be helpful if you don't know the email addresses for some of the people you'd
like to send the form to. You could instead send it through a text or messaging app.

Sharing your form via embed

If you have a website you'd like to host the form on, you can use the embed option. This will
give you some HTML code that you can copy and paste into a website editor like WordPress.

Page 171 of 206

Doing so will display the form on your website. This method gives your audience easy access to
your form without them having to leave your website.

Sharing your form via social media

You also have the option of sharing your form via social media sites like Facebook and Twitter.
If you want to share your form with a wider audience, this may be a route to consider. Simply
click the icon of the site you'd like to use.

This will open the site you've chosen and generate a post with a link to your form. You can
then edit the post to say whatever you'd like, then share it with your friends.

Page 172 of 206

Now it's time to wait for responses!

Once you've shared your form with others, it's just a matter of waiting to hear back from them.
Depending on your form, you may end up needing to organize or analyze these responses.
We'll go over how to do this in our next lesson.

Organizing and analyzing responses

After you've sent your form, it's only a matter of time before people start responding. To
access these responses, simply open your form and click the Responses tab. Here, you'll find
the results from everyone who's responded so far, along with several options.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about the Responses screen.

Page 173 of 206

Using Google Sheets to organize your results

Although all of your responses can be accessed within the form itself, there may be times when
it's difficult to sort through and analyze everything. Luckily, Google Forms gives you the ability
to store and organize your results in a spreadsheet with Google Sheets.

To do so, click the Create Spreadsheet icon.

Page 174 of 206

This will bring up a menu where you can choose to either Create a new spreadsheet or Select
existing spreadsheet. For this example, we'll create a new one.

This automatically creates a spreadsheet and opens it in a new tab. Each row features the
responses from each respondent, and each column features a question from your form.

Page 175 of 206

Analyzing your results in Google Sheets

At first the spreadsheet may seem overwhelming, but luckily Google Sheets has tools to make
things more manageable. We'll go over a few useful features you can use to analyze your data.

Formulas perform simple calculations like adding and subtracting, while functions perform
more complex ones like averages and counts. Let's say you wanted to know the average rating
given by employees for an event you held. You could use the AVERAGE function to calculate all
of the ratings from one column.

Page 176 of 206

If you're expecting to receive additional responses, it's best to place your formulas in a separate
sheet. Any new responses will be added to the end of your current sheet, which could make it
difficult to find and edit your formulas.

If your form has a large number of responses, pivot tables can help you summarize the data
and make it easier to manipulate. You can go to Data > Pivot table to create one. In our
example, we created a pivot table showing how many times each number was chosen for a
certain question.

Page 177 of 206

Histogram charts and pivot charts can also be helpful for giving you an overview of your
responses. To create a chart, click Insert > Chart and select the chart you'd like to use from
the Chart type drop-down list. In the example below, we made a pivot chart showing the
distribution of how satisfied people were with the event.

Page 178 of 206

The method you choose will depend on several factors, but all of the features mentioned above
should cover most of your basic analyzing needs

Using Forms with Google Classroom

Google Forms is typically used to create surveys, sign-ups, feedback forms, and more. It also
can be used to create quizzes that you can easily incorporate into Google Classroom. There's
a variety of question types you can use to make your own quizzes, and they feature an array
of customizable settings.

Watch the video below to learn more about creating and sending forms to your students using
Google Classroom.

Creating a quiz

To create a quiz, you'll first need to create a basic form. We go over this in greater detail in
our lesson on creating simple forms, but we'll cover some of the basics below.
Navigate to the Google Forms homepage, then click the Blank icon.

Page 179 of 206

Before writing questions and answers for your quiz, you'll need to make some changes to the
form's settings. Click the Settings icon in the top-right corner.

Click the Quizzes tab and toggle the Make this a quiz switch. Turning this on will make
several quiz options available that allow you to choose how your students will interact with
your quiz.

Page 180 of 206

Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about the various quiz settings.

Page 181 of 206

Once you've chosen your desired settings, click Save. You can then name your quiz and start
writing your questions. For more information on creating form questions, review our lesson
on creating simple forms.

Selecting correct answers for your questions

For each question on your quiz, you'll need to define the correct answers. To do this,
click Answer Key.

This screen will appear differently depending on the question type you've chosen. Let's take a
look at how to choose correct answers for several popular types of questions:

 With a multiple-choice or check-box question, simply select the correct

answer(s) from the available choices.

Page 182 of 206

 For a short-answer question, type the answer in the Add a correct answer field.
You can also add multiple correct answers if the wording may vary for a
particular question. If you check off Mark all other answers incorrect, all
answers that don't match will automatically be marked incorrect. If you leave it
unchecked, any answers that aren't an exact match will be left for you to
manually review and grade.

Page 183 of 206

  Paragraph questions don't offer the ability to add correct answers. Because
they're longer and require more analysis, you'll need to read each individually
and grade them on your own.

After choosing the correct answers, select how many points you'd like the question to be worth
using the points field.

Page 184 of 206

You also have the option of using answer feedback. This gives students feedback on certain
questions, depending on whether they chose the correct answer. Click Add answer
feedback and type the messages you'd like to appear for correct or incorrect answers.

Page 185 of 206

Each question has a Required toggle switch. If you want students to answer the question,
toggle on Required. A red asterisk will appear next to the quiz question to let them know that it
is mandatory. If you want students to have the choice of answering the question, toggle off
Required.

Once you're satisfied with the question, you can preview it and give it a try to make sure
everything's correct. To do this, simply click the Preview icon in the top-right corner.

Page 186 of 206

Adding sections to your quiz

Depending on the number of questions, you may want to separate your quiz into
multiple sections. This will make it so that your questions are broken up across several pages
instead of having them all appear on one page.

To do this, simply click the Add section icon in the toolbar on the side.

You can add questions to these sections by following the same instructions listed above. You
can also move questions to other sections by dragging and dropping them using the icon shown
below.

Page 187 of 206

Adding quizzes to classes

Once you've finished creating your quiz, you'll need to bring it over to your class. Much like how
you can attach documents, links, and videos to your assignments, you can attach forms.

When creating an assignment, click the Google Drive icon in the lower-left corner.

Page 188 of 206

Locate and select the quiz you've created, then click Add.

After you've sent the assignment with the quiz attached, your students will be able to complete
it. You can access responses the same way you would with any Google Form.

Understanding Social Media

Social media originated as a way to interact with friends and family but was later adopted by
businesses that wanted to take advantage of a popular new communication method to reach
Page 189 of 206
out to customers. The power of social media is the ability to connect and share information
with anyone on Earth, or with many people simultaneously.

There are more than 3.8 billion social media users around the world. Social media is an ever-
changing and ever-evolving field, with new apps such as TikTok and Clubhouse coming out
seemingly every year, joining the ranks of established social networks like Facebook, YouTube,
Twitter, and Instagram. By 2023, the number of social media users in the United States is
forecast to increase to approximately 257 million.3

According to the Pew Research Center, social media users tend to be younger. Nearly 90% of
people between the ages of 18 and 29 used at least one form of social media. Further, these
users tend to be better educated and relatively wealthy, or earning over $75,000 per year.4

Types of Social Media

Social media may take the form of a variety of tech-enabled activities. These activities include
photo sharing, blogging, social gaming, social networks, video sharing, business networks,
virtual worlds, reviews, and much more. Even governments and politicians utilize social media
to engage with constituents and voters.

For individuals, social media is used to keep in touch with friends and extended family. Some
people will use various social media applications to network career opportunities, find people
across the globe with like-minded interests, and share their thoughts, feelings, insights, and
emotions. Those who engage in these activities are part of a virtual social network.

For businesses, social media is an indispensable tool. Companies use the platform to find and
engage with customers, drive sales through advertising and promotion, gauge consumer trends,
and offer customer service or support.

Social media's role in helping businesses is significant. It facilitates communication with

customers, enabling the melding of social interactions on e-commerce sites. Its ability to collect
information helps focus on marketing efforts and market research. It helps in promoting
products and services, as it enables the distribution of targeted, timely, and exclusive sales and
coupons to would-be customers. Further, social media can help in building customer
relationships through loyalty programs linked to social media.

145 minutes
The average daily social media usage of internet users worldwide.5

Benefits of Social Media

Social media has changed the way we all interact with each other online. It gives us the ability
to discover what's happening in the world in real-time, to connect with each other and stay in
touch with long-distance friends, and in order to have access to endless amounts of information

Page 190 of 206

at our fingertips. In many senses, social media has helped many individuals find common
ground with others online, making the world seem more approachable.

According to a survey by Pew Research Center, the use of social media is correlated with having
more friends and more diverse personal networks, especially within emerging economies. 6 For
many teenagers, friendships can start virtually, with 57% of teens meeting a friend online.7

Businesses are also using social media marketing to target their consumers right on their
phones and computers, building a following in order to build a loyal fan base, and create a
culture behind their own brand. Some companies, such as Denny's, have created entire
personas on Twitter in order to market to younger consumers using their own language and
personas.8

Examples of Social Media

While social media has its positive side, many point to the platform and call out negative
features, likening its overuse to an addiction. Some contest it contributes to inattentiveness,
stress, and jealousy. The National Center for Biotechnology Information links heavy social
media use to depression.9 Social media may also be a conduit for misleading information and
falsehoods.

The 2016 American presidential election has well-documented accounts of the impact of the
ability to spread false information through the platform.1 0 Such a phenomenon leverages the
power of social media, allowing anyone to reach an audience of millions with content
that lacks oversight or fact-checking.

Facebook is the largest social media platform in the world, with a clear advantage over other
social media, though it has similar audiences to others like Twitter and Instagram. The figures
for the most popular social media websites as of January 2021 are as follows:

1. Facebook (2.74 billion users)

2. YouTube (2.29 billion users)
3. WhatsApp (2 billion users)
4. Facebook Messenger (1.3 billion users)
5. Instagram (1.22 billion users)
6. WeChat (1.21 billion users)
7. TikTok (689 million users)
8. QQ (617 million users)
9. Douyin (600 million users)
10.
Sino Weibo (511 million users)1 1

Page 191 of 206

Digital Society

The notion of digital society reflects the results of the modern society in adopting and
integrating information and communication technologies at home, work, education and
recreation.
Digital innovations are reshaping our society, economy and industries with a scale and speed
like never before. Mobile and cloud technologies, Big Data and the Internet of Things offer
unimaginable opportunities, driving growth, improvement of citizens’ lives and efficiency to
many areas including health services, transportation, energy, agriculture, manufacturing, retail
and public administration. They can also improve the governing process by helping policy-
makers take better decisions and engage citizens. The Internet has considerable potential to
promote democracy, cultural diversity and human rights like the freedom of expression and
freedom to information.
However, we also have to understand how the scale and speed of these changes impact
consumers, users, citizens and workers, including all of these combined into a single ‘digital
person’, as well as how they affect social and private life, education, science, government,
democracy and business.
LIBRe Foundation is committed to leveraging the benefits and tackling the challenges in order
to create an inclusive, secure and sustainable digital society benefitting from the Internet and
digital technologies; focusing on:

 regulation and policy development;

 legally compliant services and tools;
 cross-border cultural differences and the creation of a common digital culture;
 specific sub-digital societies in cases of community policing and ICT-enhanced disaster
management.
 Digital society policies and regulations are a complex of shared principles, norms, rules,
decision-making procedures, and programs that shape the evolution and use of
the Internet and digital technologies on both local and internal level; thus maximizing
their social and economic potential for doing business, working, playing, communicating
and expressing ourselves freely. Successful delivery of these policies and regulations will
spur innovation, economic growth and improvements in daily life for both citizens and
businesses. Wider deployment and more effective use of digital technologies will enable
us to address our key challenges and will provide us with a better quality of life through,
for example, better healthcare, safer and more efficient transport solutions, cleaner
environment, new media opportunities and easier access to public services and cultural
content towards:
 achieving a digital single market in which the free movement of persons, services and
capital is ensured and where the individuals and businesses can seamlessly access and
exercise online activities under conditions of fair competition, and a high level of
consumer and personal data protection, irrespective of their nationality or place of
residence;

Page 192 of 206

 enhancing interoperability of devices, applications, data repositories, services and
networks and applying standardisation policy;
 consolidating online trust and security by combating cybercrime, child pornography and
breaches of privacy and personal data security;
 promoting fast and ultrafast Internet access for all;
 investing in research and innovation;
 enhancing digital literacy, skills and inclusion;
 leveraging smart use of technology for society in the fields of climate change, managing
ageing population through e-health and telemedicine systems and services, digitisation
of content and/or intelligent transport systems, etc.
 LIBRe Foundation understands the needs of the society in advancing in these daily life
issues and contributes to drafting of legal and policy statements, participation in work
groups, public discussions, cooperation with and provision of assistance to the
competent authorities at national and European level with respect to the
implementation of legislative initiatives and policies related to the development of
information and communication technologies.
 Typically, information systems, applications and services are designed with a focus on
specific business goals, fancy features, and the technological capabilities of hardware or
software tools. All of these approaches to system design omit the most important part
of the process – the end user. User-centred design is a framework of processes (not
restricted to interfaces or technologies) in which the needs, wants, and limitations of
end users of a process, service or product are given extensive attention at each stage of
the design process. User-centred design can also be characterized as a multi-stage
problem solving process that not only requires designers to analyse and foresee how
users are likely to use a product, but also to test the validity of their assumptions with
regard to user behaviour at each stage of the process from requirements, concepts, pre-
production models, mid production and post production confirming or modifying the
original requirements. The main difference from other design philosophies is that user-
centred design tries to optimize the product/service around its intended users’ existing
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours as they relate to the tasks that the system is being
designed to support, rather than forcing the users to change their behaviour to
accommodate the product/service. By understanding the human emotions, motivations,
and beliefs that surround a task, a user interface can be designed to accommodate and
support user behaviours in a way that users will experience as natural and satisfying.
 However, in every market field, despite of or in addition to the user-centred design
focus a specific number of legal, standard or ethical requirements should be applied
towards a fully compliant product or service, especially in cases of users’ disabilities. The
team of LIBRe Foundation understands these difficulties and persistently looks for legal
techniques, methodologies and innovative concepts to improve and complement
industries’ efforts in this direction.

Page 193 of 206

 User experience is how a person feels when interfacing with a system - a website, a web
application or desktop software and, in modern contexts, any form of human-computer
interaction.
 User experience includes the practical, experiential, affective, meaningful and valuable
aspects of human–computer interaction and product ownership.
 User experience includes a person’s perceptions of system aspects such as utility, ease
of use and efficiency.
 User experience may be considered subjective in nature to the degree that it is about
individual perception and thought with respect to the system.
 User experience is dynamic as it is constantly modified over time due to changing usage
circumstances and changes to individual systems as well as the wider usage context in
which they can be found.
 User experience focuses on having a deep understanding of users, what they need, what
they value, their abilities, and also their limitations, and, at the same time, taking into
account the business goals and objectives of the group managing the project.
 LIBRe Foundation could effectively support the user experience in both private
companies and state administration delivery process by creating comprehensive legal
designs of complex product/service guidelines, terms of use or related binding
documents combining legal techniques, information technologies and modern design.
 Global networking not only eliminates geographic distances but facilitates
communication with different cultural groups. Internet presents an opportunity to
highlight cultural differences and promote an understanding and awareness of diverse
cultural perspectives. For many years, studies have shown the role that cultural
differences play in intercultural communication. More recently, researchers have
recognized the significance of this research in user interface design - cultural differences
extend beyond the general meaning of symbols, colors, data (time, date, currency)
formats, etc., they also reflect underlying social structures that define how individuals
and organizations interact and communicate with each other.
 Storytelling is a new dimension in interface design that extends beyond established
research in intercultural communication theory. Since narratives enable users to relate
ideas and events to their personal experiences, stories create a sense of engagement,
identity, and community that helps users understand cultural differences. Digital
technology provides an opportunity to use storytelling in device/service design to build
online communities of users to share cultural traditions, similar experiences or interests
in education, business, or marketing. Digital storytelling provides an opportunity to
merge the traditional art of storytelling with interactive technology and create cultural
narratives that immerse the audience in a new cultural experience and to further
enhance the user experience on difference cognitive levels. The team of LIBRe
Foundation combines legal expertise and communication techniques to help
organizations to better present their products/services/delivery processes and to

Page 194 of 206

 expand the design of their legal documents by providing a comprehensive “translation”
of complex issues.
What is E-waste? Definition and Why It’s Important

Table of Contents

What is E-waste?

Why is it important to recycle e-waste?

Page 195 of 206

 Is it illegal to throw away electronics?

How to properly recycle electronics

Data Liability and security

How to Prepare your Business Electronics for Recycling

What is e-waste? And how do we dispose of it?

E-waste is electronic products that are unwanted, not working, and nearing or at the end of
their “useful life.” Computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos, copiers, and fax machines are
everyday electronic products.

The ongoing challenge of how best to dispose of used and unwanted electronics isn’t a new one
and dates back at least to the 1970s. But a lot has changed since then, particularly the number
of electronics being discarded today.

We also have something else today: a term for this issue. After several terms got suggested,
including “Digital rubbish,” a consensus formed around the simple word “e-waste.”

E-waste Defined

Page 196 of 206

E-waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that’s been discarded. This includes working
and broken items that are thrown in the garbage or donated to a charity reseller like Goodwill.
Often, if the item goes unsold in the store, it will be thrown away. E-waste is particularly
dangerous due to toxic chemicals that naturally leach from the metals inside when buried.

List of Common E-waste Items:

Home Appliances

 Microwaves
 Home Entertainment Devices
 Electric cookers
 Heaters
 Fans

Page 197 of 206

Communications and Information Technology Devices

 Cell phones
 Smartphones
 Desktop Computers
 Computer Monitors
 Laptops
 Circuit boards
 Hard Drives

Home Entertainment Devices

 DVDs
 Blu Ray Players
 Stereos
 Televisions
 Video Game Systems
 Fax machines
 Copiers
 Printers

Electronic Utilities

 Massage Chairs
 Heating Pads
 Remote Controls
 Television Remotes
 Electrical Cords
 Lamps
 Smart Lights
 Night Lights
 Treadmills
 FitBits
 Smart Watches
 Heart Monitors
 Diabetic Testing Equipment

Page 198 of 206

Office and Medical Equipment

 Copiers/Printers
 IT Server Racks
 IT Servers
 Cords and Cables
 WiFi Dongles
 Dialysis Machines
 Imaging Equipment
 Phone & PBX systems
 Audio & Video Equipment
 Network Hardware (i.e. servers, switches, hubs, etc.)
 Power Strips & Power Supplies
Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS Systems)
 Power Distribution Systems (PDU’s)
 Autoclave
 Defibrillator

Leftover ‘New’ Technology

Today, though, a growing amount of e-waste is not considered to be products that have
stopped working or become obsolete.

Technological advances are coming at us at such a dizzying speed that a lot of electronic devices
that still work fine are the ones considered obsolete.

Think of the many VCR players that got replaced when the DVD player hit the market, and now
the DVD players getting replaced by Blu-ray players. If a product is powered electronically and
someone thinks they can create a better version, that contributes to e-waste.

And we care about this because, for years now, unwanted electronic devices have been filling
landfills across the globe. In the U.S. alone, the Environmental Protection Agency estimates that
up to 60 million metric tons of e-waste end up in landfills every year.

Page 199 of 206

E-waste Hides Toxic Materials

While above ground, modern electronics are safe to use and be around. However, most
electronics contain some form of toxic materials, including beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and
lead, which pose serious environmental risks to our soil, water, air, and wildlife.

When E-waste gets buried at a landfill, it can dissolve in microscopic traces into the gross sludge
that permeates at the landfill. Eventually, these traces of toxic materials pool into the ground
below the landfill. This is known as leaching.

The more E-waste and metals at the landfill, the more of these trace toxic materials show up in
the groundwater.

Leeching Poisons Nearby Water

The problem is that there is so, so much E-waste that the trace amounts have ballooned over
the years. That toxic water under the landfill doesn’t stop below the landfill. It continues to the
groundwater and the sources to all the freshwater in the surrounding area.

Not only is this bad for anyone using a natural well, but it hurts the nearby wildlife. That, in
turn, causes the wildlife to get sick from lead, arsenic, cadmium, and other metal poisonings
due to the high concentration of these minerals.

Mining For New Metals Causes This Too

Not only is this a problem for E-waste in landfills, but this is a side effect of mining for new
sources of metal too.

Having an environmentally-friendly source of recycled metal is better for the environment than
a company digging up new sources of ore. Every time you recycle your electronics, you are
preventing your E-waste from leaching toxic metals into your groundwater. But you’re also
preventing it from happing at a mine somewhere else.

How You Can Help

Fortunately, there’s a proven solution. The recycling of e-waste serves a lot of useful purposes.
For instance, include protecting human and environmental health by keeping those devices out
of landfills. Or recovering the parts within the devices that still have value, and providing
manufacturers with recycled metals that can be used to make new products.

Page 200 of 206

Virtually all electronic waste contains some form of recyclable material. That includes materials
like plastic, glass, and metals, which is why they may be considered “junk” or “obsolete” to
consumers but still serve an essential purpose. It’s ironic, in some ways, that these devices are
called “e-waste,” since they’re not waste at all. But in far too many instances, they are thrown
away.

With electronic recyclers like GLEC, we have a solution. The challenge is getting recycling rates,
still stubbornly low, to increase.

E-waste Problems

The definition of e-waste is likely to keep expanding. In an era of rapid technological

advancement, more and more highly sophisticated electronic goods are being invented and
manufactured. Just think of the concept of the “smart home.” It’s easy to recognize how many
electronic devices can now do everything from offer security to turning lights on and off, to
having fresh coffee ready before we wake up.

Unfortunately, a skyrocketing amount of e-waste is being written off by owners as junk. There’s
no more significant example of that than computers, laptops, and smartphones.

New models arrive even as the current one appears to be working just fine. Despite that, the
latest version always provides additional features that make it seem too enticing to resist.

So in answer to the question, “What is e-waste?” a good response today might be, “It
depends.”

The technology innovators continue to create electric devices designed to make our lives easier
and more convenient in every conceivable way. Still, we seem all too susceptible to quickly
pitching the machines we already have. It doesn’t matter how satisfied we’ve been with them
up until now.

How Did We Get to This Point?

Page 201 of 206

In 1976, Congress first addressed the issue of hazardous waste disposal with the passage of
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. This act sets standards for protecting human
health and the natural environment from the potential hazards of waste disposal.

One of the goals of the law was to ensure the management of waste in an environmentally
sound manner.

The next major step was the Basel Convention in March 1989, an international treaty designed
to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations and prevent the transfer of
hazardous waste from developed to less-developed countries.

One thing that’s grown significantly since then has been the e-waste recycling industry. This
industry has the most proven way of keeping e-waste out of landfills or from being burned in
incinerators.

The recycling industry has been devoted to taking reusable parts from discarded electronic
devices and recycling them for the benefit of local businesses and manufacturers.

Page 202 of 206

As the amount of e-waste keeps rising, so has this industry, which today creates hundreds of
thousands of jobs across the world by recycling the electronics we no longer want.

So much of what’s in e-waste still has value. Circuit boards contain valuable metals like silver,
tin, gold, palladium, and copper.

Hard drives can be shredded and processed into aluminum ingots for use in the automotive
industry.

In 1991, the first electronic waste recycling system was implemented in Switzerland with the
introduction of a system to collect refrigerators. Other electric and electronic devices got added
to the system in later years.

A decade later, the European Union implemented a similar system called the Waste Electrical
and Electronic Equipment Directive to establish e-waste recycling requirements for member
nations.

In the U.S., there are no federal laws governing e-waste, although 25 states have their own e-
waste rules.

Is “e-waste” clearly defined?

The term “e-waste” usually applies to consumer and business electronic equipment that’s no
longer wanted, but that contains material that renders them hazardous when placed in
landfills.

But we know that every year, the list of e-waste items gets longer – and longer. In January,
when the Consumer Electronics Show opened in Las Vegas, there was a steady stream of new
product announcements, like the one by Audio Technica. A Japanese company that unveiled
two new wood-based, belt-drive turntables, the AT-LPW40TN, and AT-LPW30TK, created to
deliver high-fidelity audio performances.

At the same show, TCL Communication debuted a brand new Alcatel smartphone with a Full
View Display.

Other new devices on the market today include FXD, which can instantly diagnose car problems
when your “Check Engine Light” comes on. Or, the KeySmart Pro, which is an organizer
providing a better way to organize and carry your keys. And HeatBuddy, an energy-efficient
plug-in heater for any room in the house, that’s small and compact.

And new ideas keep coming. And each one likely means something else that we’ve relied on in
the past will become “obsolete.”

Page 203 of 206

The Dangers of E-waste

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health risks may result from direct contact
with toxic materials that leach from e-waste. These include minerals such as lead, cadmium,
chromium, brominated flame retardants, or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Danger can come
from inhalation of the toxic fumes, as well as from the accumulation of chemicals in soil, water,
and food.

This puts not just people in danger but land and sea animals as well. In developing countries,
the risks are exceptionally high because some developed countries send their e-waste there.
Studies have shown this global e-waste has detrimental effects on the people that work with
the e-waste but also the people that live around it.

Because of this, a proper recycling process needs to be put in place to protect us and future
generations.

E-waste Disposal

Page 204 of 206

Since we know consumers will keep buying new devices, it’s important to keep reinforcing that
message that we need to recycle the older models, not throw them out.

There are serious environmental risks if we send our electronics to a landfill. In contrast,
recycling provides considerable benefits to our environment.

The solution is to turn those devices over to an experienced firm like Great Lakes Electronics
Corporation, which has years of experience performing environmentally friendly recycling of
electronic products.

The process is simple: gather your old and unused electronics like you would your garbage. A
trash can or bin is perfect for this. For larger appliances, you usually want to gather them along
with your smaller electronics in a garage. Then, bring them into Great Lakes Electronics. For
consumers, the scheduled drop off day is Friday between the hours of 10 a.m. – 3 p.m. For
businesses, give us a call at (586) 759-5000 to arrange pick-up service or to schedule a delivery.

Beyond The Environment – Data Security

Other than helping the environment, businesses are starting to wake up to the dangers of
throwing away electronics. In an era where phishing scams are the biggest security threat for
your business, most overlook their trash, putting them at risk.

How E-waste Results in Data Theft

You may have heard before that critical documents, and serial numbers need to be shredded
before you throw them out. You probably know this is to stop someone from stealing your
identity or signing up for a credit card with your information. Throwing out, or donating, a
smartphone or laptop isn’t much different.

For both businesses and consumers, the hard drive inside your computer, or the memory stick
inside your smartphone is a significant liability. All someone has to do is plug it into a new
computer. There are dozens of methods of disposal, but most of them aren’t perfect. Physical
destruction or dismantling of your electronics is the only sure-fire way to get it done. However,
it should be done by a professional–modern laptop and smartphone batteries can explode if
heavily damaged or dismantled incorrectly.

So why is this important for a business?

Businesses can be held liable for the security of their clients and employee’s data being misused
or stolen. Throwing out or donating your old business electronics can be a legal liability because
of it.

Page 205 of 206

Pattern of Question Paper: For Digital Fluency (SUBMITTED BY CONCERNED BOS)

Duration of the exam: 2 hours

Part-A: 15X1= 15 marks

This part shall consist of fifteen (15) multiple choice questions containing five
questions from each module. Each question carries one mark and the student has
to answer all the questions.

Part-B: 15X1= 15 marks

This Part shall consist of eighteen (18) questions having six questions from each
module. Each question carries one mark and the student has to answer fifteen
(15) questions out of eighteen questions.

Page 206 of 206