S0300-A6-MAN-050

CHAPTER 3
EMERGENCY BUNKER FUEL TRANSFER IN SALVAGE

3-1 INTRODUCTION

Oil must often be removed from casualties to:

• Reduce the immediate pollution potential.

• Eliminate the potential for pollution from casualties that are to be abandoned.

• Expedite the salvage.

• Recover the oil for its economic or military value.

Oil to be removed includes cargo oil, bunker fuel and miscellaneous oils. There is special equip-
ment for removal of cargo oil from tankers and replenishment ships. Chapters 4 and 5 of this vol-
ume address this equipment and how it is employed in the emergency transfer of oil cargoes. This
chapter addresses only the removal of bunker fuel oils—a very different business. No special
equipment has been developed for the removal of fuel oils from ships that do not carry oil car-
goes. Many of the techniques that have been improvised and successful for removal of bunker
fuels are not suitable for the removal of cargo oils. The techniques described in this chapter are
strictly for removal of bunker fuels and miscellaneous oils . Gaining access to and removing
bunker fuels requires the:

• Selection of suitable equipment,

• Adaptation of equipment intended for other purposes and

• Application of imagination, sound salvage judgement, good seamanship and basic

engineering principles.

There is no cookbook for removing fuel oils in salvage. Each operation is different and must be
thought through carefully.

3-2 TANK ACCESS

Obtaining access to the tank in a way that precludes or minimizes pollution is the first step in
removing oil. Oil tanks in ships have a small number of standard openings that are described in
Paragraph 2-2.1.1. These openings may be a means of entry into the tank. The choice of the
method of oil removal will depend on the access that is practical. The position of the ship and the
location of tank fittings, in turn, determines the accesses. In some cases, particularly when ships
are capsized or inverted, it may not be practical to enter the tanks through any of the existing

3-1
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

accesses. Hot tapping—a technique developed in the oil fields to enter flowing pipelines—has
been adapted to salvage and has been successful in oil removal operations.

3-2.1 Piping. Transfer and suction piping is the most desirable tank access for oil removal. If the
casualty’s transfer pumps can be placed in operation and the oil can be removed through the nor-
mal defueling system to the deck connections, it should be. If the system is degraded, operable
components should be used. Transfer piping may be broken at any convenient flange—such as
those on tank manifolds—and portable pumps rigged. Pump discharges may be rigged either back
into sound transfer system piping or directly to the receiving vessel. The details of the system
used depends upon the configuration and condition of the casualty, but access through installed
piping systems should always be considered first.

3-2.2 Tank Fittings. If it is impractical to remove oil through the installed piping system, the
second choice is the fittings and lines that are installed in the tank. Removal of fuel through these
fittings is common in salvage operations.

3-2.2.1 Vents and Sounding Tubes. Vents and sounding tubes are suitable for inserting hoses
for pumping, blowing or water displacement or for natural flows of water or air to replace oil
removed from the tank. Vent and sounding tube terminations have the particular advantages of
being located remotely from the tank and not requiring access to the shell of the tank itself. Upper
vent terminations have the additional advantage of being located on weather decks; entry into the
ship is not required to reach them. In the tanks, vents terminate at the upper tank boundary, so a
hose must be run through the vent to reach the bottom of the tank. Sounding tubes run near the
bottom of the tank, but are often perforated to ensure the liquid level is the same inside and out-
side the tube. It is good practice to run a hose through sounding tubes. Vents are larger and can
accommodate a larger hose. Figures 3-8 through 3-12 in Section 3-3 illustrate several means of
accessing tanks through vents and sounding tubes.

3-2.2.2 Overflows. Overflows are not a good means of access to fuel oil in tanks. Overflow pip-
ing generally runs from the fuel tank to another tank in the ship and contains check valves, alarm
sensors and other obstructions that make passing lines through it difficult.

3-2.2.3 Manholes. If tanks are to be pumped with submersible pumps, they must be accessed
through the manhole, as it is the only opening large enough to pass the pumps. In many casualties,
tank manholes will be inaccessible because of cargo or other material above them that block
access. Manholes must not only be accessible, but there must be enough room around them to
handle and rig pumps. To prevent the escape of fumes and the development of fume concentra-
tions, manholes must be closed with sheet rubber gaskets, plastic bags filled with sawdust or
water or some similar means. Pump prime movers should be located in a well-ventilated area
clear of probable fume accumulations.

3-2.2.4 Keel Plugs. Tanks on the bottom of the ship normally have keel plugs near their low
point. Keel plugs are 1-1/2- to 2-inch steel threaded plugs placed in holes in the bottom of tanks to
allow the tank to be drained in drydock. The plugs are removed from the outside. They have
recessed hexagonal heads for removal with a special tool that fits the head like an allen wrench.
The tool is made so the plug may be started with a slugging hammer or a wrench. Special tools for

3-2
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

keel plugs may be in the ship, but it is usually quicker and easier to make a tool in the field than to
find one. Keel plugs are an excellent tank access when the casualty is inverted or nearly so.

WARNING

Hot tap cutting procedures sparks and heat and may ignite
flammable vapors within the tank. To preclude explosion, hot
taps must be positioned well below the oil-air interface.

3-2.3 Hot Taps. Hot taps cut through the oil container with an extendable rotary cutter enclosed
in a watertight and oiltight cylinder and operated through an open gate valve. When the cut is
completed, the cutter is withdrawn through the valve, the valve closed and the cutter replaced
with a hose, pipe or other means of carrying the oil away. Hot taps were developed in the oil field
to enter flowing pipelines without interrupting the flow or spilling the flowing fluid. Salvage hot
tap machines—basic oil field hot taps modified for salvage—are available in the ESSM System.
The poor man’s hot tap is a field improvisation that has been used for entering otherwise inacces-
sible tanks when a small spillage of oil is acceptable or is, by a significant margin, less of a threat
than the oil in the ship.

3-2.3.1 Salvage Hot Tapping. The ESSM salvage hot tap equipment is a pneumatically or
hydraulically driven cutter capable of cutting a nominal 6-inch diameter hole in 1-inch-thick mild
steel plate in any position.

Specifications for the system are found in Appendix C.

The system consists of:

• Power source.

• Hose assemblies.

• Hot tap machine.

• Motor.

• Valve adapters.

• Gate valve.

• Flange adapters.

• Cutters, cutter holders and pilots.

Figure 3-1 shows the basic hot tap equipment. The power source for the hot tap may be the
Hydraulic Power Source Model 2 or another power source capable of supplying 15 gpm at 1,500

3-3
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-1. Salvage Hot Tap Equipment.

psi or an air compressor capable of at least 105 cfm at 90-100 psi over ambient pressure at the
motor. The cutter head is equipped with a 1-1/4-inch pilot and recessed detentes or barbs that hold
the cut piece so it may be lifted from the hole. The rate of travel of the cutter may be adjusted
manually from 0 to 1/8-inch per revolution. Rates of travel may be adjusted by trial and error on
the job. Figure 3-2 shows the hot tap machine and cutter details.

Setting a salvage hot tap requires the following steps:

a. The surface in way of the installation is cleaned.

b. The location of the studs to match the flange are marked.

c. The studs are welded, drilled and tapped or shot into the hull plate.

3-4
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-2. Salvage Hot Tap Machine and Cutter.

3-5
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

d. The hot tap assembly with flange adapter, valve, valve adapter and hot tap machine is
set in place and secured on the studs. Alternatively, the components may be assembled
in place. If the assembly is not vertical, it should be supported by a lift bag or crane to
minimize side loads on the studs.

e. Power leads are made up to the hot tap machine motor.

f. The gate valve is checked to be sure it is completely open.

g. The cutter head is cranked down against the hull by the hand crank located on the end
of the hot tap machine.

h. Power is cut into the motor.

i. When the hull is penetrated, the cutter with the cut piece is withdrawn through the
valve by the hand crank.

j. The valve is closed.

k. The hot tap machine is removed and replaced with a hose or elbow and hose.

The hot tap machine may be operated in any position, but because of its weight of about 260
pounds in air it must be handled with cranes, foam flotation or lift bags to position it perpendicu-
lar to the hull.

The cut must be made well below the oil-air interface and clear of internal structural members.
The position of these members may be determined by checking the ship’s structural plans and
measuring the location on the hull, examining the hull for the lines of structural members or tap-
ping the hull with a hammer. The latter method is the most reliable, applicable in all cases and a
sound backup for other methods.

3-2.3.2 Poor Man’s Hot Tap. The poor man’s hot tap is a field improvisation to gain access to
tanks and set up an oil removal system when no other methods are possible and a small underwa-
ter release of oil can be tolerated. The material required for setting the system is:

• Drilled and tapped, welded or explosively set studs with matching nuts.

• A short 2-inch pipe spool piece with a flange that matches the studs on one end and a 2-
inch bronze gate valve on the other. As shown in Figure 3-3, the flange must be broad
enough to allow power-actuated studs to be fired as nearly vertically as possible and to
give stability at the spool piece-hull interface. A rubber gasket cemented to the base of
the spool piece provides a seal between the spool piece and the hull. Before the spool
piece is set, the gasket should be immersed in the oil to be pumped to be sure the oil
does not attack and destroy the gasket material.

• An oxyarc cutting rig or a powered drill with a bit long enough to reach through the
valve and spool piece and drill a hole through the hull.
3-6
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-3. Spool Piece with Wide Flange for Hot Tapping.

• A second short spool piece to fit onto the valve and to attach to a hose, preferably by a
Cam-Lok fitting, made up to the free end.

Setting a poor man’s hot tap requires the following steps:

a. The surface in way of the installation is cleaned.

b. The location of the studs to match the flange are marked.

c. The studs are welded, drilled and tapped or shot into the hull plate.

d. The gasket, flange, spool piece and gate valve with the valve open are set in place
either individually or as an assembly.

e. A hole is drilled in the hull or blown through it with oxyarc cutting equipment working
through the open valve.

f. When the hole is through the hull the tool is withdrawn and the valve closed.

g. The second spool piece and hose is fitted to the valve and the hose rigged for oil
removal. The Cam-Lok fitting on the hose connection is wired closed

Figure 3-4 illustrates the poor man’s hot tap.

Tank entry with a poor man’s hot tap should always be made well below the oil-air interface. The
location of the interface may be confirmed by drilling the hull, confirming that the discharge is in
fact oil and plugging the hole. As with the salvage hot tap, entry must be made clear of internal
structural members. The location of structural members may be determined in the same ways as
described for the salvage hot tap.

3-7
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Pipe and valves in poor man’s hot taps may be larger than the 2-inch size specified above. Two-
inch valves have proven to be about the largest that divers can handle without rigging lift bags or
other aids.

Figure 3-4. Poor Man’s Hot Tap.

Upon conclusion of hot tap operations, the spool pieces attached to the hull should be blanked To
ensure that no residue in the tanks will escape.

3-2.4 Cutting or Chipping. Under some conditions, the most practical way of entering a tank
may be by cutting an access. Exothermic cutting, sawing, drilling or chipping are all possible.

A tank should never be entered by exothermic cutting if there is any possibility that the plate
being cut is backed by fumes or explosive vapors. Oil-backed plate can be cut exothermically.
The depth below the surface of the oil at which a cut may be made safely in an oil-backed plate
depends upon the type of oil in the tank. Technical advice from the Supervisor of Salvage should
be obtained before cutting oil-backed plate exothermically. Water-backed plate in the lowest parts
of tanks may be cut safely.

Oil-, water- or air-backed plate may be cut mechanically by chipping, sawing or drilling. There is
a danger of sparking in cutting steel plate mechanically. The danger of sparking can be reduced by
flooding the area being cut and cutting through a water blanket.

3-8
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

3-3 METHODS OF REMOVING OIL

WARNING

Following oil removal, empty tanks will contain flammable

vapor. If sufficient air is drawn into the tank, or the vapors are
expelled into the tank, or the vapors are expelled from the tank
by heat expansion or other means, explosive atmospheres will
be created in tanks and near tank openings. Hot work, open
flames and spark sources are not permitted in the vicinity of
empty tanks until they have been declared gas-free.

3-3.1 Pumping. Pumping is the primary method of removing oil from casualties. Pumps for han-
dling fuel must be intrinsically safe and have no possibility of igniting the fuel or its vapors. If the
ship’s installed pumps are serviceable or can be either restored to service or rigged with a safe
emergency method, they are the first choice for pumping flammable liquids. If the installed
pumps cannot be rigged satisfactorily, portable hydraulic, electric, steam or pneumatic pumps
may be used. Flammable liquids should not be pumped with diesel- or gasoline-driven pumps.
Gasoline- or diesel-driven prime movers for hydraulic or electric pumps or air compressors and
steam generators for steam pumps should be sited well clear of any concentration of fuels or
potentially explosive vapors. They should always be in the open where eddys are not likely to
carry explosive vapors.

In so far as is known, airlifts have not been successful in removing oils.

3-3.1.1 Installed Pumps. Pumps installed for the transfer of fuels and other oil are the first
choice for removing these liquids from casualties. Quite often these pumps and their associated
systems are inoperable because there is no power available on the ship or because piping is bro-
ken. They may be made operable by restoring the ship’s steam or electric power, bringing in
power from portable sources or by rigging hose or pipe jumpers around damaged pipe sections.
The work and probability of success in restoring inoperative systems must be weighed against
similar factors for portable pumping systems.

3-3.1.2 Hydraulic Submersible Pumps. The six-inch hydraulic submersible pump CCN-150,
available in the ESSM System, is specifically designed to pump oil from casualties. The size and
capacity of the pump make it especially suitable for offloading tankers. Because the primary use
of the pump is in emergency transfers from tankers, the pump is described and illustrated in
Appendix C. Figures 4-11 and 4-12 illustrate the pump and power supply. Figure 4-13 is the per-
formance curve of the pump. The CCN-150 hydraulic submersible pump may pump fuels and
other oils from casualties when the tank manhole is accessible and can be opened to insert the
pump and there is sufficient room to rig the pump handling and support equipment. When pump-
ing through a tank access with the hydraulic submersible pump the access should be closed
around the discharge hose to prevent the escape of fumes, chafing gear placed on the hoses and
the pump hydraulic power unit located in an area free of fumes.

3-9
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

The U.S. Coast Guard Strike Teams are equipped with the Air-Deliverable Anti-Pollution Trans-
fer System (ADAPTS) that is specifically designed to transfer oil from casualties at rates up to
1,600 gpm. The system consists of a diesel driven hydraulic pump that pumps 29 gpm at 2,500
psi, Byron Jackson 8HQH or 10HQH submersible pumps and associated hoses packed for air
delivery to the casualty. ADAPTS is capable of operation in ambient temperatures between 120
and -40 degrees Fahrenheit. Specifications and performance curves are given in Appendix C.
Larger hydraulic pump and pumps designed to pump a variety of corrosive fluids are available
commercially.

3-3.1.3 Electric Submersible Pumps. Fuels in casualties may be offloaded with the modified
Prosser 4-inch electric submersible pump. This pump is available in the ESSM System and is
issued to salvage ships and units. Only the modified pump is provided with impellers suitable for
pumping POL. Appendix C contains detailed information on this pump and performance curves
for POL service. As is the case with the 6-inch hydraulic submersible, because of its size the 4-
inch electric pump must be put into fuel tanks through the manhole and the access closed around
the hose and power leads to minimize the escape of fumes. Diesel-driven generators supplying
power to electric submersible pumps must be located well clear of areas where fuel fumes are
likely to collect. When the Prosser electric submersible pump is pumping POL, the rotation of the
pump must be in the correct direction or the pump will burn out quickly. When the pump is run-
ning backwards there is enough discharge to mask the improper operation. To check the rotation,
remove the strainer and momentarily energize the pump. Rotation should be counterclockwise
when viewed from the suction end. If rotation is correct, replace the strainer and continue the
operation. If rotation is not correct, reverse any two power leads and check the rotation again.

3-3.1.4 Other Submersible Pumps. The 4-inch hydraulic submersible trash pump, available in
the ESSM system and commercial pneumatic submersible pumps are not specifically designed for
pumping POL, but may be used in this service. Their efficiency and their output is less when they
pump POL than when they pump water. The comments of the preceding paragraphs relative to
placing the tanks through manholes, closing the access against fume leakage and locating the
prime movers in fume-free areas apply.

3-3.1.5 Reciprocating Pumps. There are no reciprocating steam or pneumatic pumps designed
for use in pumping oil from casualties. However, these pumps are often found in other shipboard
and shoreside services and may be used as portable pumps for pumping fuels. Steam pumps may
be powered by the ship’s steam generator, a portable steam generator or compressed air. Pumps
powered by compressed air will pump slower and less efficiently than the same pumps powered
by steam. The air or steam pressure supplied to the driving end of the reciprocating pumps should
never exceed the design pressure of the pump. Overpressure normally causes the packing to blow
out of the pump, but the danger of catastrophic failure of the pump casing is always present.

Reciprocating pumps are suitable for pumping fuel tanks through hoses inserted through any of
the fittings or as booster pumps in manifolded systems.

3-3.1.6 Pneumatic Double-diaphragm Pumps. Pneumatic double-diaphragm pumps are excel-

lent machines for pumping fuel from casualties. These positive displacement pumps are simple,
reliable, quiet, suitable for liquids of all viscosities and present no explosion hazard. They may be

3-10
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

operated submerged and in self-priming, dry-starting arrangements with suction lifts up to 25 feet.
Figure 3-5 illustrates the pump and its principles of operation. Output is varied by varying the vol-
ume or pressure of the air supply to the pump.

Figure 3-5. Pneumatic Double-diaphragm Pump.

Figures 3-6 and 3-7 are performance curves for two common sizes of pneumatic double-dia-
phragm pumps. Performance data for specific pumps are available from the manufacturer and
should be supplied with the pump.

The pumps have the advantage of not requiring the tank to be opened. The suction hose may be
rigged through a vent, sounding tube or keel plug as illustrated in Figures 3-8A through 3-8G.
Like reciprocating pumps, the pneumatic double-diaphragm pump may be used as booster pumps
in manifolded systems. Tanks can be vented to the atmosphere if above the waterline or sub-
merged to shallow depths, but pressurized air may be required at deeper depths to prevent tank
collapse.

Pneumatic double-diaphragm pumps are neither stocked in the ESSM System nor issued to Navy
salvage ships and units. The pumps are widely available commercially as they find application in
a number of industries.

3-11
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-6. Performance and Specification, Pneumatic Double-Diaphragm Pump with 1-Inch Outlet.

3-12
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-7. Performance and Specification, Pneumatic Double-Diaphragm Pump with 2-Inch Outlet.

3-13
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Although the pump presents no explosion hazard itself, it does require an air compressor as a
prime mover. The compressor must be in a fume-free area.

3-3.1.7 Eductors. Fuels are seldom pumped with eductors. To avoid contamination of the fuel
being pumped, oil of the same type must be the driving fluid for the eductor. It is difficult to pro-
duce enough pressure pumping oil in a salvage operation to drive an eductor effectively. In addi-
tion, the difficulty of rigging the system is seldom, if ever, worth the effort. Eductors are suitable
for removing badly contaminated fuels that are to be disposed of. In these cases, water from any
suitable pump may drive the eductor. JP-5 and other fuels that are static accumulators should not
be pumped with water-driven eductors.

3-3.2 Water Displacement. Water or hydraulic displacement consists of pumping water into the
tank, preferably low in the tank, to force the lighter oil higher and out through the vent or a fitting

Figure 3-8A. Pneumatic Double-diaphragm Pump Rigged Through a Sounding Tube.

3-14
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-8B. Pumping and Natural Venting, Tank Inclined Less than 90 Degrees.

3-15
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-8C. Pumping and Natural Water Replacement, Tank Inclined at 90 Degrees.

3-16
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-8D. Pumping and Natural Venting, Tank Inclined at 90 Degrees.

3-17
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-8E. Pumping and Natural Water Replacement, Tank Inclined More Than 90 Degrees.

installed to pass the oil. Water displacement is a simple and safe way to remove flammable liq-
uids. It is the safest way to handle gasoline and other Flammability Grade A liquid.

If the tank is upright or positioned so the vent is at the highest point of the tank, fumes in a par-
tially filled tank are forced out, then the tank is filled with liquid so there is no space for explosive
fumes to collect.

The following steps are necessary to remove fuel from an upright, intact tank by water displace-
ment:

a. One fitting into the top of the tank—the manhole, vent or overflow—is chosen and fit-
ted with a connection for handling fuel displaced from the tank.

b. Fittings through which fuel can escape are blanked or sealed and valves gagged.

3-18
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-8F. Pumping and Natural Venting, Tank Inclined More Than 90 Degrees.

3-19
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-8G. Pumping Through Removed Keel Plug.

3-20
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-9A. Water Displacement of Fuel From an Upright Intack Tank.

c. A hose is inserted through the sounding tube near the bottom of the tank.

d. Water is introduced into the tank until oil begins to flow from the hose.

Figures 3-9A through 3-9D illustrate water displacement of oil from inclined tanks.

WARNING

Pressurizing fuel tanks with compressed air can increase the

oxygen partial pressure enough to bring the fuel vapor-air mix-
ture into the flammable range.

3-3.3 Air. Fuels can be blown from tanks by compressed air. In tanks that are intact and relatively
upright, air introduced into a sealed tank will force fuel out of the tank through an outlet near the
bottom. Introducing air under pressure into a tank containing oil is relatively dangerous because
the space above the oil contains a potentially explosive vapor and an increase in absolute pressure
is necessary to blow out the fuel—whenever compressed air is blown into a tank containing fuel
vapors there is the potential for explosion.

3-21
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-9B. Water Displacement, Tank Inclined Less Than 90°.

The following steps are necessary to blow fuel from an upright, intact tank:

a. One fitting into the top of the tank—the manhole, vent or overflow—is chosen and fit-
ted with an air connection and pressure gage.

b. Fittings through which air can escape are blanked or sealed and valves gagged.

c. A hose is inserted through the sounding tube to near the bottom of the tank.

d. Air is introduced into the tank slowly until the predetermined pressure is reached and
oil begins to flow from the hose.

e. Blowing is continued at a rate that just maintains the minimum pressure necessary to
move fuel out of the tank.

3-22
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-9C. Water Displacement, Tank Inclined at 90°.

Figure 3-10A shows an upright intact tank rigged for blowing with air. If the tank is not upright,
the location of the fitting must be taken into account and the tank rigged with a system that is
workable. Figure 3-10B illustrates the rigging of air into a tank in a capsized ship with the sound-
ing tube on the upper side. Figures 3-10C and 3-10D illustrate methods of rigging air into
inclined tanks.

WARNING

Pressurizing fuel tanks with compressed air can increase the

oxygen partial pressure enough to bring the fuel vaporair mix-
ture into the flammable range.

3-3.4 Combinations. Pumping may be used in conjunction with both water displacement and
blowing with air by rigging a pump to the fuel discharge from the tank. Positive displacement
pumps—reciprocating or pneumatic double-diaphragm—are best. Figures 3-11A and 3-11B illus-
trate pumps rigged with water displacement and air blowing systems. Pumping combined with
blowing works very well, but the tank should always be fitted with a pressure gage to permit con-
trol of the pressure and avoid overpressurizing. When pumping is combined with water displace-
3-23
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-9D. Water Displacement, Tank Inclined at More Than 90°.

ment, the pumping rates must be balanced to prevent either overpressurizing the tank or drawing a
vacuum and causing it to implode.

In partially filled inclined tanks, air may be forced into the unvented high part of the tank and
compressed there. In these cases, flow from the tank vent should be monitored constantly. When
the fume flow ceases, the water injection rate should be reduced so that water flows in only as fast
as the flammable liquid flows out. A slow water injection rate ensures that POL flows from the
tank while the layer depth decreases and the fumes are not compressed. Ideally, depth in the tank
is constant. If water is pumped into the tank more rapidly than oil flows out, pumping may be
stopped until the compressed atmosphere in the tank blows the liquid level down to equilibrium
and flow stops. If the oil-water interface passes the removal fitting, it may be necessary to blow
air slowly into the tank. Upon completion of removal of the flammable liquid, the tank may still
contain a potentially explosive atmosphere above the water.

It is unwise to abandon or attempt to clear the wreck while pockets of explosive gas exist. Air may
be blown slowly into the tank until the atmosphere is blown out of the removal fitting. The tank
should be purged until monitoring shows the vented gases are well below the explosive range.
The area in which the vented gases bubble to the surface should be treated as extremely hazard-
3-24
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-10A. An Intact Tank Rigged for Blowing with Air.

3-25
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-10B. Blowing with Air, Tank Inclined Less Than 90°.

ous. Figure 3-12 illustrates removal of oil from a tank inclined at 90 degrees by a combination of
water displacement and blowing.

3-3.5 Vacuum Trucks. When the casualty is alongside a pier or a barge can be brought along-
side, vacuum trucks on the pier or barge can remove oil. These trucks are available in most ports.
Normally, they have a small holding tank, a vacuum pump capable of drawing 25 inches of vac-
uum and all the ancillary equipment needed to operate at any site. Oils floating on the surface of
flooded machinery spaces, cargo holds and other large, relatively open spaces are excellent candi-
dates for removal by vacuuming.

3-4 OPERATIONAL NOTES

The collection of miscellaneous notes in this paragraph have proven their practical value in
numerous emergency transfer operations.

3-26
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-10C. Blowing with Air, Tank Inclined at 90 Degrees.

3-4.1 Trapped Oil. Tank geometry and the physics of suction will prevent removing 100 percent
of the oil in any tank by practical means. The obligation of the salvor is to remove as much oil as
is safe and practical by judicious selection and application of removal methods and to be able to
demonstrate to the proper authorities that he has done so. Upon completion of the oil removal
operation the quantity of trapped oil should be the practical minimum.

3-4.2 Cold temperatures heavy residual oils, including Bunker C, may become so viscous that
they cannot be pumped without raising their temperature. Usually, an increase of a few degrees in
a limited volume of oil is enough to lower the viscosity enough to make a significant difference. It
is not necessary to heat an entire tank. Should it become necessary to stop pumping for any reason
very viscous oil may clog the transfer hose and prevent further transfer until the viscosity is
reduced. Heating of the transfer hose can eliminate this problem.

There is no equipment designed specifically for heating oil in salvage, equipment must be impro-
vised. If the casualty has Tank heating coils, they are the first choice for heating the oil. Heat for
installed systems may be supplied from the casualty, a salvage ship or a portable source. The most
common heat source is steam supplied to tank heating coils, hoses that trace the steam lines or
hoses or coils placed in the tank. Steam may be provided from any source. The portable steam
generator stocked in the ESSM system and described in Appendix C, provides a maximum of
3,300 pounds/hour of saturated steam at 200 psi and 382 degrees Fahrenheit. The generator is

3-27
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-10D. Blowing with Air, Tank Inclined More Than 90 Degrees.

shipped with a heating coil that may be put into a tank through a manhole or hatch Or may heat a
secondary fluid that heats the oil in the tank. The steam generator is a potential ignition source and
should be placed in a well ventilated location that is free of fumes.

When submersible pumps are placed into fuel tanks through manholes, loops of steam hose in the
oil near the pump can raise the temperature of the oil enough to increase pumping efficiency. In
these cases, the hose in the oil should be convoluted metal hose to improve the heat transfer effi-
ciency. Loops of steam hose or open-ended steam hose may be put into tanks through any piping
or fitting large enough to accommodate them

Hoses traces may be either external or internal to the transfer hose. As illustrated in Figure 3-13,
hoses external to the transfer hose should be wrapped spirally around the transfer hose and cov-
ered with any available insulating material to reduce heat loss to the atmosphere. External steam
traces are suitable for relatively small diameter hose that is too small for internal traces.

3-28
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-11A. Combined Water Displacememt and Pumping.

Six-inch diameter or larger transfer hose may be traced internally by 1-1/2-inch diameter convo-
luted metal steam hose. Internal traces should not run through gate valves that isolate oil tanks. If
the transfer hose ruptures, the steam hose could not be withdrawn quickly enough to prevent a
serious spill by closing the valve and isolating the tank.

Figure 3-14 shows three ways of configuring internal steam traces. The closed trace recirculates
the condensate to the boiler. The open traces exhaust the steam into the oil near the end of the
transfer, thereby theoretically giving additional heating by direct contact. The closed trace con-
serves boiler feed water and should be used where this quantity is in short supply. Open traces
exploit the affinity of some heavy fuel oils for water. These oils form emulsions easily; if emul-
sions are formed, the viscosity of the oils is reduced quickly. Because oil will be contaminated by
mixing with water deliberate introduction of condensate into the oil is appropriate when oil is
being removed to prevent pollution and there is no intention of salvaging the oil.

Steam may also be injected directly into the suction area through a fitting in the transfer piping or
the deck. These arrangements, shown in Figure 3-15, have the advantage of heating the oil in the

3-29
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-11B. Combined Air Blowing and Pumping.

tank immediately before it enters the hose. Direct injection of steam should be combined with
steam tracing of the hose, particularly if the hose runs a considerable distance through cold water.

WARNING

Heating devices used in and around fuel tanks and transfer

hoses must be intrinsically safe to avoid explosion.

Electrical strip heaters or blankets may be placed around transfer hoses and covered with insulat-
ing materials. Immersion heaters may be placed in the tanks themselves. All electrical equipment
should be intrinsically safe or isolated from any contact with oils, their fumes, and explosive
vapors.

3-4.3 Destinations for Removed Oil. Before beginning a transfer operation, salvors must have
sufficient tankage available and correctly and securely placed to receive the oil that is to be
removed. The normal options include:

• Ships or barges alongside.

3-30
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-12. Iterative Water Displacement and Blowing.

• Ships or barges in a standoff moor.

• Over-the-beach transfers.

3-4.3.1 Ships Alongside. The simplest transfers are to a salvage ship alongside the casualty
because rigging, transfer distances and the number of vessels involved is minimal. This method
should be chosen whenever the salvage ship has enough tankage to accommodate the oil removed

3-31
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-13. Transfer Hose with External Steam Hose.

Figure 3-14. Steam Traces.

from the casualty and when it is possible to come alongside the casualty. When there is not suffi-
cient tankage in the salvage ship, a barge may be moored alongside to receive the oil.

3-4.3.2 Standoff Moors. When the vessels cannot be brought alongside the casualty, they may
be placed in a standoff moor such as that illustrated in Figure 3-16 and the oil removed through a
floating hose string. The receiving vessel should be moored as closely as possible to the casualty
to reduce the length of the hose string and the stresses on the hose working in the surf.

3-4.3.3 Over-the-Beach. Oil may be removed to tankage ashore rather than to seaward. In a rel-
atively benign environment, floating hoses may be run through the surf and across the beach. In

3-32
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-15. Steam Injection.

most cases, it is preferable to rig a highline to support the hose and keep it clear of the surf and the
stresses that the surf imposes.

3-5 IN-PLACE DESTRUCTION OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

In some environments, particularly in remote areas and in extremely high and low latitudes, burn-
ing to destroy the oil may be the preferred method of oil removal. Burning is most appropriate

3-33
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

Figure 3-16. Receiving Barge in Standoff Moor.

when the casualty is to be abandoned, the oil is contained within the casualty and position of the
casualty or the environment make removal impractical.

For effective burning, the fuel must be contained within the ship or pumped off the ship to a con-
tainment and disposal site. The former is the most practical. The oil must have access to large vol-
umes of combustion-supporting air; thus, the burning site must be relatively open with a large
surface area and good ventilation. Flamer-burners that atomize oil for burning have been devel-
oped for salvage, but have not proven practical in the field. Burning the oil in bulk inside the ship
has proven to be a satisfactory means of disposal. When fuel or cargo oil is burned for disposal,
the contents of the ship burn with it. A survey should be made of the materials in the ship to deter-
mine if toxic or hazardous combustion products will be produced. An assessment of the environ-
mental effects of combustion products should be made as part of the disposal method decision.
Approval of local authorities will be required in all cases except military emergency.

Simply opening the tank access manholes seldom provides an adequate entry for effective burn-
ing. Fill and transfer systems can be broken and fuel dumped or pumped into machinery spaces or
holds and burned there. Tanks can be opened by explosive charges to increase the surface area of
the oil available for combustion and allow large volumes of combustion-supporting air to reach
the fuel. The tops of double-bottom tanks may be cut open. Deep tanks may be split vertically so
that their contents dump into holds or machinery spaces.

3-34
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

When double-bottom tanks are filled or holed so that the residual oil is pressed up to the tank top,
all spaces between longitudinals and floors must be opened to ensure all the oil burns. If holds
contain cargo that is to be abandoned, it may be necessary to remove all or a portion of the cargo
to reach the inner bottom and open the tanks. Fuel in double-bottom tanks under flooded spaces
floats to the surface when the tanks are opened.

When tanks are opened explosively, there is a possibility that the explosion will ignite the fuel.
Intentional explosive ignition of fuel concurrent with opening the tanks is entirely practical and is
done in some cases. Whenever oil is ignited explosively, it should be part of a planned process. To
avoid accidental premature ignition, the tanks may be opened manually. Tanks to be opened man-
ually should be pressed up with water so there is no space for explosive fumes to collect in the
upper part of the tank. Even with pressing up, fumes may collect in high portions of the tanks if
the ship is in a position that permits the formation of pockets away from vents. Mechanical open-
ings should be made low in the tanks where fumes are least likely to pocket. To further reduce the
danger of explosion, the space above the tanks may be flooded to a depth of a few inches and the
tank opened by chipping, drilling or sawing. If drilling confirms the absence of fumes, the tank
may be opened by exothermic cutting.

Light fuels and lubricating oils may be ignited directly by time-fused or remotely fired explosive
charges or, preferably, thermite devices. Heavy fuels are difficult to ignite in cold climates or
when floating on cold water. Diesel fuel or gasoline spread on the surface of the water and ignited
with a time fuse or remotely fired explosive or thermite device will raise the temperature of the
heavy oil enough for ignition. An explosive or thermite device strapped to a drum of gasoline,
diesel oil or other light fuel is a very effective ignition device.

Explosive opening of tanks, followed closely by a second series of explosions to ignite the oil as it
flows from the open tanks, has been successful in a number of cases.

3-35
 S0300-A6-MAN-050

3-36