CITY AND GUILDS 9210

Level 6
Module - Unit 129 FLUID MECHANICS
OUTCOME 2 - TUTORIAL 4
PIPE NETWORKS
This module has 4 Learning Outcomes. This is the fourth tutorial for outcome 2

Outcome 2 Perform fluid flow calculations

The learner can: 13. Calculate the drag on a flat plate in turbulent
1. Solve compressible fluid flow problems flow.
involving: 14. Determine and apply the effects of surface
a speed of weak pressure waves roughness on fluid flow.
b stagnation pressure 15. Describe boundary layer separation and the
c fluid temperature formation of wakes.
d fluid density. 16. Solve problems involving steady flow in pipes
2. Solve problems involving isentropic flow of a of:
perfect gas in ducts of varying cross-sectional a Newtonian fluids
area in terms of Mach number and including b non-Newtonian fluids.
choked flow. 17. Analyse the relationship in steady flow
3. Describe the formation of a normal shock in between friction factor, Reynolds number and
convergent-divergent nozzles. relative roughness.
4. Determine and apply laminar flow in pipes 18. Analyse simple pipe networks using iterative
and on and between flat plates. calculations.
5. Calculate the velocity distribution in laminar 19. Apply Euler and Bernoulli equations to
flow. incompressible inviscid fluid flows.
6. Calculate the volumetric flow rate in laminar 20. Determine and apply the stream function and
flow. velocity potential function in steady two
7. Apply laminar flow to hydrodynamic dimensional flows.
lubrication. 21. Determine and apply flows of incompressible
8. Analyse laminar flow using: fluids resulting from simple combinations of:
a boundary layer theory a uniform stream
b displacement and momentum thicknesses b source
c skin friction coefficient. c sink
9. Solve problems using the momentum integral d doublet
equation. e point vortex.
10. Calculate the drag on a flat plate in laminar 22. Determine and apply inviscid flow around a
flow. circular cylinder with circulation including
11. Describe the factors affecting boundary layer the calculation of
transition. a pressure distribution
12. Analyse turbulent boundary layers in terms b lift force.
of:
a power law
b logarithmic velocity distribution
c laminar sub-layer
d skin friction on a flat plate.

Pre-Requisite Knowledge Requirement

In order to study this module you should already have a good knowledge of fluid mechanics. If not you
should study the tutorials at [Link]/[Link] before commencing this module.

Let us start by revising flow in pipes.

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 BRIEF REVISION OF PIPE FLOW

PIPE FRICTION
4Cf Lu 2m
When a fluid flows in a pipe the friction head is defined by the Darcy equation h f 
2gD
hf = friction head
um = mean velocity = Q/A
D = pipe bore
L = pipe length
Re = Reynolds number = ρumD/μ
R = Hydraulic resistance

The friction coefficient Cf is dependent on the surface roughness and degree of turbulence and there are
many theories about its relationship. The most common method for finding C f is from the Moody Chart or
from one of many developed formulae such as :

BLASIUS Cf = 0.0791 Re0.25

LEE Cf = 0.0018 + 0.152 Re0.35.

1 
 6.9    
1.11

HAALAND  3.6 log 10    
Cf 
 R e  3.71   
For laminar flow n = 1 and Cf = 16/Re

Basically we are saying h f  umn and n is only 2 for complete turbulent flow.

We must remember that Cf depends on the Reynolds number. In this case we would need to think about
recalculating Cf every time we change the flow.

In terms of flow rate Q hf = R Qn

32Cf L
R (or often K) is the fluid resistance. When n = 2 R and when n is not 2, Cf and hence R
gπ 2 D5
changes with the flow rate. The units of R are s2/m5.

MINOR LOSSES

Minor losses occur at Entry and exit from a reservoir, at sudden changes in sections and sharp bends. In
general these are small compared to pipe friction when the pipes are long and are neglected for short
connections they are important. In terms of pressure head the losses are usually formulated as:

8k
h L  RQ2 where the resistance is given by R  where k is a factor that depends on the pipe sizes
2D4
and can be found in literature.

The Moody chart and other details concerning pipe losses can be found in tutorial 1.

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GUESSING and CORRECTING
nRQ n dQ
Starting with hf = R Qn differentiate to get dh f  nRQ n -1dQ  and since R Qn = hf
Q
nh f dQ Qdhf
dh f  or dQ 
Q nh f
nh f δQ Q δh f
If this relationship holds approximately true for finite changes then δhf  or δQ 
Q nh f
These equations are used to make corrections in the guessing game that follows.

NETWORKS WITH A COMMON JUNCTION

The diagram shows a typical example with four reservoirs A, B, C and D connected to a common junction J.
The problem is to find the pressure head h at the junction.

For a system such as that illustrated, suppose that we need to find the flow in each pipe but we don't know
the pressure at the junction.

We could do four simultaneous equations in order to find the flow in each pipe but these days with fast
computational methods it is relatively easier to guess at values and make corrections.

Applying Bernoulli between the free surface of any reservoir and the junction gives:
h + z + u2/2g = hJ + zJ + uJ2/2g + hf

At the free surface h = 0 and u = 0 (This is an assumption normally made).

z = hJ + zj + uJ2/2g + hf hf = z - hJ - zj - uJ2/2g

Many sources of information ignore the velocity term and state hf = z - zj - hJ and this will be so here. For a
given pipe we calculate the hydraulic resistance R (or K) and get the form h f = R Qn

Hence for any pipe hf = R Qn = z – zJ – hJ Q = {( z – zJ – hJ)1/n/R}

Suppose we guess at the value of hJ (or more likely hJ + zJ). With a suitable programme such as Excel™ it is
easy to guess the head and keep changing it until ΣQ = 0.

The point is that at the junction the total or net flow rate must be zero so each time we guess we add up
the total flow until ΣQ = 0. If it is not very close to zero then we guess again.

A more systematic method of arriving at the correct answer is to make a correction after each guess based
on the error formula derived previously.

Using the guessed value of head we work out Q for each pipe. Any error in the guess will produce an error
Q δh f nh δQ
in the flow of δQ  and the correction to the head must be δhf  f for each pipe.
nh f Q
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For four pipes A, B, C and D the total error is:

 nh f δQ   nh f δQ   nh f δQ   nh f δQ  n δQ
 δhf           δhf 
Q  A  Q  B  Q C  Q  D  Q/h f
This method is called the nodal balance method.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Based on the diagram previous, the following data applies.

zA = 143 m zB = 134 m zC = 120 m zD = 100 m zJ = 80

DA = 0.4 m DB = 0.3 m DC = 0.5 m DD = 0.4 m

LA = 4200 m LB = 1200 m LC = 1250 m LD = 1200 m

Cf = 0.005 for all pipes. The constant n is 2.

Find the pressure head at the junction by guessing and hence the flow rate in or out of each reservoir.

SOLUTION
32Cf L L
Calculate R for each pipe. R 2 5
 0.001653 5
gπ D D
RA = 677.8 RB = 816 RC = 66.1 RD = 193.7

The following solution was done on a spread sheet. Remember that on the spread sheet the values in the
table will automatically change when you change hJ in the programme. Adjusting h J until ΣQ ≈ 0 gives
the following.

PIPE R z - zJ hf = z - zJ - hJ Q=√hf/R ΔQ/Δhf Guess hJ = 39.998

A 677.8 63 23.002 0.18422 0.00801

B 816 54 14.002 0.13099 0.00936
C 66.1 40 0.002 0.0055 2.75033
D 193.7 20 -19.998 -0.3213 0.01607
ΣQ =-0.0006 Σ =2.78376

Note that if Q is minus it is implied that hf is minus but this will cause a problem in the calculations so use
Q = √Modulus(hf/R)

In Excel the formula would be entered =SQRT(ABS(cell1/cell2))*(cell3/ABS(cell3)) where cell 1 and

cell2 are the cells containing h f and R and cell3 contains hf.

The final values of flow rate are

QA = 0.18422 m3/s
QB = 0.13099 m3/s
QC = 0.13099 m3/s
QD = -0.3213 m3/s

In an examination you may not have access to a suitable programmable calculator so you would have to
keep repeating all the calculations with an adjustment to the value of h J each time.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Repeat the last worked example but use iteration to arrive at the answer.
n δQ
The correction to be made after each iteration is  h f 
 Q/h f
With this formula you can calculate the adjustment each time. With no other data, a good idea for the
starting value is the mean height of the reservoirs. Also note that the height of the junction is not
normally given but if we guess at hJ + zJ we get the same result but do not know the static head at J.
Also note that K is commonly used instead of R. A good starting guess might be h J = (63 + 54 + 40 +
20)/4 = 44 m
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 19 0.16743 0.00881
B 816 54 10 0.1107 0.01107
C 66.1 40 -4 -0.246 0.0615
D 193.7 20 -24 -0.352 0.01467
Σ=-0.3199 Σ=0.09605
Now find the correction
2 δQ 2 x (-0.3199)
 δhf  Q/h  0.09605  6.66 Change the values of hJ to 37.34 and repeat.
 f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 25.66 0.19457 0.00758
B 816 54 16.66 0.14289 0.00858
C 66.1 40 2.66 0.2006 0.07542
D 193.7 20 -17.34 -0.2992 0.01725
Σ=0.23886 Σ=0.10883
Now find the correction
2 δQ 2 x (0.23886)
 δhf  Q/h  0.10883  4.39 Change the values of hJ to 41.73 and repeat.
 f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 21.27 0.17715 0.00833
B 816 54 12.27 0.12262 0.00999
C 66.1 40 -1.73 -0.1618 0.09351
D 193.7 20 -21.73 -0.3349 0.01541
Σ=-0.1969 Σ=0.12725
Now find the correction
2 δQ 2 x (-0.1969)
 δhf  Q/h  0.1273  3.09 Change the values of hJ to 38.6 and repeat.
 f
PIPE R z - zJ hf Q Q/hf
A 677.8 63 24.64 0.19066 0.00774
B 816 54 15.64 0.13844 0.00885
C 66.1 40 1.64 0.15751 0.09605
D 193.7 20 -18.36 -0.3079 0.01677
Σ=0.17875 Σ=0.1294
2 δQ 2 x (0.17875)
 δhf  Q/h  0.1294  2.76 Change the values of hJ to 41.4 and repeat.
 f
The number of iterations depends on how accurate you want the answer to be but you can see the
answer is converging on 40 m.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.3 (EC Exam Standard)

The table shows the data for the network of pipes shown connecting four reservoirs to a common
junction.

Reservoir Water Level K for Pipe

(m) above a connecting
datum to J (s2/m5)
A 50 4.0
B 45 3.0
C 40 2.0
D 30 2.0

Calculate the flow in each pipe using iteration until the final head correction at the junction is less than
0.1 m.

SOLUTION

The height of the datum is not given so we can only calculate the combined head and height. The best
guess is usually the mean height of the reservoirs which is (50 + 45 + 40 + 30)/4 = 41.25

1st ITERATION

PIPE K z Δhf Q Q/hf Guess hJ+zJ

A 4 50 8.75 1.47902 0.16903 41.25
B 3 45 3.75 1.11803 0.29814
C 2 40 -1.25 -0.7906 0.63246
D 2 30 -11.25 -2.3717 0.21082
-0.5652 1.31045
2 δQ 2 x (-0.5652)
 δhf    0.863 =Correct hJ + zJ = 40.4
 Q/h f 1.310

2nd ITERATION

PIPE R z Δhf Q Q/hf Guess hJ+zJ

A 4 50 9.6 1.54919 0.16137 41.25
B 3 45 4.6 1.23828 0.26919
C 2 40 -0.4 -0.4472 1.11803
D 2 30 -10.4 -2.2804 0.21926
0.05991 1.76786

2 δQ 2 x (0.5991)
 δhf    0.0678 This is less than 0.1 so meets the answer
 Q/h f 1.76786
QA = 1.55 m3/s QB = 1.24 m3/s QC = -0.45 m3/s QD = -2.28 m3/s

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

The table shows the data for the network of pipes shown connecting four reservoirs to a common
junction.

Reservoir Water Level K for Pipe

(m) above a connecting
datum to J (s2/m5)
A 120 420
B 90 316
C 60 250
D 40 120

Calculate the flow in each pipe using iteration until the final head correction at the junction is less than
0.1 m.

(0.36, 0.27, -0.16 and-0.47 m3/s)

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NETWORKS

Consider a small network lying in the horizontal plane as shown in

the diagram. There are three nodes A, B and C and three pipes AB,
BC and AC. The purpose is to find the flow in each pipe.

Suppose the pressure head at node A is hA. Assume the flow is

clockwise around the loop.

The pressure head at node B must be hA + hf (AB).

The pressure head at node C must be hA + hf (AB) + hf (BC).
The pressure head at node A must be hA + hf (AB) + hf (BC) + hf (CB).
We are back to where we started so hA = hA + hf (AB) + hf (BC) + hf (CB).
It follows that hf (AB) + hf (BC) + hf (CB) = 0

If the flow in any pipe is the opposite way, then hf will be negative and all is taken care of.

If we went anti-clockwise around the loop, the same would be true.

Notation is clockwise is positive (opposite to maths convention, typical engineering)

Anti- clockwise is negative.

The solution is based on calculating the total h f for either the clockwise or anti-clockwise flow and adjusting
the Q values until Σhf is zero.

The correction to the flow in each pipe is δQ   f1

h
 nh f1/Q
We start by guessing the flow in each pipe (ensuring balance at each node) and calculating the friction head
for each. We add up the friction heads and if it is not close to zero we correct our guess and do it again.

The method is known as the Hardy Cross method or Loop Balance.

IMPORTANT NOTE – the correction must be SUBTRACTED

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

In the simple network shown Q1 = 0.8 m3/s, Q2 = -1.2 m3/s.

The resistance of each pipe is as follows.

Pipe AB R = 50 s2/m5
Pipe BC R = 30 s2/m5
Pipe AC R = 60 s2/m5

Determine the flow in the three pipes. Take n = 2

SOLUTION

By conservation of flow, Q3 = 0.4 m3/s

Guess the flow in each pipe bearing in mind the total flow at a node is zero. Clockwise is positive. The
starting guess is:
Q (AB) = 0.6 Q (BC) = -0.6 Q (BC) = -0.4

First iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.6 18 30
BC 30 -0.6 -10.8 18
AC 60 -0.2 -2.4 12
-0.2 4.8 60

δQ   f1 
h 4.8
 0.04 Correct the Q values by subtracting
2 h f1/Q 2 x 60

Second iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.56 15.68 28
BC 30 -0.64 -12.288 19.2
AC 60 -0.24 -3.456 14.4
-0.32 -0.064 61.6

δQ   f1 
h - 0.32
 0.000524 Correct the Q values by subtracting
2 h f1/Q 2 x 61.6

Third iteration
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 50 0.56052 15.708 28.025
BC 30 -0.6395 -12.2688 19.185
AC 60 -0.2395 -3.44162 14.37
-0.3185 -0.00005 61.58

This is one iteration more than we need. The head loss is so close to zero that this is the correct answer.

Q (AB) = 0.56052 m3/s, Q (BC) = -0.6395 m3/s and Q (AC) = -0.2395 m3/s

If we check the flow into each node we will see that the original figures have been maintained.

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MULTIPLE LOOPS

When a network contains multiple loops, there will be pipes common to adjoining loops with a clockwise
flow in one loop appearing as anti-clockwise in the other. Each loop must be identified and the corrections
made systematically to each loop in turn. The correction to the flows must be made each time before
moving on to the next loop. For more than two loops in a network, the process becomes very elaborate and
computer methods need to be used.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

The diagram shows a water supply network

with the demands indicated at the nodes.
The value of K for each pipe is 1000 s2/m5
except for BE which is 7500 s2/m5.
The supply pressure head at A is 50 m above
the ground elevation for the area served which
is flat and level. Calculate the pressure head
at each node.

SOLUTION

The problem must be solved as two loops

with a common pipe BE.
First make a guess at the flow rates.
The supply must be
0.02 + 0.05 + 0.03 + 0.03 + 0.05 + 0.02 = 0.2 m3/s.
Bear in mind that the net flow is zero at all nodes.
Data shown for initial guess
Start with loop ABEFA
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 1000 0.08 6.4 80
δQ   h f1  - 9.25  0.01386
BE 7500 0.01 0.75 75 2 h f1/Q 2 x 335
EF 1000 -0.08 -6.4 80
FA 1000 -0.1 -10 100
-9.25 335 Correct all flows in this loop by adding 0.01386.

Data after first correction to left loop

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 Now do loop BCDEB

PIPE
BC
R
1000
Q
0.02
hf
0.4
hf/Q
20 δQ 
 h f1  - 5.55  0.01117
CD 1000 -0.01 -0.1 10 2 h f1/Q 2 x 248.5
DE 1000 -0.04 -1.6 40
BE 7500 -0.02381 -4.2504 178.5
-5.550 248.5 Correct all flows in this loop by adding 0.01117.

Data after first correction to the right loop

This completes the first iteration so now do loop ABEFA again.

 h f1  -1.8132  0.00266
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
AB 1000 0.09381 8.79956 93.80597 δQ 
BE 7500 0.01264 1.19829 94.80084 2 h f1/Q 2 x 341
EF 1000 -0.0662 -4.38165 66.19403
FA 1000 -0.0862 -7.42941 86.19403
-1.81321 340.9949 Correct all flows by adding 0.00266

Data after second correction

to the left loop

Now do loop BCDEB again.

PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
BC 1000 0.03117 0.971311 31.16586 δQ 
 h f1  1.6141  0.00459
CD 1000 0.00117 0.001359 1.165859 2 h f1/Q 2 x 175.9
DE 1000 -0.0288 -0.83141 28.83414
BE 7500 -0.0153 -1.7554 114.7411
-1.61414 175.907 Correct all flows by adding 0.00459

Data after second correction

to right loop

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 We need to keep going until hf is very small. Our initial guess was not very good. Do ABEFA Again

PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
δQ 
 h f1  - 0.849  0.00131
AB 1000 0.09646 9.30543 96.46467 2 h f1/Q 2 x 323.866
BE 7500 0.01071 0.8604 80.33071
EF 1000 -0.0635 -4.03674 63.53533
FA 1000 -0.0835 -6.97815 83.53533
-0.84905 323.866 Correct all flows by adding 0.00131

Data after third correction

to the left loop

Do BCDEB again
PIPE R Q hf hf/Q
BC 1000 0.03575 1.278342 35.75391 δQ   h f1  - 0.3603  0.00116
CD 1000 0.00575 0.033107 5.75391 2 h f1/Q 2 x 155.916
DE 1000 -0.0242 -0.58787 24.24609
BE 7500 -0.012 -1.08389 90.16178
-0.36031 155.9157 Correct all flows by adding 0.00116

Final flow rates

We have a total friction head of less than 1 metre in both loops so we will end here.
To find the pressure head at each node we must evaluate the friction heads with these flows.

PIPE R Q hf
AB 1000 0.09778 9.56004
BE 7500 0.01087 0.88554
EF 1000 -0.0622 -3.87189
FA 1000 -0.0822 -6.76087
BC 1000 0.03691 1.362302
CD 1000 0.00691 0.047739
DE 1000 -0.0231 -0.53318
BE 7500 -0.0109 -0.88554
Pressure at B = 50 – 9.6 = 40.4 m Pressure at E = 40.4 – 0.9 = 39.5 m
Pressure at F = 50 – 6.8 = 43.2 m Pressure at E = 43.2 – 3.9 = 39.3 m (check)
Pressure at C = 40.4 – 1.4 = 39 m Pressure at D = 39 – 0.05 = 39 m
Pressure at D = 39.4 – 0.5 = 38.9 m (check)

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. The diagram shows a simple pipe network in the horizontal plane with nodes at A, B, C and D with
flow rates as indicated. The hydraulic resistance of each pipe is as follows:

AB 500 s2/m5
BC 500 s2/m5
CD 1200 s2/m5
DA 1200 s2/m5
BD 600 s2/m5

Determine the flow in each pipe

The answers are shown next.

2. The diagram shows a water supply network with the demands indicated at the nodes.
The value of K for each pipe is 500 s2/m5 except for BE which is 600 s2/m5.
The supply pressure head at A is 120 m above the ground elevation for the area served which is flat and
level. Calculate the flow rate in each pipe and the pressure head at each node.

ANSWERS
Q m3/s hf m Node hm
AB 0.373 69.6 A 120
BE 0.126 9.6 B 50.4
EF -0.227 -25.7 C 35.4
FA -0.327 -53.4 D 32.7
BC 0.173 15.0 E 40.7
CD 0.0732 2.7 F 66.6
DE -0.127 -8.0
BE -0.126 -9.6

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