Unit – 10 – ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY


Ecology is a branch of biology concerned with the study of the interactions of living
organisms with each other and with their environment.
An ecosystem is a community of organisms that interact with their environment.
Biosphere is a region of the earth where life can exist.(atmosphere, hygrosphere,
lithosphere)
A habitat is a place where an organism lives.
An abiotic factor is anything that is non-living and has an effect on living
organisms in an ecosystem. The two main types are:
1. Climatic factors are weather conditions that have an effect on living organisms in
an ecosystem.
2. Edaphic factors are anything relating to the soil or geology of land that have an
effect on living organisms in an ecosystem.
A biotic factor is anything that is living and has an effect on living organisms in an
ecosystem. (e.g presence of predator, presence of pathogenic organisms)
Pathogenic: capable of producing disease.

A grazing food chain is a relationship of the sequence of predator-prey

relationships in an ecosystem.

A food web consists of two or more interconnected food chains.

An ecological pyramid of numbers shows the numbers of organisms at each
trophic level in a food chain. (May be upright, partially upright or inverted in
shape.
Niche refers to the functional role an organism plays in its habita.
A population is a group of organisms living in a habitat that belong to the same
species.
A community is a group of organisms living in a habitat that belong to many
different species.
Competition is the struggle between organisms for a resource that is in limited
supply.
1. Contest competition is the direct fight between two organisms for a resource that
is in short supply. (e.g. two stags fighting for a mate)
2. Scramble competition is the struggle amongst a number of organisms for a
resource that is in short supply. Each organism gets a small share of the resource.
(e.g. a pack of vultures competing for a portion of the kill made by a large predator)
 A resource is a stock or supply (such as food) that can be drawn on.
Predation is the catching, killing and eating of another organism.

Symbiosis is the biological relationship in which two species live in close proximity
to each other and interact regularly in such a way as to benefit one or both of the
organisms.
(Mutualism is when both of the organisms benefit from the presence of each other,
e.g. N2-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules of legume plants (such as peas)
assimilate NO3- from N2.
 Parasitism is where one organism, called the parasite, lives in or on another
organism, called the host, and the host is harmed. (e.g. aphids are parasites of plants,
athletes foot and mosquitoes)

Factors affecting human population: War, Contraception, Famine & Disease.

 Nutrient recycling is the process of exchanging important elements between living
organisms and the environment.
 Carbon cycle is the process through which elemental C (in the form of
biomolecules) is exchanged between living things and the environment.
 Nitrogen cycle is the process through which elemental N2 (in the form of
biomolecules) is exchanged between living organisms and their environment.

Pollution is any undesirable change to a habitat.

 Eutrophication is a process where water receives too many nutrients that
stimulate excessive algal growth.
 Conservation is the wise management of our existing natural resources.
 3 processes of sewage treatment: primary=physical screening,
secondary=microorganisms, tertiary=addition of microorganisms if PO & NO levels
too high, or chlorine (kill pathogens).
ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY
Introduction: So far we have discussed about many topic related to the evolution,
physiology, molecular cell biology and structure-function of selected
macromolecules. In the current lecture, we will discuss the local habitat, and
relationship between different organisms. Now the question is, what is mean by
Ecosystem? An animal can not live in isolation and interact with biota and abiotic
factors, these relationship constitute the ecological system or ecosystem. In other
words, ecosystem is defined as structural and functional unit of the biosphere,
comprising living and non-living factors and their interaction.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM: Ecosystem is an open system and material can

exchange from one ecosystem to another ecosystem. For ex. Frog move from the
pond to the land and vice-versa. The ecosystem can be classified based on size,
nature and duration;

(1) Nature : On the basis of nature, it can be natural or artificial.

Natural Ecosystem: This ecosystem forms naturally without interference of human.

Example include are pond, river, forest, village, hill etc.

Artificial Ecosystem: This ecosystem is developed and mainted by human. Example

include are flowerbed, backyard, aquarium etc.

(2) Duration: On the basis of duration, ecosystem can be classified as temporary or

permanent.

Temporary ecosystem: it is short lived and man made or natural. Example include
rain fed pond.

Permanent ecosystem: it is long lived and self supported natural ecosystem for
very long period. Example includes forest, river etc.

(3) Size: Ecosystem is classified as small or large ecosystem.

(1) Small: it is small and also known as microecosystem. It can be temporary or

permanent. For ex. Pond, flowerpot etc

(2) Large: it is large in size and also known as macroecosystem. It is always

permanent and mostly natural. For ex. Ocean, river, forest and desert.

(3) STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM: Each and every ecosystem has several

components to sustain it for long duration. It needs matter (water, oxygen, mineral,
carbon dioxide), different types of organisms and continuous recycling of energy
(Figure 38.1). These requirements are met by two important components present in
ecosystem; biotic components and abiotic components.
Biotic Components: The living organisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic
component. They are connected through food. In this series, few organisms are
producing food whereas others are consuling the food.

(i) Producers: The role of producers is to prepare food to provide nutrition to the
other organisms present in the ecosystem. There are two types of producers;
photoautotrophs and chemotrophs.
Photoautotrophs: These are green plants which can trap sun light to form
carbohydrate, simple sugar from carbon di-oxide and water. This process is known as
photosynthesis and these organisms are called as photoautotrophs.

Chemoautotrophs: Few bacteria such as sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, can be

able to utilize free energy released from the chemical reactions to prepare organic food
with it. They are called chemoautotrophs and the process is known as chemosynthesis.

(ii) Consumers: These are mainly the animals. They are unable synthesize their own
food and depends on producers. They utilize the oxygen being released from the
producers as well. Several consumer doesn’t get the food from the producers but they
are depended on consumers itself. As a result, consumers are related to each other
through multiple food chains. There are many types of consumers and we will discuss
in details about these consumer in the subsequent lecture. The consumers are known
as heterotrophs.

(iii) Decomposers: These are mainly bacteria and fungi. Their primary purpose in the
ecosystem is to decompose the complex organic material into the simple inorganic
material so that it can be use for producers to prepare food.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
These factors include the non-living physiochemical factors of the environment.
Abiotic factors are as follows:

(i) Inorganic substances: Inorganic substances like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water,
carbon di-oxide, calcium, phosphorus and their inorganic compounds. These are
available as free form or dissolved in water and may be adsorbed on the soil particles.

(ii) Organic compounds: These are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nuceltic acids etc.
This material is present in dead organic matter. These are broken into the simple
compounds by decomposers in ecosystem for recycling of matter.

(iii) Climatic factors: These are factors present in the environment such as
temperature, humidity, light, wind, rainfall an atomospheric gaseous etc.

Study of specific Ecosystem: Lets take a example of fresh water pond to understand the
function of individual components.
1. Abiotic Components: Non-living part of the pond includes: (1) water with
dissolved gases, mineral and suspended organic matter. (2) air, CO2 and O2 on the
water surface (3) sunlight.

2. Biotic Components: The biotic constituents include the plants, animals and
microorganisms. They play different role in ecosystem.

3. Producers: Green plants act as producers.. As discussed previously, they

utilized the sun light, CO2 and water to prepare the food for other organisms.

4. Consumers: These includes crustaceans, worms, insect larvae and fishes.

5. Decomposers: Dead plants and animals form the organic debris in the pond.
The decomposer such as bacteria and fungi decay dead body into the simple organic
and inorganic substances.

Summary of Previous Lecture: In the previous lecture, we have discussed several

aspects of ecosystem, various components of ecosystem and their relevance in
maintaining ecology. Now in the current lecture, we will discuss, the relationship
between different organisms and their role in the ecosystem.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD CHAIN: The sequential inter-linking of organisms

involving transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten is referred as “food chain”. The biotic
components of the ecosystem are linked to each other through food chain. In a typical
food chain, producers are at the bottom and their role is to provide food for rest of the
community utilizying solar energy (Figure 39.1). Other organisms belongs to the
consumers and finally decomper are present at the bottom to recycle the organic
content. In this manner, a nutritive interaction relationship exist between the living
organisms of an ecosystem. It is always straight and always follow progressive straight
line. The flow of energy is also unidirectional, from sun to producer and then different
series of consumers. In a typical food chain, there are always 4 or 5 trophic level in the
food chain. The distinct sequential steps in the straight food chains are referred as
different trophic levels. For ex. Green plants stand at the first trophic level; the
herbivorous are the second trophic level; and flesh eaters represent the third trophic
levels. The position of plant is at the bottom but the position of other organism varies
to different trophic level in different food chains. The typical representative food
chains are given in the Table 39.1.
 Producers Herbivores Primary Secondary Tertiary
Type of
Carnivores Carnivores Carnivores
Ecosystem

Grassland Grasses Snakes Predatory

Insects Frogs
Ecosystem birds
Predatory
Rat and mice Snakes
birds

Grazing Carnivore
Cattle mammals

Aquatic Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons Small fishes Large fishes

Ecosystem

Forest Trees Phytophagous Lizards, Predatory

Ecosystem insects birds birds

Herbivora Foxes Lions, Tiger

mammals
Wolves

Dessert Shrubs, bushes Rats and mice Snakes Predatory

Ecosystem birds
Grasses and
some tree

TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN: There are two different types of food chains; grazing food
chain and detritus food chain.

Grazing food chain: In the grazing food chain, solar energy is entrapped by the
plants and then biomass, in tuen eaten by the herbivorous, and these are
subsequently been consumed by a variety of carnivorous. These are longer food and
these food chains end at the decomposer level. Here are two typical example of this
type of food chain to understand this type of food chain.
(1) Food chain in a pond: In a pond, floated or rooted plants and algae are responsible for
performing photosynthesis to prepare food for other member of ecosystem. They represent
producers in the food chain (Figure 39.2). Unicellular algae are consumed by protozoan, water flies,
snail, mosquito larvae and tadpoles. These small organisms represent primary consumers. These
organisms are eaten by hydra, dragonfly larvae, giant insects and small fishes. These are secondary
consumers. Large fishes and frog fed on these organism and represent tertiary consumers. Frog and
fishes are eaten by snakes, birds and these are quaternary consumers. Death of all these organism
become the food for bacteria and fungus to produce simple inorganic materials for reuse by the
producers.

(2) Food chain on land: A typical land food chain is given in Figure 39.3. In land food chain, grass
and tree are the producers. Grass is eaten by rabbit and other herbivorous. They represent the
primary consumers. Rabbit is eaten by cats (secondary consumers), which in-turn eaten by wolves
(tertiary consumers). Both cat and wolves will be consumed by tigers and other big carnivorous
(quaternary consumers). Deaths of these entire organisms become the food for bacteria and fungus
to produce simple inorganic materials for reuse by the producers.
Detritus food chain: Unlike grazing food chain, detritus food chain starts with the dead organic
matter either from fallen leaves or dead animal bodies. This food chain doen’t depends on solar
energy. Common example of detritus food chain is marsh land where mangrove leaves fall into the
warm, shallow water (Figure 39.4). The detritus eating animals ex. Bacteria, fungi and protozoan act
upon the dead matter of dead leaves to covert them into simple inorganic substances. The
detritivorous are subsequently eaten by insect larvae, grass shrimp, copepods, crabs, nematodes,
bivalve mollusks, amphipods, mysids etc. In the last step, the detritus consumers are finally eaten by
fishes.

Figure 39.4: Detritus food chain on marsh land.

Mangroove Bacteria, Fungi Insect Larvae, Minnows, Large
Fallen Leaves and Protozoa Certain small game fishes, fish

crustaceans, fishes eating birds

mollusks

Food Web: The different food chains are inter connected at various trophic level to develop a food
web (Figure 39.5). For example, in grassland ecosystem, grass is consumed by the rabbit but in their
absence, it may be eaten by the grazing cattle. Similarly, rat or mouse is eaten by snake but snake can
be eaten by predatory birds. In contrast to food chain, food web has several distinct characteristic.
(1) Food web are never straight. (2) Food web is formed due to interlinking of food chains. (3) A food
web in the ecosystem brings alternate source of food. The complex food web gives better stability to
the ecosystem. Most of the animals are polyphagous and they feed on more than one kind of
organism. If the availability of one particular animal is decresing in the ecosystem, they start eating
alternate animal. As a result, it gives chance to other animal to reproduce and grow in number and in
addition, it gives chance to predator to survive.

Ecological Pyramids: In a food chain, producers and consumers at different trophic level are
connected in terms of number, biomass and energy. These properties reduces from producers to
consumers and representing these parameters for food chain gives a pyramid with a broad base and
a tapering apex (Figure 39.6). Ecological pyramids can be of three types:

(a) Pyramid of Numbers

(b) pyramid of biomass

(c) pyramid of energy

Example of inverted ecological pyramid is provided by parasitic food chains (Figure 39.7). A single
mango tree supports large number of birds, which in turn supports a large number of parasites like
lice and bugs. Hyperparasites, such as bacteria and fungus are the greatest in the number and occupy
the top of the inverted pyramids.
Flow of energy in food chain: Sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth and plants utilizes it to
produce food for rest of the member of the ecosystem. Only the 1% of the total energy fall on green
part of leaves is changed into the potential energy of the organic substances, the rest of the energy
dissipates as heat. To explain the flow of energy, lindermann proposed the law of ten per cent law.
This law proposed that during transfer of food energy from one trophic level to the other, only 10% is
stored at higher trophic and the rest 90% is lost in respiration, decomposition and waste in the form
of heat (Figure 39.8). For example, 5000 jules fall on leaves, it will convert only 50 jules into the
chemical form (food). It will be eaten by rabbit, he will get only 5 jules (10% of 50 jules) on next
trophic level. Rabbit will be consumed by carnivorous and they can be able store only 0.5 jules (10%
of 5 jules).
Ecological Equilibrium: Ecosystem always remains in the state of equilibrium. The equilibrium is
dynamic is nature and biotic components appear and disappear time to time due to their death or
predator. In addition, decomposer converts the complex organic matter of dead plant and animals
into the simple inorganic substances. These simple inorganic substances pass through the soil, plants
and animals in a cyclic manner, and this keeps the life going on in an ecosystem. Thus, both biotic and
abiotic components are in a dynamic state.

POPULATION ECOLOGY
I. Background
A. Biological processes affecting populations
1. Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to environment
a. Environment influences population density, distribution and size
2. Definition of population
a. A group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area

B. Density and Dispersion

1. Density - number of individuals per unit area or volume
2. Dispersion-pattern of spacing amongindividuals withinboundariesof the population

C. Density
1. Usually impractical / impossible to count all individuals in a population
a. Need to employ sampling techniques to estimate densities and total population sizes
2. Techniques
a. Extrapolation from small samples
b. Index of population size
c. Mark-recapture method
3. Factors affecting density
a. Processes that add individuals to some population & remove individuals
b. Immigration
i. Influx of new individuals from other areas
c. Emigration
i. Movement of individuals outof a population
4. Environmentaland socialfactors influence spacing of individuals ina population
a. Clumped dispersion
i. Individuals aggregate in patches
ii. Clumped dispersion influenced by resource availability and behavior
b. Uniform dispersion
i. Individuals are evenly distributed
ii. Influenced by social interactions such as territoriality
c. Random dispersion
i. Position of each individual is independent of other individuals
 ii. Occurs in absence of strong attractions or repulsions

D. Demogra
phics

1. The
study of
the vital

statistics of a population and how they change over time a. Death and birth ratesLife table
a. Age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population
b. Follow cohort of the same aged individuals

E. Survivorship curve

1. Graphical representation of a life table

2. Classification
a. Type I: low death rates during early and middle life, then an increase among older age
groups
b. Type II: the death rate is constant over the organism’s life span
c. Type III: high death rates for the young, then a slower death rate for survivors

F. Reproductive rates
1. Focus on females when a population reproduces sexually
2. Reproductive table
a. Age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population
b. Describes reproductive pattern
II. Life history traits
A. Traits that affect its schedule of reproduction and survival
1. Age when reproduction begins
2. Frequency of reproduction
3. Number of offspring during each reproductive cycle
4. Life history traits are evolutionary outcomes reflected in the development, physiology, and
behavior of an organism
B. Types of life histories
1. Semelparity (big-bang reproduction) organisms reproduce once and die
a. Favored when environment is unpredictable
2. Iteroparity, or (repeated reproduction) organisms produce offspring repeatedly
b. Favored when environment is consistent
C. Limited resources lead to trade-offs between survival and reproduction
1. Plant strategies
a. Large number of small seeds
i. Some will grow and reproduce
b. Small number of large seeds

i. Large store of energy that will help seedlings become established

2. In animals, parental care of smaller broods help survival of offspring
III. Exponential population growth model
A. Exponential growth only occurs in an idealized, unlimited environment
1. Useful to study population growth in an idealized situation
2. Idealized situations help us understand the capacity of species to increase and the
conditions that

B. Exponential growth
1. Exponential population growth is population increase under idealized conditions
Under these conditions, the rate of reproduction is at its maximum, called the intrinsic rate of
increase

IV. Logistic model

A. Logistical model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying
capacity
1. Exponential growth cannot be sustained in nature
2. A more accurate model includes a carrying capacity

[Link] capacity (K) is the maximum population size the environment can support
B. Logistic growth model
1. In the logistic population growth model, the per capita rate of increase declines as
carrying capacity is reached

C. Logistic model and life histories

1. Life history traits favored by natural selection may vary with population density
and environmental conditions
2. K-selection, or density-dependent selection, selects for life history traits that are
sensitive to population density
3. r-selection, or density-independent selection, selects for life history traits that
maximize reproduction

V. Factors regulating population growth

A. Density dependent factors
1. Environmental factors prevent exponential growth
2. Factors differentially affecting populations
a. Radical fluctuations
b. Relative stability

B. Population change and population density

1. In density-independent (r) populations, birth rate & death rate do not change with
 population density
2. In density-dependent (K) populations, birth rates fall and death rates rise with
population density
a. Negative feedback thatregulatespopulationgrowth
b. Multiple factors
i. Competition for resources
ii. Disease
iii. Territoriality
iv. Predation
v. Intrinsic factors
3. Competition for recourses

a. In crowded populations, increasing population density intensifies competition

for resources i. Results in a lower birth rate
4. Territoriality
a. In many vertebrates and some invertebrates, competition for territory may
limit density
b. Cheetahs are highly territorial, using chemical communication to warn other
cheetahs of their boundaries
5. Disease
a. Population density can influence the health and survival of organisms
b. In dense populations, pathogens can spread morerapidly
6. Predation

a. As a prey population builds up, predators may feed preferentially on that species
7. Intrinsic factors

a. For some populations, intrinsic (physiological) factors appear to regulate

population size
8. Population dynamics

a. Complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors that cause variation in
population size
9. Stability and fluctuation
a. Long-term population studies have challenged the hypothesis that
populations of large mammals are relatively stable over time
b. Weather can affect population size over time
c. Changes in predation pressure can drive population fluctuations

C. Immigration, emigration, and metapopulations

1. Metapopulations are groups of populations linked by immigration and emigration
High levels of immigration combined with higher survival can result in greater stability in
populations
2. High levels of immigration combined with higher survival can result in greater stability in
Populations
VI. Human population growth
 A. Global human population

1. Human population increased relatively slowly until about 1650 and then began to grow
exponentially
2. Global population is still growing, the rate of growth began to slow during the 1960s
B. Regional patterns of population change
1. To maintain population stability, a regional human population can exist in one of two
configurations:
a. Zero population growth = High birth rate – High death rate
b. Zero population growth = Low birth rate – Low death rate
2. Demographic transition is the move from the first state toward the second state
a. Associated with increase in quality of health care and access to education
i. Greatest effect if for women
3. Most of the current global population growth is concentrated in developing countries
C. Age structure
1. Age structure is the relative number of individuals at each age
2. Age structure diagrams can predict a population’s growth trends
E. Global carrying capacity
1. The number of humans that the biosphere can support
a. The carrying capacity of Earth for humans is uncertain
b. Average estimate is 10–15 billion
2. Limits
a. Ecological footprint concept summarizes the aggregate land and water area needed to
sustain the people of a nation
b. Measures how close we are to the carrying capacity of Earth
c. Countries vary greatly in footprint size and available ecological capacity
d. Carrying capacity could potentially be limited by food, space, nonrenewable resources, or
buildup of wastes.

ECOLOGY

Population Ecology

A population refers to a group of individuals of one kind with no barriers to exchange of

genetic material in a given area at a given time. For example, population of human beings
in a city, or population of squirrels or of lions in a forest, or pine trees in a given land
(Photo 1). The study dealing with structure and dynamics of individuals in a population
and their interactions with environment is known as Population Ecology. It has almost the same
meaning as that of conventional term Autecology (the study of ecology of individual species or its
population), which is less in use now. Population ecology is a significant branch of ecology that
plays an important role in protecting and managing populations, especially those of rare species,
 Photo 1. A population of Pine trees
through various means including PVA (Population Viability Analysis). PVA helps to determine
whether a population would survive or face the risk of extinction (complete disappearance of a
species from the biosphere) under a given set of environmental conditions. Further, each
population has a minimum viable size - the size at which it can avoid the extinction due to various
biotic and abiotic factors.

There are two types of populations:

a) Unitary Populations
b) Modular Populations

In unitary populations, each individual is derived from zygote (the product of fertilization
of male and female gamete) and the growth of such individuals is determinate and
predictable. Examples include mammals (including humans), birds, amphibians and
insects. Each cow has four legs, two eyes, and a tail., i.e., each individual shows a definite
shape and size (Photo 2a).

In contrast, modular populations are those where an organism develops from a zygote and
serves as a unit module and several other modules are produced from it, forming a

Photo 2a. Unitary Population of Photo 2b. A Grass showing different Ramets
Cow
branching pattern (Photo 2b).
Examples of modular organisms are plants, sponges, hydroids, fungi, bacteria and corals.
Some modular organisms such as trees may grow vertically while others like grasses
spread horizontally on the substratum. The structure and pattern of modular organisms is
not determinate and thus unpredictable.

Biologists also use the term Genet to the organism, which arises from a zygote, whereas
others arising asexually are known as Ramet. In a grass or weed species, a number of
young plants may arise through runners or stolons, and upon separation from the parent
plant form new plants; a group of such new plants is known as ramets (Photo 2b).
Individuals of ramets are genetically alike and replica of parent plant. A group of ramets
developing from a genet is known as clone since all organisms are genetically alike. The
formation of ramets in the plant species is very common and can be easily seen in grasses.

The populations can be r-selected or K-selected. This type of classification of populations

is based on their growth and survival strategies. r-Selected populations are characterized
by high reproductive rates, rapid use of resources over a short span of time and high rates
of intrinsic growth (r). These populations exhibit shorter life spans and are also known as
opportunistic species. On the other hand, K-selected populations are slow growing and
tend to be limited by the carrying capacity of the environment, i.e. K. Such populations
have long life spans, high competitive ability and low rates of intrinsic growth (r).

The subject of population ecology can be divided into 3 sections for the sake of
convenience:
A) Population characteristics
B) Population dynamics
C) Population regulation

A. Population Characteristics

Populations are identified by a number of characteristics. These are: 1. Population size and
density, 2. Patterns of dispersion, 3. Age structure, 4. Natality, 5. Mortality, 6. Population
growth and dispersal, 7. Biotic potential.

1. Population size and density

Population size is usually determined on the basis of density, i.e. number of individuals per
unit area (if it is land) or per unit volume (if it is an aquatic system). For example, 200 trees
found in one hectare of land tell us about the density of the tree population, or 15
fishes/m3 water indicates the density of fish population. Density of the population is often
of two types - Crude density and Ecological density.
> Crude density is that density which takes in account all area of land or aquatic
 ecosystems under consideration, e.g. number of squirrels in a forest.
> Ecological density on the other hand, takes in account abundance of individuals in
the actual area occupied by a population. If we consider the above example of
squirrels, numbers of squirrels per unit area of the tree dominated patches (areas
where squirrels are actually living) constitute ecological density.

The difference in the two types of densities becomes more apparent when the species are
clumped together in a small area. However, crude density is studied frequently more than
the ecological density because it is very difficult to determine the ‘actual area’ of
inhabitation of a species. Further, the area of inhabitation may vary with developmental
stages of species.
2. Patterns of dispersion

Pattern of dispersion means the manner in which individuals of a population are

distributed in space and time. Dispersion may be spatial (varying with respect to space) or
temporal (varying with time). In the latter, example of migratory birds is well- known. In
case of spatial pattern, broadly three types of dispersion patterns are recognized.
❖ Regular or Uniform
❖ Random
❖ Clumped
Regular or Uniform dispersion: In this type, the individuals of a species occur uniformly
which is observed in terms of almost equal distances between individuals (Figure 1). This
type of dispersion is rare in natural ecosystems but common in manmade ecosystems like
agro-ecosystems or tree plantations.
Random dispersion: In random dispersion, position of an individual in a population is
unrelated to the positions of other individuals (Figure 1). In other words, individuals do
not show any systematic pattern of dispersion. This type of dispersion is also rare in
nature.

Clumped dispersion: In this type of pattern, the individuals of a species are clumped
together in space in the form of patches (Figure 1). This type of patchy distribution is quite
common in nature as individuals of a population occur together because of food
availability or better survival rate as in animal populations. In plants, the clumped
distribution is very common, and attributed to nutrient availability, specific habitat
preference or better environmental conditions. Example of this kind can also be seen in the

social aggregations that are formed in response to some environmental suitability.

 3. Age structure

A population is comprised of individuals of different age groups that constitute its age
structure. Age structure of a population thus derives from the proportion of individuals in
different age groups. For the sake of convenience, the age categories have been divided
into three major stages, Pre-reproductive, Reproductive and Postreproductive. The
proportion of different stages in a population is presented graphically in the form of age
pyramid. An age pyramid is thus a geometrical model showing the proportions of different
age groups of a population. Populations with equal proportion of major three stages are
said to be stationary populations (Figure 2a). A population with high number of young
individuals as compared to the older organisms is increasing or progressive type and the
pyramid of such a population would have a broader base (Figure 2b). On the other hand, if
the number of older organisms is more than the younger ones, the population is said to be
retrogressive or declining type. The base of the pyramid of such population would be
narrow (Figure 2c).
 4. Natality

Natality means production of new individuals (offspring) of an organism in a population.

The new individuals can be formed through birth (as in human beings), hatching (for
example, in chicken eggs), germination (in plants), or cell division (lower organisms). The
number of offspring produced per female per unit time is known as rate of natality.
Natality can be of two types:

❖ Maximum or Absolute natality

❖ Ecological natality

Maximum or Absolute natality also known as Fecundity rate means maximum offspring
produced under most suitable environmental conditions. This value is theoretical (since
the environmental conditions are never static and keep on changing) and constant for a
given population.

Ecological natality also known as Fertility rate, on the other hand, refers to number of
offspring produced under prevailing environmental conditions.

5. Mortality

Mortality refers to death of individuals in a population. Rate of death of individuals

referred to as Mortality rate is of two types:

❖ Minimum mortality rate

❖ Ecological mortality rate

Minimum mortality rate, or also known as Physiological longevity, refers to the theoretical
minimum death rate which occurs under ideal conditions of environment with minimum
limiting factors. This value is a theoretical value and constant for a given population. Under
actual environmental conditions, the death rate may be more and this actual death rate is
referred to as Ecological mortality.

The other way of expressing mortality is vital index, which is ratio of birth to death rate
and expressed as percentage.
The most popular way to express mortality in a population is to prepare a survivorship
curve. A survivorship curve for a given population is a graph drawn between numbers of
survivors (on a log scale) on Y-axis against age on the X-axis. In general, there are three
patterns of survivorship curves (Figure 3).

Type 1 - It is also known as highly convex curve. It reflects higher rate of survival or low
rate of mortality of younger individuals as compared to the older ones. This type of curve is
found in human beings.

Type 2 - This curve shows a steady death of individuals per unit time throughout the life,
and is found in some reptiles, corals, honeybees and rodents. This shows a straight-line
relationship between age and number of survivors.

Type 3 - This is also known as highly concave curve. It shows higher mortality of
individuals at young stage as compared to old stage. It is found in plants, sea urchins and
fish species.

Age

Figure 3. Different types of survivorship curves found in different populations.

Environment may have significant impact on survivorship curves of a given population.

For example, plant population may show one type of survivorship curve under drought
and another type of curve under humid conditions.
6. Population growth and dispersal

Individuals of a population keep migrating out (Emigration) or into populations

(Immigration). Thus, population size and density keep changing with time. In addition,

birth (b) and death (d) of individuals also change population size. Immigration and birth
increase population size whereas emigration and death decrease its size. Thus, in a given
population if birth + immigration > emigration + death, the size of population would
increase. On the other hand, if the birth + immigration < emigration + death, then the size
of the population would decrease.

7. Biotic potential

It is the inherent power of a population to grow and reproduce when environmental

conditions are favorable and resources are unlimited. Biotic potential is represented by r.

B. Population Dynamics

Populations are never static and keep changing in time and space. These changes in
population size over time show varied trends. When environment is unlimited (adequate
space and food supply) the specific growth rate (population growth rate per individual) of
populations becomes maximum and constant under a set of environmental conditions. On
the other hand, if the food supply or other resources are limited, the growth rate is
typically sigmoid, i.e. increases slowly in the beginning followed by rapid increase and then
becomes constant as it approaches the upper limit. To address these growth patterns,
there are two types of growth models These are:
 a. J-shaped or Exponential Growth Model
b. S-shaped or Sigmoid or Logistic Growth Model

a. J-shaped or exponential growth model

In exponential growth type population increases geometrically or exponentially until there

is resource limitation or population growth is limited by other factors. Growth then

declines rapidly until favorable period is restored. Mathematically this growth model can
be expressed as rate of population increase with time t, i.e.

b. Sigmoid or S-shaped growth

When population growth occurs at a place where resources are limited, it attains a
sigmoid or S-shaped curve showing minimum death during early stages. The population
increases in size until it reaches an upper limit. This upper limit is known as the Carrying
capacity, which is denoted by ‘K’. Carrying capacity thus may be defined as capacity of an
ecosystem to support maximum number of individuals of a species. As the population size
increases, population growth rate declines as it approaches carrying capacity. Sigmoid
growth is thus density dependent and can be expressed by the following equation:
W.C. Allee, an ecologist known for his extensive research on social behaviour of animals,
gave a concept known as Allee’s principle. Allee’s prinicple is a relationship between
population density and survival of animals. According to Allee, both under-crowding (low
population density) and over-crowding (high population density) limit growth and survival
of a population. There are a number of examples (in both plants and animals) where Allee’s
principle holds good. A number of plant species occur in groups, which may be in response
to habitat preference or suitable climatic or environmental conditions or due to
reproductive strategies. Within a group, the survival rates of species increase in response
to the adverse environmental conditions. For example, species of Polygonum pleibium
prefers to grow in clayey soil and often form groups or patches. Likewise, populations of
Stellaria media or Anagallis arvensis form patches owing to their preference for better
moisture conditions. Some species form groups or patches due to vegetative reproduction
or due to lack of effective seed dispersal mechanism. Survival chances and fitness of such
species is best at moderate populations. As the population density increases beyond limit,
there is competition for resources, and it is detrimental to growth and survival of such
species. The Allee’s Principle is also valid in animal populations. There are a number of
social insects, termites, ants, which survive and grow best at moderate densities and are
able to overcome harsh conditions. Bees and colonial bird are the best examples of group
survival. Allee’s principle is also very relevant to human beings who form social
aggregations particularly in the urban environment.

C. Population Regulation

A number of factors like availability of food, space, water, and pests may regulate
population size. In general, the factors responsible for population regulation can be
density dependent (competition, predation, parasitism, disease outbreak, or herbivory) or
density independent (environmental factors). In density dependent factors, competition
(particularly intra-specific i.e. between individuals of same species) plays a major role in
limiting population size. Among the density independent factors, floods, fire and other
natural calamities remove large proportion of the populations and thus decrease their
density.

Sometimes individuals of a population release toxic substances in the soil or water, which
tend to limit the growth of their own type of plants (consepecifics) and thus control over-
crowding of a species at a particular place. This is known as autoallelopathy or
autotoxicity - a type of interaction where one species releases toxic substances into
environment that are detrimental to individualists own growth. Autotoxicity is well
demonstrated in a number of food plants like alfalfa (Medicago sativa), figs (Ficus species),
grape (Vitis vinifera) and peach (Prunus persica) orchards; in aquatic and wetland plants
like Typha, Phragmites, Juncus and algae; and in forest tree or shrub species like Casuarina,
Walnut (Juglans species), Coffee (Coffea arabica) and tea (Camellia sinensis),

Another interesting observation wherein organisms regulate their population prevalent in

plants and even in some sessile animals is self thinning. Self- thinning results from a specific
relationship between density and biomass of individuals. When a plot is drawn between
density (log scale, X-axis) and biomass (log scale, Y-axis), it results in a slope of 3/2 or 1.5
and is known as Self-thinning or 3/2 law or Yoda ’s 3/2 law (Fig. 7). It means as the density
increases, the biomass of species decreases leading to self-thinning of population. It is

universal in plants and seen in all groups from mosses to trees.

Community Ecology

Community ecology has almost similar meaning as that of Synecology.

 The concept of community is very old and traced back to the times of Theophrastus (370-
250 BC). A community, also known as biotic community or ecological community or
biocoenosis, refers to a group of co-existing and interacting populations in a given space
and time (Photo 3). For example, a forest community is reflection of coexistence and
interactions of a variety of populations - the trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, animals, and
microorganisms. In other words, it is the biological part of the ecosystem distinct from the
abiotic part. Earlier, a community was interpreted as a superorganism because it was
thought to behave as a single entity. In contrast to this, another view perceived community
as a collection of species where each individual species has its own identity.

Each community has spatial limits or boundaries. The boundaries between communities
may be very sharp such as boundary between a forest and a lake or less sharp, e.g.
boundary between two types of forests or a forest and a grassland community. Often there
is some transitional area between two communities that is knows as Ecotone where species
of both adjacent communities are found. The ecotonal communities are rich in species
diversity because of the edge effect (contrasting environmental conditions at the
boundaries or the edges supporting a high species richness). For instance, a patch of land
between two forest communities will have animals and plants common to both the forest
communities.

Characteristics of Communities
There are various characteristics of communities such as species diversity, structure and
composition, dominance, succession (or developmental history) and trophic structure.
Each one of these is discussed as under:

Species diversity: Each community is composed of taxonomically different species.

Species diversity refers to number of different species in the community including both
abundant and rare species. Species diversity is very high in natural communities like
tropical rain forests or coral reefs in oceans, whereas it is very low in physically or human
controlled communities. Species diversity has two components: species richness and
species evenness. In simple words, species richness refers to different types of species and
their numerical strength. Technically, it refers to ratio between different species (S) and
total number of species (N). Species evenness refers to a measure which qualifies as to how
even species are in terms of their number. In a community, it refers to the apportionment
of each species. For example, a community is quite even if there are 10 species with 10 or 9
individuals of each species; whereas a community is uneven if there are 10 species of which
one species has 90 individuals and the rest 9 species have only 10 individuals.

Species diversity can be measured by using various diversity indices - the mathematical
expressions based on species abundance data. Species diversity can be measured
separately either as species richness or evenness or diversity as a whole. Species richness is
measured by Index of richness (denoted by R in the formulae given in Box 1) given by
Margalef (1958). Species evenness can be measured with evenness index (denoted by E)
given by Hill (1973). Diversity of the species can also be calculated directly with a variety of
indices, of which twocommonly used are Shannon-Weiner Index or simply the Index of
diversity or Shannon’s index (denoted by H'; as given by Shannon and Weaver, 1963) and
Index of dominance (or X) or Simpson’s index given by Simpson (1949) (See Box 1).
Shannon‘s index has a direct relationship with the species diversity, whereas index of
dominance has an inverse relationship. The formulae for calculating various species
diversity indices are given in the Box 1.
For a community to be stable, it requires two components - Resilience and Resistance.
Resilience is the ability of a community to recover after facing a disturbance or
displacement. Resistance, on the other hand, is the ability of a community to avoid
disturbance (any event that alters structure of a community) or displacement (shifting of
the community to some other place). One of the reasons for the species rich complex
communities acquiring stability is that any change in one or a few species would be
compensated by the other species. Some other studies, however, have indicated that
greater complexity in a community leads to instability. Thus, it remains controversial
whether complexity of a community leads to stability or unstable conditions. However,
ecologists have successfully found a relationship between competition and diversity or
stability. If the competition is severe, there is low diversity because only those species
survive what are able to withstand harsh conditions by suitably adapting themselves. On
the other hand, if the competition is weak and the requirements of species do not overlap,
the species will not fight for resources and thus more and more species can coexist. The
competition becomes intense if the resources for the life support system - food, air, water,
space, sunlight (in case of plants, especially) are scarce and the requirements of the species
overlap.

Community Structure and Composition:

Each community has its own structure and composition. For instance, the community of
rain forests in silent valley will be different from that of rain forests in Arunachal Pradesh.
Community structure is often expressed in terms of its major growth form such as trees in
forests or grasses in grasslands. The arrangement of different growth forms determines the
structural pattern of the community. In a community, spatial arrangement of the
components is also very important. For example, in a forest, some plants may be shade
loving and confined to understorey while others are adapted to intense sunlight like
emergent trees.
Still other plants need better soil-moisture and some may grow in dry stony areas.
Likewise, in a pond ecosystem the plants that need soil will remain confined to the edges of
pond, while the free-floating will cover the water surface. This horizontal distribution of a
community is known as zonation.

In aquatic bodies, particularly lakes and ponds, three different types of zones differentiated
on the basis of light availability and depth of water are very common such as Littoral zone,
Limnetic zone and Profundal zone (Figure 7). Each of these zones supports distinct
community.

Littoral zone is the zone on the

sides of the water body where water is shallow and thus light can penetrate upto the
bottom. Most of the rooted plants are found in this zone. Some of these plants are Trapa,
Typha, Sagittaria, Scirpus, Marsilea and Hydrilla.

Limnetic zone is the open free surface of ponds and lakes up to which light penetrates.
Since this zone of water is fully illuminated, photosynthetic (autotrophic) organisms like
green algae, blue green algae and even free-floating or submerged higher plants occupy it.
These organisms are typically adapted for floating or swimming. These can be planktons
(organisms that are able to float), nektons (organisms that are able to swim and navigate)
and also neustons (organisms that rest or swim on the surface). The level of water upto
which light penetrates is known as Light Compensation Point.

Profundal zone, on the other hand, is the deep-water zone of the ponds and lakes beyond
light compensation level where heterotrophic (non-photosynthetic) organisms live. The
organisms of this zone are dependent on Limnetic zone for food and in return replenish
nutrients.
In some ponds and lakes there is little distinction between littoral and Limnetic zone and in
such cases the upper surface of water up to light penetration point is known as Euphotic
zone.
The pond water can also be divided into Epilimnion and Hypolimnion based on
temperature differences. In between the two layers there is an intermediate zone known as
Thermocline (Figure 8). This type of distinction is very common in temperate lakes,
wherein during the summer season the top water layers become warmercompared to the
lower layers. As a result, the water circulates only in the top warmer layers and does not
mix with the lower colder water layers. This creates a sharp temperature gradient
separating upper circulating warmer layers known as Epilimnion from lower non-
circulating colder layers known as Hypolimnion. In between Epilimnion and Hypolimnion

is Thermocline - a zone differentiating the two layers of water based on temperature

difference.

The forest communities are highly stratified (forming distinct vertical storeys). In a typical
forest, there are five different vertical storey viz. subterranean part (deep in soil), forest
floor, herbaceous vegetation, shrubs, and trees. In contrast, grasslands show poor vertical
stratification. It has only two layers - a subterranean part with roots and rhizomes and
herbaceous part consisting of grasses, herbs and weeds.

Dominance: A community is a heterogeneous assemblage of species. Not all species

present in it are equally important and thus only a few of them have a major controlling
influence based on their number, size or productivity. Such groups of species are not
taxonomically related and influence the energy flow and affect the environment of other
species. These are known as Ecological Dominants. In land communities, some plants
have a major influence over the others by virtue of their greater number (Numerical
dominance). These protect and provide shelter to the organisms and are capable of
influencing physical environment.
Trophic Structure: In addition to above, each community has its own trophic structure or
organisms grouped based on feeding habits. Trophic structure of a pond consists of a
variety of organisms as producers (which can prepare their own food through
photosynthesis), consumers (heterotrophs which can not prepare their own food but are
dependent on producers for nutrition directly or indirectly) and decomposers (which
decompose the dead and decaying matter and in this way release nutrients). Rooted or
free-floating green plants (macrophytes), free- floating minute organisms (phytoplanktons
- green algae and diatoms) constitute producers or autotrophs of a pond community. The
consumers may be primary (herbivores that directly feed on green plants or algae),
secondary (carnivores that feed on herbivores) or tertiary (feeding on other carnivores).
Zooplankton or floating minute animals like rotifers, crustaceans and protozoans, which
feed on phytoplanktons, constitute herbivores in the pond community. In addition, there
are several animal species associated with the green plants and feed on them. Some
herbivores are also present at the bottom of the pond and feed on dead decaying plant
parts. These may be beetles, mollusks or even crustaceans. Some birds and domesticated
animals such as cow, goat and buffaloes also feed on green plants found in the pond
especially on the margins in the littoral zone. Fishes constitute the secondary consumer of
the pond feeding largely on herbivores. Some insects are also included in this category. In
the pond, some larger fish or the game fish that feed on smaller fish constitute tertiary
consumers. Besides there are varieties of decomposers (microconsumers - since they take a
fraction of food) in the pond and these decompose complex, dead and decaying matter into simpler
forms like nutrients, which are absorbed by the plants for their growth and development.

Trophic structure of a forest community also has a same pattern but with different species
composition. In a forest, the autotrophs or the producers are the trees, which are also the dominant
species. Additionally, the forests also have shrubs, herbs and grasses that are autotrophic and form
a distinct understorey, but their role is lesser than that of trees. The type of the trees in the forests
varies from place to place depending upon environmental conditions.
For example, a typical tropical moist deciduous forest is composed of tree species like teak
(Tectona grandis), sal (Shorea robusta) or Queen’s myrtle (Lagerstoemia parviflora);
whereas a temperate deciduous forest has trees like oak (Quercus), maple (Acer sp.), birch
(Betula sp.) and spruce (Picea sp.). The primary consumers in the forests include ants,
beetles, leafhoppers, spider and bugs that feed on tree leaves. Besides, there are larger
animals like elephants, nilgai, squirrels, rabbits, flying foxes and birds, which feed on shoots
or fruits of the trees Birds, snakes, lizards and foxes constitute secondary consumers
whereas lions and tigers constitute tertiary consumers., The decomposers include several
types of fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes.

Succession: Succession is the orderly process of community development and refers to the
continuous, unidirectional and sequential change in the species composition of a given
community over time. It involves various stages during which a specific set of species
occupy the area and replaced by the next group of species. All these stages of succession
are known as seral stages. The first stage of succession when the bare area is colonized for
the first time is known as Pioneer stage and such species are referred to as Pioneer species.
The final, mature, stable and long lasting community is known as Climax community.

Methods of Studying Communities

Plant communities can be studied by different methods such as floristic (by simply
studying various genera and species) and physiognomic (based on Raunkiaer’s life forms)
and phyto-social methods. Of these, phyto-social methods are preferred. In these, the data
on the vegetation is collected in terms of types of species present and individual number of
each type in an area. As the areas are very large, it is not possible to count every plant, thus
the area is divided into smaller units known as sampling units. Three types of sampling
units are generally considered for studying various plant communities. These are: a) Area,
b) Line, and c) Point. Area and line both are based on definite size of the sampling unit
while point is used in those situations where it is difficult to determine area e.g. thick
forest. Sampling unit where definite area is selected is known as Quadrat. Quadrat is thus a
sampling unit of definite area that is usually a square but it can also be a rectangle or circle.
Size and number of quadrats are determined based on the objective and features of area
under consideration. Depending upon the purpose of study, the quadrat may be list
quadrat (where species present in the area are listed), list-count quadrat (where species
are listed as well as their numbers counted), chart quadrat (where all details like
distribution of species, their number are recorded on a graph paper periodically using an
instrument pantograph) and permanent quadrat (used in the experimental studies where
vegetation is recorded for a long time to find out changes). Transect is the term used in
cases where sampling unit is a strip of definite area. Transect may be a line or belt
depending upon the study area. In a line transect, sampling is usually done across a line. In
belt transect, an area (belt) of suitable size is selected where the sampling is done. Belt
transects are particularly used in forests and can be further divided into segments for
convenience.

For determining quadrat size, species-area curve method is used. Sampling unit size is
increased gradually (starting from a minimum) and the number of types of species counted
in each sampling unit. It is continued until number of species become constant for three
consecutive times. Then, a graph is drawn between area (X-axis) and number of species (Y-
axis) and from the curve so obtained, optimum size of quadrat (where the number of

species becomes constant) is determined.

Point is used as a sampling unit in areas where determination of suitable area is not
possible with quadrats e.g. in thick forests and large grasslands. For this, a number of
movable pins (usually 10) are inserted in a wooden frame at 45° angle is known as Point
frame. Point frame is laid randomly in an area, plants hit by the pins are recorded, and their
frequency determined.

Community Features

Communities may be identified and recognized by several features that may be

quantitative, qualitative or synthetic.

Quantitative characters: Quantitative characters are those that can be measured, e.g.
density, abundance, frequency, cover area and basal area of species present in a given area.
These values can be expressed as absolute or as relative values. Density and Abundance:
Density of a species reflects the numerical strength of species in a given community.
For more clarity see example in Table 1 where density of five species has been shown as
calculated by the above formula. Another important aspect about density is that if the size
of the quadrat is either lesser or more than 1m 2, the final value of density is presented
equivalent to 1m2. This is true only in grasslands or communities of a smaller area, but not
in forests or aquatic systems.

Density can also be presented as relative density. Relative density is calculated based on
following formula:
Note: Since the relative value of density is less than 1.0. It can thus be converted into
percent by multiplying with 100.
From the above example (Table 1), the relative density for species 1 is calculated by taking
its individual density
i. e. 30 and dividing it by 137, i.e. total densities of all species. To convert it into
percent relative density, multiply it with 100. It comes out to be 21.80%. Likewise, the
relative density of other species can be calculated.

Abundance is also calculated like density but in this case, only those quadrats are
considered for calculation where a species actually occurs. For example, if a species has
occurred in only 3 quadrats out of total 5 studied, then the total number of individuals of
the species is divided by 3 (instead of 5, as in case of density). The difference between

Total number of plants in all the

Quadrats
Abundance of a species =....................................................................
Number of Quadrats of occurrence of plant species
density and abundance thus becomes clear from the example given in Table 1. The formula
for calculation of species abundance is:

Abundance is also presented on the basis of unit area, i.e. 1m 2 especially in smaller areas or
grasslands. However, it is not much used as compared to density in ecological studies.

Individual abundance of the species

Relative abundance of a species =.......................................................
Total abundance of all species encountered

It can also be multiplied by 100 to get percent abundance.

Frequency: Frequency is another important parameter of vegetation analysis, which

reflects the spread,

distribution or dispersion of a species in a given area, and given in percent. For example, a
species is distributed uniformly in an area there is greater probability of its occurrence in
all quadrats and it would have maximum frequency. In another case, a species may be
clustered or present only in a part of the area. In this case, it will occur only in few quadrats
and hence it would have lesser frequency. The frequency of a species in a given area is
studied by either quadrat method or transects and is calculated by the following formula:

Thus, if a species occurs in 5 out of total 10 quadrats studied, its frequency would be 50%.
If a species occurs in all the quadrats studied, its frequency would be 100%. The frequency
determination also becomes clear from Table 1.

Frequency is a very important quantitative parameter. Raunkiaer (1934) made an

elaborative study on the frequency of species in about 8000 quadrats and based on his
data, he divided species into 5 classes viz. A, B, C, D, E. The distribution of frequency in 5

Classes is given hereunder in Table 2.

Further, Raunkiaer suggested Law of frequency and Normal Frequency Diagram based on
the data from his studies in all the natural ecosystems. According to law of frequency,
species poorly distributed or dispersed in an area are likely to be presented more
compared to those that have better or more dispersion in an area. In other words, A>B>C>
= <D<E, i.e. A is greater than B, which is greater than C, and C may be greater or equal or
lesser than D, which in turn is lesser than E. Raunkiaer’s normal frequency diagram was a
histogram made on the basis of the average frequency data in which value of class A was
53%, that of B 14%, C 9%, D 8% and E 16%. Raunkiaer also prepared a normal frequency
diagram, a ./-shaped curve, which represents homo- or hetero-geneity of a community. It is
a /-shaped curve. After the preposition of Law of frequency, a number of studies were
undertaken in various parts of the world and similar observations were obtained especially
in the natural and undisturbed ecosystems. In disturbed ecosystems, however, the
frequency distribution varies from that of normal as proposed by Raunkiaer.

Like density, frequency can be expressed in relative terms. For this, sum of frequencies of
all species is calculated and following formula is applied:

Individual frequency of the species

Relative frequency of a species =............................................................
Total frequency of all species encountered

This can also be converted into percent relative frequency by multiplying with 100. The
relative value is important in further determining importance value index of species, which
gives the total ecological status of species.

Basal Area and Dominance. Cover area, also known as herbage area, is usually confined to
above-ground parts and is defined as percent area occupied by the above ground parts of
species per unit area. It tells us about the dominance of a species in terms of area occupied
by its aerial parts in given vegetation. Basal area is calculated from the point of ground
where the stem of the plants pierces out of the ground. At this junction, i.e. near the ground,
the diameter of the stem is measured with scales, calipers, or screw gauge. Based on
formula for any area measurement i.e. nr2, the basal area of each species is calculated.
Normally for a species, basal area of a large number of its individuals is determined and
then the average value is calculated. This average value is then multiplied by density value
of that species which gives the value of basal area per square meter, also known as
dominance.
 For dominance also, relative value is calculated as per the following formula.

Individual dominance of a species

Relative dominance of a species = ………...........................................……………………
Total dominance of all species encountered

This can also be converted into percent relative dominance by multiplying with 100. In
case of trees, circumference of trees is measured at breast height (1.5m from base). From
circumference, the radius is calculated and in turn from radius, area is calculated. In trees,
the crown area is calculated based on area of its crown that is measured by taking radius
along crown perimeter on the ground surface starting from the stem of the tree. If the
crown of the tree is not circular which is normally so, then several values of radii are
measured across different lines and then average radius is calculated. Area is then
calculated by simple formula, i.e. nr2.

Qualitative characters of communities: These characters are not measurable but

calculated on the basis of various qualitative features such as phenology, physiognomy, life
forms and biological spectrum.

Phenology. It refers to the periodic occurrence of different events in the life cycle of a
species. It means when does a species germinates, grows vegetatively, flowers and
produces seeds, and how and when disperses the seeds. All this information about a
species is determined periodically and presented in the form of a phenogram. A phenogram
is simple hexagonal structure presenting different events in the life of a species, e.g. the six
arms of phenogram show period of germination, vegetative growth, flowering time, fruit
formation, seed maturation and death of the species. In a community, each species has its
own phenology and this reflects a great diversity.
 Physiognomy: Physiognomy refers the outer appearance of a community and is an
important parameter that tells us about the structure of community. It is based on the
growth form of its dominant species. For example, a grassland community is dominated by
grasses, forests by trees and chaparral community by shrubs.

Life Forms:Life forms better known as Raunkiaer ’s life forms or Botanical Life Forms were
proposed in 1934 by a Danish botanist Christen C. Raunkiaer. According to Raunkiaer, in a
community it is very important to know how a plant survives during unfavourable
conditions. He took the criterion of protection of perennating buds during adverse
conditions as an adaptation of plant to climate. Accordingly he proposed a system known
as Raunkiaer’s system in which plants were categorized into various life forms based on
the position of their buds during seasons of unfavourable conditions (too much cold or too
much hot). Raunkiaer considered five major types of life forms viz. Phanerophytes,
Chamaephytes, Hemicryptophytes, Cryptophytes, and Therophytes.

1. Phanerophytes (Phanero - visible; phytes - plants; plants where buds are visible): These
are those plants whose buds are situated high up on the plant on the top of the shoots.
These are either naked or covered with scales. Phanerophytes are very common in tropical
areas and their number decreases towards temperate and polar areas. Based on the height
of trees, phanerophytes are further divided into 4 categories:
a) Mega-phanerophytes - trees taller than 30 m
b) Meso-phanerophytes - trees between 8 - 30 m
c) Micro-phanerophytes - trees between 2 - 8 m height
d) Nano-phanerophytes - shrubs shorter than 2 m but more than 25 cm

2. Chamaephytes:These are those plants whose buds are close to ground or maximum up
to 25 cm. These plants are found in colder regions at high altitudes or latitudes, e.g.
Temperate America. During the growing season, sometimes the aerial parts of
chamaephytes die and cover the buds. Fresh growth occurs during the onset of favourable
season.
3. Hemicryptophytes:These are also found in the cold regions where buds remain
covered under surface soil (but not deep-seated), and are protected. These include annual
(plants which complete their life cycle in one year or one season) or biennial (which
complete their life cycle in 2 years or 2 seasons) herbs.
4. Cryptophytes:These are also known as Geophytes. In these plants, the buds remain
buried under soil such as bulbs and rhizomes. Such plants are mostly found in the arid
regions of the world.
5. Therophytes:These are the ephemerals or seasonal plants that complete their life cycle
quickly under favourable conditions and during the rest of the unfavourable conditions
remain in the form of seeds.

Besides these five major categories, Raunkiaer also identified epiphytes (plant growing on
or attached to other plants) as a separate category of life forms. Additionally, he also
divided cryprophytes into three subtypes: geophytes (plants buried in soil with
subterranean or perennating buds), hydrophytes (plants submerged or floating in aquatic
systems with perennating buds inside water), and halophytes (plants in marshy swampy
areas with high salt concentrations).

Biological Spectrum: It refers to the relative percentage of species of different life forms
in a given community is and is also known as Phyto-climatic Spectrum. Thus for
preparing a biological spectrum percentage of each of the 5 life forms is calculated.
Raunkiaer (1934) also prepared a normal biological spectrum of flora of the world based
on his elaborative and extensive ecological studies. For the normal biological spectrum, the
percent values of different life form are given (Table 3).

The biological spectrum obtained for any area is compared with normal biological
spectrum that reflects the variations or deviations from the normal. It is generally thought
that biological spectrum of a region reflects its environmental or the climatic conditions.
For example, higher ratio of phanerophytes in an area indicates tropical conditions and
those of chamaephytes reflect extreme cold conditions. Thus, it has been suggested as an
indicator of climatic condition of an area. However, its utility is limited since biological
spectrum is disturbed when the environmental conditions fluctuate. Further, biotic stress
also affects the biological spectrum of an area that too limits its use.

In addition to various qualitative and quantitative features, communities are identified by

various synthetic features such as Importance value index (IVI) and various ecological
indices like index of diversity, index of dominance, index of evenness, and index of richness
(see Box 1). IVI is calculated by adding relative density, relative dominance and relative
frequency (the method of their calculation is already stated). IVI is an important parameter,
which indicates the overall ecological importance or status of species such as its numerical
strength, its degree of dispersion and area of ground covered by it. Various indices such as
index of diversity, index of dominance, index of evenness, index of richness can be
determined by standard formulae as indicated in Box 1. For this, computer based software
are also available, of which the most widely used is the one given by Ludwig and Reynolds
(1988) pertains to statistical ecology.

Ecotypes and Ecads:

Environmental conditions exhibit great fluctuations. Plant species have to tolerate these
variations in the environmental conditions, which may be reflected in terms of different
climatic conditions, habitats, edaphic conditions or even different geographic areas. The
survival of species in such conditions is dependent upon its ecological amplitude - the
extent to which a species may tolerate environmental variations. Species with a wider
ecological amplitude have better adaptability and vice versa. The response of a species to a
particular environmental condition may be reflected through several morphological
variations (changes in the external appearance, i.e. in terms of height, number and size of
leaves, number of branches, number of flowers produced, size of flowers and seed output).

Thus, even within a species several morphological races or forms may be encountered.
Swedish gene ecologist G. Turesson first gave this concept (occurrence of morphological
races of a species) in 1922 and 1930. He stated that variations within species go hand in
hand with environmental variations. For example, individuals of a species growing at
higher altitude may be dwarf or short in height in comparison to those growing in plain
areas. A number of differences in morphology of a species can be seen in response to
different habitat or climatic conditions. Often these variations may become genotypic or
inheritable i.e. transferred from one generation to the other. In other words, these
variations become genetically fixed. Such morphological races where variations in their
external appearance are transferred from one generation to the other are known as
Ecotypes. Ecotypes thus are those individuals of a species that vary in external appearance
and their variations are genetically fixed and irreversible. Other names for ecotypes are
ecological or physiological races. If such ecotypes are brought under similar
environmental conditions, differences between them persist since these are genetically
fixed. However, these are merely ecological races and cannot be given the rank of new
species since these are inter-fertile (these individuals can breed together or reproduce).
For example, Euphorbia hirta, known as Lal dudhi in Hindi, has two ecotypes: Ecotype 1 is
erect type growing in moist areas. Ecotype 2 is a prostrate type that grows in dry
conditions. Likewise, ecotypes have been reported in a number of plants in response to
climatic, edaphic and even biotic conditions.

In some cases, the individuals of a species growing under different environmental

conditions differ in external appearance but these changes are only temporary, not
permanent, and hence reversible. When such morphologically different races are brought
under similar environmental conditions, the variations within them disappear and their
next generations are alike. Such morphological races of a species that exhibit temporary
variations in response to different environmental conditions are known as Ecads. Other
names for ecads are Ecophenes, Habitat Forms or environmentally induced variations.
Ecads are found in a number of species eg. in Euphorbia hirta where two ecotypes have
been reported, the ecotype 2 found in dry conditions possesses two ecads. Ecad 1 is totally
prostrate and grows on the dry and hard soil. Ecad 2 grows on the footpaths. In grasses, it
has been seen that temporary variations arise in response to grazing. There may be
differences with respect to number of culms, number of spikes, number of spikelets per
spike and number of seeds produced.

Ecological Succession
Plant communities keep changing with time and space. These changes in the communities
may either be due to changing environmental conditions or communities themselves such
as their mutual interactions. Thus, in an area, one community may replace the other, and in
turn, may be got replaced by another community. This change in community structure and
composition over a period until there is a formation of a stable community is known as
Ecological succession. Ecological succession has also been termed as Ecosystem
development by some ecologists. It is predictable and orderly process. The final stable
community formed at the end of succession exists for a longer period and is in harmony
with the existing environmental conditions. This final stable community is known as
Climax community, whereas the communities that appear for a shorter time, and are
replaced in succession are termed as Seral communities or Seral stages. The plant
community that colonizes an area for the first time is termed as Pioneer community and
such plants as Pioneers or Primary colonizers.

Types of Succession

Primary and Secondary Succession: If the succession starts from the primary
substratum free of any living or organic matter (unoccupied habitat), it is termed as
primary succession. It may occur in terrestrial (land) or aquatic (in water) ecosystems and
is slow in nature. Secondary succession, on the other hand starts from already build-up
substratum. In such areas, plant community earlier occupying the area get altered due to
disturbances like sudden changes in climate, fire, floods or some biotic interference. The
succession starting from such a substratum is termed as secondary succession and it is
comparatively rapid.

Autogenic and Allogenic Succession: During the process of succession, the mutual
interactions among the living organisms of the community change the environment. These
changes make the environment unfavorable for the existing community and thus cause its
replacement. However, such changes may be congenial for some other community. This
type of succession where the community replacement occurs due to reasons created by
community itself is known as Autogenic succession. If during the succession, the
replacement of one community by the other may be caused by environmental factors and
not by living organisms, then the succession is termed as Allogenic succession.
Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Succession: A succession in which green plants or the
autotrophs dominate, so that there is a continuous energy flow during the whole process, is
known as Autotrophic succession. In contrast, succession wherein heterotrophs such as
bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes or even animals dominate and there is a continuous decline
in the energy flow is known as Heterotrophic succession.
Further, based on the nature of environment (primarily moisture conditions) at the start of
the succession, the succession can be of following types:
Hydrarch or Hydrosere: If the succession begins from a water body, it is termed as
Hydrosere or Hydrarch. The water body could be lake, pond, stream, bog or even the
swampy area.
Xerosere or Xerarch: In this case, the succession begins from the dry conditions with very
little moisture content, for example, a desert area, sandy areas, rocks etc. If specifically the
succession starts from the rocky areas, it is known as Lithosere, whereas if it starts from a
sand dune it is known as Psammosere.
Mesosere or Mesarch: If the succession starts in an area with adequate moisture
conditions and temperature, it is known as mesosere or mesarch.
Halosere: Halosere is a type of succession occurring in a saline area i.e. where
concentration of salt in the substratum is very high.

Process of Hydrosere
A hydrosere, also known as hydrarch, starts from a water body like pond, lake or pool that
is gradually converted into a forest through an orderly process. The various plant
communities come in sequence during this succession are grouped into seven main stages
as follows:
Phytoplankton stage: The first organisms that colonize the pond are free-floating blue
green algae or the green algae, diatoms and bacteria. These constitute the pioneers of the
hydrosere. At this time, the substratum is free of any organic matter or soil and the pH of
the water is also very low. However, when such organisms grow for some time and
complete their life cycle some organic matter is added into the substratum and gradually
the environment of pond becomes favourable for other community and unfavourable for
exiting community. Besides organic matter, some silt or the sediments are brought from
the adjoining areas by wind or the wave action of the pond water.

Rooted submerged stage: Rooted submerged hydrophytes (aquatic plants with roots but
remain under water) like Hydrilla, Utricularia, Elodea, Vallisenaria and Potamogeton invade
when the pond is a bit shallower and contains organic matter. These plants grow for some
time and after their death and decay, further build up the substratum and gradually the
water level of the pond decreases and it becomes shallower. With this change in
environment, the conditions become favourable for some other community.
Rooted Floating Stage: Several root bearing plants and having large floating leaves invade
the pond, when it is about 2-5 feet deep. These are Nelumbo, Nymphaea, Trapa and
Monochoria. These become associated with other free-floating plants like Lemna, Salvinia,
Azolla and Wolffia. With the dense growth of these plants, the water level of the pond
further decreases and becomes rich in salts and organic matter. Lot of sediments also
accumulates in the pond at this time and the environment of pond becomes suitable for
some other types of plants.

Reed-Swamp Stage: This stage is dominated by plants Typha, Sagittaria and Scirpus. The
roots of these plants remain buried in the muddy soil while their above ground parts are
exposed to air. This stage is also known as amphibious stage since plants are found in the
semi-aquatic conditions. Due to dense growth of these plants, more and more biomass and
soil is added and the conditions of pond become inhospitable for the present community
and thus new community starts colonizing.
Sedge-Meadow stage: At this time, the pond becomes very shallow with reduced water and
accumulated soil rich in salts and organic matter. The species that colonize such areas are
the grasses and sedges. They also form a dense growth and due to higher rates of
transpiration, the water level of the pond decreases a lot and the conditions become almost
mesic which are ready to support different plants.
Woodland stage: With the pond becoming constantly drier, many terrestrial plants invade
the area and establish there. These are mostly the shrubs and the tree species. Due to the
growth of these plants, the area becomes rich in humus, minerals and a variety of microbes.
The conditions may favour the establishment of tree species.

Forest stage: When the pond is completely turned into land, many tree species invade the
area depending upon the climatic conditions. In tropical areas, the tropical woody species
becomes established, whereas in the temperate areas suitable temperate species colonize.
With the establishment of tree species, several other herbaceous plants get established in
the floor of the forest. The forest becomes self sustainable and is in harmony with the
climatic conditions.

The community matures into a forest and lasts for a longer time. This mature community is
known as Climax community.

Process of Lithosere, a type of Xerosere

This type of succession starts from a rock, which is in un-weathered state and lacks any
organic matter or moisture content. At this stage, only the simple plants like lichens can
colonize. The lichens are then followed by various other plants that contribute towards
building up of the soil substratum congenial for supporting a mature forest community.
Various plant communities that colonize in succession one after the other are summarized
as under:

Crustose-lichen stage: The first organisms colonizing the rock are lichens, which stick to
the surface of rocks and form a crust. These constitute the pioneers of the lithosere. At this
stage, the substratum of rock is hard without any organic matter and poor moisture
content. In such a harsh environment, only the hardy species of lichens like Rhizocarpon or
Lecanora can survive. These lichens release some acidic substances in the substratum
that brings about weathering of rock and besides after the completion of life cycle of these
lichens some organic content is added to the rock substratum that enriches it. Gradually,
the rock substratum changes and a thin layer of soil is added to it that contains some
organic matter also. This becomes unsuitable for the crustose lichens and soon the other
organisms like foliose type of lichens colonize the rock.

Foliose-lichen stage: The foliose lichens include species of Parmelia or Dermatocarpon.

These are characterized by their large-sized leaf like thalli and these are also able to absorb
more water in their body. With the excessive growth of these thalli the rock substratum
becomes enriched with humus that forms a layer along with the soil. In the mean time, the
environment of the rock becomes different and unsuitable for foliose type of lichens.

Moss stage: With the appearance of a thin soil layer enriched with humus, the rock surface
become suitable for some moss species particularly the xerophytic ones that can survive in
the dry environment. Such moss species are Polytrichum, Tortula or Grimmia. After the
completion of life cycle of these moss species, more biomass and moisture adds to the
substratum and thus the soil layer becomes quite thick and able to support herbaceous
species.

Herb stage: With the change in the habitat of rock (a thick layer of soil with organic matter,
moisture or minerals), many herbs start invading. These include many grasses that grow
there for some time. With their growth, the rock surface is further broken down into
smaller pieces and soil layer becomes thick retaining more moisture, minerals or organic
matter. After completion of their growth, soil becomes more enriched and the conditions of
the substratum no longer remain xeric. Soon the shrubby vegetation with perennial habit
appears there.

Shrub stage: The shrubs appear at this stage when the soil substratum is quite built up
after weathering of the rock. With their excessive growth, these overshadow the grasses
and herbaceous vegetation and further add organic matter into the soil after their
completion of life cycle. At this stage, many tree species invade the substratum that
gradually converts the area into forest.

Forest stage: When the rock completely converts into land, many tree species invade the
area depending upon the climatic conditions. These establish themselves and form
association with several other herbaceous and shrubby plants. The forest so developed
becomes self sustainable and maintains a balance with other biotic and abiotic
components. This forest community stays for a longer time and is known as Climax
community.

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
 1. What are ecological communities?
Definition
A community is a collection of populations of all the organisms which occur together in a
given place and time. Community ecology is the study of the interactions between these
organisms, and the interactions between the organisms and their environment. Communities
can have emergent properties which arise from these interactions - properties which could
not be predicted by studying the individual populations in isolation. Traditionally, the term
‘community’ has had restricted use to describe the activities of the populations only,
whereas when these are combined with the physical environment (e.g. nutrient dynamics
and energetics) the term ecosystem has been used. However it is not possible to consider
the biological ‘community’ in isolation from its environment, therefore the traditional
distinction between ‘community’ and ‘ecosystem’ will not be recognized in these lectures.
The term ‘community’ is also commonly used to refer to a subset of populations within the
whole community, for example we talk about plant communities, insect communities,
arthropod communities, small mammal communities, etc.

Species interactions
Within communities there are a variety of ways in which organisms can interact with each
other. There are also a variety of ways in which these interactions have been classified by
ecologists.
1. Competition (BHT pp. 197-209, 240-247)
Competition occurs when the interaction between organisms results in a reduction of
growth, survival or reproduction for both partners of the interaction.
Exploitation competition commonly involves the use of a limiting resource - some factor
which
is in short supply and is required for growth etc. by each competitor. Limiting resources for
plants include light, water and nutrients, for animals they include food, shelter and nesting
sites. Interference competition occurs when individuals directly interact, such as two
animals fighting for a territory, or allelopathy - the production of chemicals by one
organism which are toxic to another. Competition can be of two types: Intraspecific
competition occurs between
individuals of the same species/population (figure 1), e.g. self thinning in crops or forest
plantations, competition for females among kangaroo males. Interspecific competition
involves individuals from different species/populations (figure 2), e.g. weeds and the crop
in an agricultural field, marsupials and birds competing for nesting sites in dead trees.

2. Predation
Predation is the consumption of one living organism (prey, plant or host) by another
(predator, grazers or parasite). The key idea is that one member (the predator) benefits to
the detriment of the other (the prey). Note that this definition does not include detritivores
- those organisms which consume dead organic matter.

Below are three classes of interaction which come under the category of predation.

‘True’ Predation: This is predation in the ordinary sense where a predator kills and
consumes a prey species. True predators are such organisms as tigers and birds of prey.
Animals which kill and eat other animals are called carnivores. Insectivorous plants can
also be considered true predators.

Herbivory: Herbivory is the consumption of plant material by plant eating animals

(herbivores). In this case the herbivores are the predators, and the plants are the prey.
Large herbivores such as kangaroos, sheep and cattle are usually called grazers. Other
herbivores include insects, molluscs (slugs, snails) and fish.

Parasitism: Parasites are generally much smaller than their host and grow and/or
reproduce inside (endoparasites) or on the surface (ectoparasites) of the living host. They
directly divert some of the resources (water, food) from the host. Many parasites are
animals, e.g. flatworms (Platyhelminthes) and roundworms (Nematodes), but there are
also parasitic plants (e.g. mistletoes, Euphrasia sp.) and some species of fungi.
3. Mutualism (BHT Chapter 13)
Mutualism occurs when both populations/individuals benefit from the presence of each
other. For example many plants have a mutualistic interaction with mycorrhizal fungi
which live on, or in, the root surface. The fungi provide mineral nutrients to the plant, and
in return receive carbon compounds from the plant (Figure 3).
The above categories are based on pairwise interactions, i.e. between a single predator and
a single prey. In ecological communities there are usually many more than two species
interacting at any given time. When more than two species interact, the nature of the
pairwise interactions can be distorted or even reversed (Figure 4). Ecologists are still
trying to understand the complexities and importance of such multi-species interactions.

Do communities exist?
The question of whether communities have properties of their own which are more
than the sum of their parts has been debated for a long time. Much of this debate has
centred around the role that the species interactions play in determining the species
composition of ecological communities. There are two extreme views.
The Clementsian or superorganismic view of communities (Clements 1916) sees
them as being tightly organised entities, where the growth and development of whole
communities is seen to be analogous to the growth and development of an individual.
Under this view, communities exhibit properties which are more than the sum of the
individual parts. Species interactions are assumed to play a major role in the
development and regulation of communities.
An alternative view is the individualistic concept of community structure, originally
attributed to Gleason (1926). Under this view communities are not tightly structured,
but are merely coincidences resulting from chance dispersal, environmental sorting
and species interactions. Thus, communities are less predictable, and species
interactions have a much reduced role in determining the structure of communities.

What is ‘community structure’?

‘Community structure’ is a general term used to describe a wide range of phenomenon
resulting from the formation of ecological communities.
In ecology ‘Community structure’ is commonly used to refer to the limitations set by
species interactions on which species can coexist with which others. These limitations to
coexistence are called assembly rules, and they can apply to single species, as well as to
groups of species such as guilds defined below. Of particular interest to ecologists has been
the role that competition has played in the structuring of communities. This will be
discussed in detail in the next section. ‘Community structure’ is also used to describe the
physical arrangement of species in a community, such as the vertical arrangement of
species in a forest (trees, shrubs and ground growing herbaceous (non-woody) plants
(Figure 5).
One further method of investigating community structure is by grouping organisms at
levels higher than the species. Some common ways of grouping species are:

Guilds: A guild is a group of species which utilise resources in a similar way (Root 1967).
For example a group of fruit eating birds in a rainforest, a guild of forest-floor dwelling
herbs. Note that because species within a guild utilize the same resources, then we expect
them to compete more strongly with each other than with species from different guilds.
Functional types: Functional types are groupings of organisms which respond similarly to
a particular disturbance (Gitay and Noble 1997). The groupings can include species, or
subspecies, or phenotypes which differentially respond to the disturbance, or even
different stages in the life history of the same species. We will be returning to the concept
of functional types later on.
Trophic levels: Community structure can be described by the use of food webs. A food web
is a graph of the various trophic levels in a community (carnivores, herbivores, producers)
and the links between them.
Figure 6 is an example of an actual food web.
2. Mechanisms structuring ecological communities
The ecological niche: definition and measurement (BHT PP. 75-78)
The ecological niche of a species is a multidimensional description of its resource needs,
habitat requirements and environmental tolerances (Hutchinson 1957). The fundamental
niche is the potential set of conditions which a species can occupy. It can be determined
experimentally. However, in nature due to the effects of competition, enemies and
biogeography, species do not occupy the niche entirely.
What is observed is their realized niche (Figure 7).

The niche concept can be further split into two distinct aspects.
Geographic niche, Conditions niche or Beta niche: This simply states that some species
live in different places due to differences in environmental tolerances. Therefore, species
with differing beta-niches never physically come together to interact.
Resource-specialization niche or Alpha niche: Here several species can co-occur in the
same place, i.e. they have the same beta niche. For two species to have different alpha
niches implies they are using different resources, or are using similar resources in such a
way that overlap in their use is minimized.

Figure 8 shows how desert plants can differ in their alpha-niches - plant A is able to capture
water (the resource) most efficiently from the top layer of soil, whilst Plant B obtains most
of its water from deeper underground.
The Principle of competitive exclusion, also known as Gauss’s principle, states that no
two species which share the same (alpha) niche can permanently coexist - the superior
competitor will eventually exclude the weaker competitor. Coexistence between
competitors is therefore related to the amount of overlap between species with similar
niches (Figure 9). For example, in Figure 8 plants A and B might be expected to coexist
because they utilize water from different depths, and hence competition for water is
reduced.
Competition between species with similar niches can lead to shifts in the niche space of a
species through the action of evolution via natural selection (see Evolutionary Concepts
lecture notes). When such a shift is associated with morphological changes it is referred to
as character displacement (Figure 10).
An example of the practical use of the ecological concepts of the niche and competitive
exclusion is in ‘mixed’ or ‘intercropped’ agricultural systems. In such systems two or more
crops are planted simultaneously. If the harvest of this mixture is somehow ‘better’ than if
any of the component species were planted only by themselves (monoculture), then this is
called intercrop advantage. Common intercropping combinations include sorghum &
pigeonpea, corn & bean and corn and wheat. Biologically, intercrop advantage can result
from two possible mechanisms. Firstly, the various crop species in the mixture can be
chosen so that they do not compete strongly with each other, i.e. their niche overlap is
sufficiently low. Secondly, an increase in crop performance can arise if the species are
chosen so that one species modifies the environment in a positive way for a second species,
for example one crop providing shelter for another that otherwise would not perform well
at full sunlight. Note that the ‘biological’ reasons for intercropping, i.e. increasing
productivity/yield may not be the most important in many situations. For example
inter-cropping may result in more efficient use of resources such as land, water, time
etc. and there may be socio-economic advantages such as improved human
nutrition. The book by Vandermeer (1989) provides an excellent introduction to the
topic.
3. Methods used to describe ecological communities

Spatial patterns, mosaics, gradients and ecotones

Community composition changes in space. The way in which this happens is the spatial
pattern. Community composition also changes in time. Temporal changes will be the topic
of the next lecture. We can describe the spatial pattern with respect to any of the following:
Mosaic: Mosaic patterns occur when there is a patchwork of communities with different
compositions.
Gradients: Gradients are encountered when there is a gradual change in space of some
environmental factor. This can either be reflected by a gradual or sharp change in the
abundances of the species (Figure 11a). The most common pattern in nature is a gradual
change in species composition along gradients, without sharp boundaries (Figure 11b).
Examples of gradients include vegetation changes up mountains in response to an
altitudinal gradient, and salinity gradients in estuaries which are associated with changes
in the plant and fish communities.
Ecotones: Ecotones occur at the boundaries between different communities. They can be
very sharp (Figure 12a) e.g. the boundary between the edge of a forest and a stream, or
diffuse (Figure 12b) e.g. the transition between desert and savanna. They can be natural or
human induced.
Field surveys and multi-variate methods
The description of communities is in general straight forward: one just needs to list
and count the species which are present, usually also recording their spatial distributions.
In practice it is surprisingly difficult because of species identification problems and because
of sampling problems. An exhaustive count is not generally possible and one needs to
devise an adequate sampling strategy taking into account variability in space, possibly
time, and the differences in species abundances. Usually this involves selecting areas
(sampling units) within communities in which to concentrate study, in the hope that
through combining the results from several such areas a representative picture of the
community will be obtained.
Having obtained a list of species and their abundances within sampling units, there is
usually so much information that it is impossible to draw conclusions about any general
trends which may be apparent. What are required are methods to simplify and summarize
this raw data. Two ways to analyze ecological data are:

Indices: Indices summarize the data into a single number (the index) by combining, and
hence simplifying, the information. For example, the number of species in the community
(species richness) is a very simple index. We’ll see a number of such diversity indices below
under section 4.
Multi-variant methods: These are statistical tools which allow us to identify species
groupings according to their patterns of co-occurrence. An Ordination is a map which
groups sampling units together on the basis of their similarity of species composition and
abundance (Figure 13). The axes of the ordination are derived mathematically from the
raw data, and they can be thought of as summaries of the community patterns. The scatter
of the points in the ordination can then be used to see if the derived gradients correspond
to gradients in environmental variables. Numerical classification is another method
commonly employed by ecologists to summarize community patterns. With classification
the sampling units are grouped together in sets and sub-sets corresponding to similarity in
species composition. Performing a classification effectively imposes discrete boundaries to
the communities (Figure 14). The literature on the use of multivariate methods in ecology
is very large.....and often very confusing.
Richness, abundance and dominance
A community can be described by list of all the component species and their abundances.
Although species are the most common ‘currency’, higher level groupings of species such as
guilds (section 1.4) can also be used. The total number of species is the species richness.
Abundances can be quantified in terms of the number of individuals, biomass or cover.
Abundances can be expressed either absolutely (e.g. how many individuals per species) or
relatively (e.g. what proportion of the total for each species). Species can be ranked
according to their abundances; the most abundant ones are said to be dominant, and the
ranking is called a dominance ranking. The concept of diversity is considered in greater
detail below.
4. What is (bio)diversity?
Definition
“Biological Diversity is the variety of all life forms: the different plants, animals and
microorganisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form”2. Note the
breadth of this definition; it covers not only diversity in terms of the number of species, but
also the genetic information contained within individual organisms, as well as the diversity
of habitats, natural communities and ecological processes in the biosphere.
The different levels of diversity
Most commonly, the term diversity refers to species diversity which is a measure of
how many species are present in a community and their relative abundances. Although the
species is the most commonly used taxonomic level, studies at bio-geographical scales also
quantify diversity of genera (generic diversity) or families to compare regions. Genetic
diversity is a similar measure which quantifies the variety of genotypes within a species or
population. Humans have long been aware of the concept of genetic diversity through
selection of crop plant varieties and domestic animals. More recently, the concept of
landscape diversity has been developed to refer to the diversity of communities (or
vegetation types) present at the scale of the landscape.
A. Genetic diversity (BHT PP. 34-39)
Definition
Strictly speaking, genetic diversity refers to the diversity of genotypes within a population
or species. The term can be used for a given trait (e.g. the colour of corn grains, resistance
to disease). More generally, it is used to describe the total level of diversity for all traits.
Populations which appear to be genetically distinct from other of the same species are
referred to as a subspecies (a geographically recognizable population). Human modified
genotypes are called races (for animals, Figure 15) and varieties (for plants, Figure 16).
Indeed, the concept has been applied in agriculture and animal breeding for a long time,
where breeders have been using the natural genetic diversity of wild ancestors and
relatives of the cultivated varieties to produce new varieties.

Methods to measure genetic diversity

Morphological studies: If a trait has a simple genetic determinism (i.e. it is determined by
one or a few genes), it is possible to study genetic diversity by simply measuring the
frequencies of these different phenotypes present in the population. The existence of two
or more phenotypes in a population is called polymorphism (Figure 17).
Electrophoresis: This is a chemical technique which allows the range of different forms of
the same protein within a population to be measured. Because these different forms are a
direct consequence of the variability in the underlying genetic code, measuring variability
in these proteins indirectly measures the genetic diversity.
Sequencing methods: More recently, molecular biological techniques have been developed
to directly investigate the composition of DNA. This between-individual variability in DNA
composition gives a quantification of genetic diversity.
Why is genetic diversity important?
The extent of genetic diversity in a population is a major determinant of its capacity for
evolutionary change - it is effectively the species 'life insurance' against environmental
change, accidental reductions in population size and attack from enemies such as disease
and herbivores. Without such variability there is no raw material for natural selection to
act (see Evolutionary Concepts lecture notes), and environmental changes may result in
extinction if individuals able to cope with such
changes are absent from the population.
B. Species Diversity
Diversity indices
To compare different communities or different regions, a standardised measure of
diversity is needed. The information contained in a list of species and their abundances can
be summarised by a simple number: a diversity index. There are a number of such indices.
The most straightforward index is simply the total number of species in a community. This
is usually called species richness and is often given the symbol s (or sometimes n). Species
richness has the disadvantage that the abundances of the species are not included. There
are two commonly used indices which take species abundances into account.
Simpson diversity index: D = 1/pi
2
Shannon diversity index: H = -(pi ln pi)

Where pi is the proportional abundance of each species. The effect of including abundances
can be seen from an examination of Figure 18. Note that these indices incorporate both
differences in abundance and richness. Sometimes we want to just consider the relative
abundances of the species independent of the species richness, to see how evenly they are
distributed. This can be done by expressing D or H as a percentage of the value that would
be expected if all species were equally abundant.
This is simply done by dividing D by the species richness (s), and dividing H by the
logarithm of s. In particular, note that although communities 1 and 2 have the same
number of species (s = 5), community 1 is much more diverse (D = 5.0 cf. 1.06, H = 1.61 cf.
0.21). Also note that although communities 1 and 3 have different numbers of species, they
have the same degree of evenness (D/s = 1, H/ln(s) = 1).
Measures of diversity at different spatial scales
Different spatial scales are recognized when considering diversity. Alpha-diversity refers
to the diversity within a single stand or community sample. Beta-diversity refers to the
diversity between community samples.
Explaining beta-diversity generally poses few problems; we know that different species are
often found in different environments. In contrast, explaining alpha diversity can be
extremely difficult. One of the most famous discussions of alpha diversity is Hutchinsons
(1961) 'paradox of the plankton', where he questioned how so many species of
phytoplankton can coexist given that they all live in the same environment and they all
compete for the same basic resources (e.g light & nutrients).
Gamma-diversity refers to diversity at the regional scale - i.e. the combination of alpha-
and beta- diversity. Species diversity also varies temporally, as we will see in a later lecture
(Environmental variability, succession and invasion).
Figure18. Three hypothetical communities illustrating the various measures of species
diversity

Patterns of species diversity

The diversity of communities can be related to a number of factors. There are geographic
factors such as altitude, latitude and depth for aquatic environments which are correlated
with species richness (Figure 20). Such patterns of species richness are easy to document,
however explanations for why these patterns occur are much less convincing.
These geographic factors are not causal agents in their own right, there must be some other
factors which change along the same gradient which have the actual effect on diversity.
Examples of factors which can be correlated with the geographic factors and may be causal
agents include productivity of the environment (the rate at which biomass is produced per
unit area, Figure 21), in some cases the evolutionary age of the community, and climatic
variability. Care needs to be taken when interpreting relationships such as these, as
observing a correlation does not necessarily imply a causal connection. A third group of
factors are those that also vary geographically, but are uncorrelated with the geographic
factors listed above. Such factors include the amount of disturbance a habitat experiences,
the relative isolation of a habitat, and heterogeneity in physical and chemical factors (Figure
22). Finally, biotic factors also influence diversity. These include the amount of predation
or competition, or the complexity of the vertical structure of the community (Figure 23).
In summary, there appear to be several generalizations that can be made about the species
richness of communities e.g. that communities nearer the equator tend to contain more
species (Figure 20); that communities of more productive environments tend to contain
more species (Figure 21). However, because there are many exceptions to these
generalizations, and many possible additional factors which can interact to influence
diversity, in most cases patterns in species diversity are difficult to explain in a causal way.

Diversity and Stability

Ecologists have long been interested in community stability - the ability of a community to
recover following a disturbance, and the related concepts of resistance - the ability of the
community to persist without change (loss of species) in the face of disturbance, and
resilience - the speed at which the community recovers following disturbance.
In the 1950's - 60's the 'conventional wisdom' in ecology was that increased diversity
within a community leads to increased stability. However all of the arguments used
to develop this 'conventional wisdom' have been shown to be flawed (Figure 24).

Figure 24. Elton’s evidence for his claim that community stability should increase with
complexity (from BHT).
More recently, mathematical analyses have (in general) predicted the opposite trend that
communities with less species tend to be more stable. However, depending on the
assumptions used in these models the opposite prediction can also be generated.
Unfortunately, the evidence from natural communities is both sparse and inconclusive.
Figure 25 shows the results from two recent studies, both of which imply that the species-
rich plant communities studied were more resistant to disturbance than comparable
species-poor communities, suggesting that preservation of biodiversity is essential for the
maintenance of these communities. To conclude, the relationship between complexity and
stability cannot be conveniently generalized, as was originally hoped. It depends on the
type of disturbance applied, and the particular characteristics of the community to which it
is applied.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

IMPORTANT TERMS

Biodiversity: Totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a given region.

Genetic Diversity: Diversity of genes within a species.
Species Diversity: Variety of species in a given region.
Ecological Diversity: Variation of habitats, community types and abiotic environment of
given area.
In-situ Conservation: Conservation of organism in its natural home
Ex-situ Conservation: Conservation of organisms in botanical garden. Zoological parks,
sanctuaries, cryopreservation, tissue culture etc.
Hot Spot: Priority area of conservation having extremely rich in species and are under
treat of extinction.
Exotic/Alien Species: Species that are introduced into ecosystem from the outside.
Biosphere Reserves: Protected area of land or coastal environment having unique
biodiversity.
Sacred Forest/ Sacred Grooves: Forest patches protected by tribal communities due to
their religious beliefs. Cryopreservation: Storage of bio material at ultra-low temperature
Red List Book: Book contains a record of animals and plants which are known to be in
danger and published by IUCN.
MAB: Man and Biodiversity Programme WWF: The World Wildlife Fund for nature IBWL:
Indian Board for Wildlife IBP: International Biological Programme
IUCN: The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
UNDP: United Nation Development Programme.
POINTS TO REMEMBER:

The term 'Biodiversity' was coined by Edward Wilson.

It can be studied in following levels:

 Genetic

 Species

 Ecological

Genetic Diversity: Genetically uniform populations are highly prone to diseases, harsh

environment.
There are more than 50,000genetically different strains of rice and 1000 varieties of

mango in India.

Species Diversity: Number of species per unit area.

Species Evenness- the related abundance with which each species is represented in an

area.

The Western Ghat has greater diversity of amphibian species than Eastern Ghat.

Ecological: Related to species diversity and genetic diversity.

Global Biodiversity: According to IUCN (2004) the total number of plant and
animal species described is about 1.5 million.
More that 70% of all species recorded are animals; and plants account for about
22%; 70% of the animal are insects
Biodiversity in India: About 45000 species of plants and 90000- 100000 species of
animals; many more species are yet to be discovered and named.

Pattern of Biodiversity: Biodiversity varies with change in latitude and attitude.

I. Latitudinal Gradients: Species diversity decrease from equator towards poles. Three
hypotheses have been purposed to explain the difference in biodiversity between
tropical and temperate regions. They are:
Speciation in general

Constant environment has promoted niche specialization and greater species diversity.

More solar radiation available in tropical region.

Species -Area Relationship:

Species richness increase with increased explored area but only up to a limit.
 The relationship for a number of texa is found to be a rectangular hyperbola.
The relationship becomes linear and described by the equation:

LogS=LogC+ZlogA
Where S= species richness, Z is slop of line and A is equal to area, while C is equal to y-
intercept.
Importance of Species Diversity to Ecosystem:
More species tend to be more stable than those with less species A stable community has
following attributes It shall not show too much variation
It must be either resistance to seasonal disturbances and also to invasion by alien species

Loss of biodiversity

IUCN Red list (2004) documents the exactions of 784 species in last 500 years including
359 invertebrates ,338 vertebrates and 87 plants
Extinct animals are:
Steller's sea cow
Dodo
Quagga
Three sub species of tigers
27 species have become extinct in last 20 years alone Loss of biodiversity in a region can
lead to following:
Decrease in plant production
Lowered resistance to environmental perturbation
Increased variability in ecosystem processes like water use, pest cycle, plant productivity
Causes for loss of biodiversity
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Over -exploitation
Invasion of Alien species and
Co-extinction
Conservation of biodiversity
Reasons:
Narrowly utilitarian Broadly utilitarian Ethical
Approaches to Biodiversity conservation
In- situ conservation
eg: biosphere Reserves, national parks, wild life sanctuaries and sacred grooves Ex -situ
conservation
Eg: Botanical garden, zoo, gene bank and tissue culture Conservation of biodiversity

II. The earth Summit; Held in Reo de Janerio in 1992. For conservation of biodiversity
and sustainable utilization of benefits of biodiversity.
III. The world Summit on Sustainable Development; held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South
Africa, to achieve a significant reduction in current rate of biodiversity at global ,
regional and local level by 2010.
ONE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Microorganisms are part of wild life. Do you agree?
Ans: Yes

2. Which pests attack the high yield varieties of rice a few years ago?

Ans; Brown plant hopper.

3. What is the source of Peniciline?

Ans : Mould Penicillium notatum

4. Name the bird which has recently become extict.

Ans: Dodo of Mauritius

5. Cite two examples of Indian endangered species.

Ans: Great Indian Buster, Kashmir stag.

6. What for the abbreviation ZSI and IBWL stand?

 Ans: Zoological survey if India, Indian Board of Wild Life.
7. Give two soap substitutes provided by forest.

Ans: Ritha, Shikakai.

8. How much area is covered by forests in India?

Ans: 75 million hectare (23% of total land area)

9. Name three products of forest insects.

Ans: Silk, Honey and Lac.

10. How much land should be under forest in a country?

Ans; 1/3

11. Which animals are captured in large numbers for pet trade?

Ans: Parrots, Love birds and Corals.

12. What is the major reason for the decrease and extinction of wild life of our country?

Ans: Laxity on the part of the officials in the enforcement of the wild life protection

act.

13. Which species should be paid special attention in conservation?

Ans: Those are the sole representative of their genus.

14. Where is the one-horned Rhinoceros preserved?

Ans : Kaziranga sanctuary in Assam

15: How many projects are engaged in Tiger Protection?

Ans: 21

16. Who coined the term Wildlife?

Ans William Hornday

17 What is wild life symbol of WWF?

Ans: Red Panda

18. Give the scientific importance of wildlife.

Ans: wild life acts as gene bank and provide research materials to produce new varieties /

species.
19. Which useful material is derived from the bask of Cinchona plant?
Ans: Anti malarial drug-quinine

20. The the most serious threat to the wild life.

Ans Destruction of habitats.

21. Which animal from India become extict due to excess hunting?

Ans: Cheeta, Acinomyx jubatus

22. What %age of the living species of animal is threatened?

Ans: 10%

23. Name three categories of threatened species.

Ans: Endangered, vulnerable and rare species.

24. Give the full form of IUCN.

Ans: International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources.

25. When does the wild life week is celebrated in India?

Ans: First week of October.

26. Which sanctuary is called an oasis of water birds?

Ans: Chilka lake bird santuary, Orrisa.

27. Name the zoo famous for white tiger.

Ans: Nandankanan zoo, Orrisa

28. Name three zones of biospere reserves.

Ans: Core, buffer and manipulative

29. Which organisms are mostly affected by cleanliness measures?

Ans: Scavengars.

30. Which day is celebrated as World Environment Day?

Ans: 5th June.

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Sometime introduction of an exotic species upset native species of the
ecosystem. Substantiate the statement with two examples.
2. How do zoological parks differ from National park
concerned with species conservation?
Ans: Zoological park - ex-situ conservation, National park - in-situ conservation.
3. The accelerated rate of species extinction that the world
is facing now is largely due to human activities. Group such
activities under four major heads and explain.
Ans: Habitat loss and fragmentation; Overexploitation;
Introduction or invasion of alien species; co-extinction.
4. A survey of latitudinal gradients of bio-diversity of birds is as follows:
India -8o North1200 Species
Greenland -71o North -—55 Species
By analyzing the above data what does it indicate about the distribution of birds.
Answer: Species diversity decreases from equator towards the poles.
5. Why Biodiversity do not have political boundaries?
Answer: Conservation is the collective responsibility of all the Nations.
6. From the graph of species richness and area relationship write the equation for
'a'and
'b'.

6. The accelerated rate of species extinction that the world

is facing now is largely due to human activities. Group such
activities under four major heads and explain.
Ans: Habitat loss and fragmentation; Overexploitation;
Introduction or invasion of alien species; co-extinction.
7. A survey of latitudinal gradients of bio-diversity of birds is as follows:
India -8o North1200 Species
Greenland -71o North -—55 Species
By analyzing the above data what does it indicate about the distribution of birds.
Answer: Species diversity decreases from equator towards the poles.
8. Why Biodiversity do not have political boundaries?
 Answer: Conservation is the collective responsibility of all the Nations.
6. From the graph of species richness and area relationship write the equation for
'a'and
'b'.

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Give one term for the following statements

a) Exploring molecular genetics, species level diversity for product of economic
importance.
b) The Amazon rain forest being so huge.
c) Sixth episode of extinction is in progress at hundred to
thousand times faster rate Ans:
a) Bio-prospecting
b) Lungs of the planet
c) Sixth Extinction
2. What do you mean by evil quartet? How can it be prevented?
Hint: Any three causes of biodiversity loss
3. How is biodiversity useful to modern agriculture?
4. (i)Mass extinction of species has been witnessed even before humans
appeared on the earth. But how is the sixth extinction presently in progress
different from the previous episodes?
(ii) Mention any three consequences of such extinction.

5. Categorize the following into in-situ and ex-situ approaches of biodiversity

conservation.
i) Botanical gardens ii) Wild life
sanctuaries iii) Gene bank iv) Biosphere
reserves v) Sacred forests/lakes vi)
Pollen banks vii) Tissue culture viii)
Cryo-preservation
Ans: (i) Ex-situ (ii) In-situ (iii) Ex-
situ (iv) In-situ (v) In-situ (vi) Ex-
situ (vii) Ex-situ (viii) Ex-situ
6. Categorize the followings statement into narrowly utilitarian,
broadly utilitarian and ethical reason:-
i) Every species in biodiversity has an intrinsic value even if it not of value to us.
ii) Human beings device a number of economic benefits
like food, fiber etc from Biodiversity.
iii) Biodiversity provides ecosystem services which can not be given price tag.
Justify your categorization also.
Ans: (i) Ethical
(ii) Narrowly utilitarian
(iii) Broadly utilitarian